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TREIMM 1471 1–16 1 Series:[128_TD$IF] Immunometabolism 2 Review Lysine Deacetylases and Regulated 3 Glycolysis in Macrophages 4 1 1,2 3 1 5Q1 Melanie[TD$FIRSNAME] R.[TD$FIRSNAME.] Shakespear[TD$SURNAME] ,[TD$SURNAME.] Abishek[TD$FIRSNAME] [TD$FIRSNAME.] Iyer[TD$SURNAME] ,[TD$SURNAME.] Catherine[TD$FIRSNAME] Youting[TD$FIRSNAME.] Cheng[TD$SURNAME] ,[TD$SURNAME.] Kausta[TD$FIRSNAME] [TD$FIRSNAME.] Das[TD$SURNAME] Gupta,[TD$SURNAME.] Amit[TD$FIRSNAME] [TD$FIRSNAME.] Singhal[TD$SURNAME] [TD$SURNAME. ,E] 3,4,5 David[TD$FIRSNAME] P.[TD$FIRSNAME.] Fairlie[TD$SURNAME] ,[TD$SURNAME.] 1,2 and Matthew[TD$FIRSNAME] J.[TD$FIRSNAME.] Sweet[TD$SURNAME] [TD$SURNAME.]1,* Regulated cellular metabolism has emerged as a fundamental process con- Highlights trolling macrophage functions, but there is still much to uncover about the Metabolic and immune pathways are precise signaling[105_TD$IF] mechanisms involved. Lysine acetylation in[14_TD$IF] macrophages intimately linked in that key metabolic enzymes and energy metabolites have regulates the activity, stability,[142_TD$IF] and/or localization of metabolic enzymes, as a direct influence on pro- and anti- well as inflammatory responses.[143_TD$IF] Two protein families, the classical zinc-depen- inflammatory responses of dent histone deacetylases (HDACs) and the NAD-dependent[14_TD$IF] HDACs (sirtuins, macrophages. SIRTs),[145_TD$IF] mediate lysine deacetylation. We[146_TD$IF] describe here mechanisms by which In response to danger signals, acti- classical HDACs and SIRTs directly regulate specific glycolytic enzymes, as vated macrophages reprogram nutri- [147_TD$IF] ent metabolic pathways, for example well as evidence that links these protein deacetylases to the regulation of enhancing aerobic glycolysis, to meet glycolysis-related genes. In these contexts, we discuss HDACs and SIRTs heightened energy requirements and as key control points for regulating immunometabolism and inflammatory out- generate sufficient biomolecules to mount an effective innate immune puts from macrophages. response. Lysine deacetylases are dual regula- 6 Regulated Glycolysis[149_TD$IF] in Myeloid Cell-Mediated Inflammation and Disease tors of both metabolic pathways and 7Q3 Organismal[150_TD$IF]2 survival requires the capacity to combat infection, metabolize nutrients, and store inflammatory responses of 8 energy for times of need. It is therefore not surprising that metabolism and inflammation, two macrophages. 9 fundamental biological processes that are crucial for sustaining life, are intimately linked. The acetylation status of lysine resi- 10 Macrophages are key sentinel cells charged with the task of detecting and responding to dues on some[148_TD$IF] key metabolic enzymes 11 homeostatic alterations such as pathogen invasion, metabolic stress, and/or tissue damage. can control their enzymatic activity, 12 Flexibility in metabolic pathways allows these cells to rapidly respond to changes in their protein stability,[142_TD$IF] and/or subcellular 13 environment. ‘Naïve’ or resting macrophages utilize glycolysis (Box 1) to generate pyruvate, localization. 14 which is oxidized[153_TD$IF] into acetyl-CoA for use by the tricarboxylic[154_TD$IF] acid (TCA) cycle, feeding electrons Understanding the precise molecular 15 in the form of NADH and FADH2 into mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) to basis of metabolic control of macro- 16 generate ATP. However, in response to proin[123_TD$IF] flammatory stimuli, such as those that activate phage inflammatory processes could lead to novel approaches to target immunometabolism and inflammation. Box 1. The Glycolysis[81_TD$IF] Pathway Q12 Glycolysis[82_TD$IF]46 converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, two molecules of ATP, and two molecules of NADH via a series of intermediate metabolites. Flux through this pathway is regulated in multiple ways: availability of substrate, amount of rate-limiting enzyme present, allosteric regulation by metabolites, and PTMs of the enzymes involved. Glucose uptake is mediated by cell-surface glucose transporters, and key control points in this pathway are 1Institute for Molecular Bioscience Q2 the irreversible reactions catalyzed by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase. Hexokinase catalyzes (IMB), IMB Centre for Inflammation the first step of glucose metabolism, the rate-limiting ATP-dependent phosphorylation of glucose into glucose-6- and Disease Research, and Australian phosphate [33]. This phosphorylation event also effectively prevents glucose from exiting the cell and helps commit Infectious Diseases Research Centre, glucose-6-phosphate towards energy metabolism pathways such as glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway University of Queensland, Brisbane, [33]. Phosphofructokinase catalyzes[89_TD$IF] the third glycolytic reaction:[90_TD$IF] transfer of a phosphoryl group from ATP to fructose-6- QLD 4072, Australia 2 phosphate, yielding fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate[91_TD$IF] (F-1, 6-BP). These two enzymatic reactions consume ATP;[92_TD$IF] however, Australian[135_TD$IF] Research Council (ARC)[136_TD$IF] the second half of glycolysis generates four[93_TD$IF] molecules of ATP, resulting in the net production of two[94_TD$IF] ATP molecules Centre of Excellence in Advanced through this metabolic pathway. Pyruvate kinase, which catalyzes[89_TD$IF] the final step of glycolysis, converting phosphoe- Molecular Imaging, Institute for nolpyruvate into pyruvate, is activated by the upstream metabolite F-1, 6-BP.[95_TD$IF] In mammalian cells, pyruvate then has two Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD[137_TD$IF] 4072, fates:[96_TD$IF] it is either reduced by lactate dehydrogenase to lactate or is[97_TD$IF] converted by pyruvate dehydrogenase to acetyl-CoA Australia for use in the TCA cycle. 3Singapore Immunology Network Trends in Immunology, Month Year, Vol. xx, No. yy https://doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2018.02.009 1 © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. TREIMM 1471 1–16 (SIgN), Agency for Science, 17 Toll-like receptors (TLRs), rapid energy[15_TD$IF] and biochemical requirements are met by metabolic [138_TD$IF] [156_TD$IF] Technology, and Research (A*STAR), 18 reprogramming that favors aerobic glycolysis over OXPHOS. This phenomenon, known as the Singapore 19 Warburg effect [1], has been well studied in cancer cells and, more recently, in macrophages 4Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, 20 and other immune cells [2,3]. Singapore 308232, Singapore 5Vaccine and Infectious Disease 21 Specific alterations in levels of metabolites, as well as in[157_TD$IF] the functions of metabolic enzymes, are Research Centre (VIDRC), Translational Health Science and 22 associated with metabolic reprogramming in activated macrophages [4]. For example, TLR [140_TD$IF] [105_TD$IF] [158_TD$IF] Technology Institute (THSTI), National 23 signaling instructs the cell to increase glucose uptake and convert it to lactate, whereas OXPHOS Capital Region (NCR) Biotech Science 24 is suppressed by[159_TD$IF] disruptions in the electron transport chain [5]. Carbon-tracing[160_TD$IF] experiments [6] Cluster, Faridabad 121001, Haryana, India 25 demonstrate fragmentation at specific points in the TCA cycle, resulting in a build-up of key 26 metabolites such as citrate that can be used for fatty acid synthesis and/or converted to itaconate, [16_TD$IF] fl 27 which has both antimicrobial [7] and anti-in ammatory [8] properties. Succinate accumulates in *Correspondence: 28 activated macrophages, also as a consequence of TCA cycle disruption, and acts as a molecular [email protected] (M.J. Sweet). 29 switchforthe[162_TD$IF] initiationofinflammatoryresponses; thismetabolitestabilizesthe[163_TD$IF] transcriptionfactor 30 HIF-1a, thus enabling inducible expression of proin[123_TD$IF] flammatory and glycolytic genes [9]. Studies in 31 proliferating cancer cells have been highly informative for understanding how metabolic enzymes 32 control immunometabolism in immune cells. For example, in most cells, pyruvate kinase M (PKM) 33 catalyzes[89_TD$IF] the final step of glycolysis –[164_TD$IF] the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate. 34 However, in rapidly dividing cells and activated immune cells, an alternatively spliced[165_TD$IF] isoform 35 of PKM, PKM2, acts in an alternative[16_TD$IF] role as a transcriptional coactivator[167_TD$IF] to drive expression of 36 glycolyticand inflammatorygenes.Inthis way,PKM2plays acentralroleindrivingtheshifttowards 37 aerobicglycolysis.Froma therapeuticstandpoint,interferingwiththesemetabolicadaptations,for 38 example by inhibiting glycolytic flux using 2-deoxy-D-glucose [9,10] or by interfering with the 39 transcriptional functions of PKM2 [11,12], reduces macrophage inflammatory outputs and 40 inflammation-related pathology. Nonetheless, our understanding of the precise molecular mech- 41 anisms of metabolic control of innate immune processes is still rudimentary.[168_TD$IF] Deciphering such 42 mechanisms, together with identifying the key signaling[105_TD$IF] metabolites and regulatory enzymes that 43 control this metabolic switch, may unlock new opportunities to target immunometabolic circuits in 44 immune cells to dampen inflammation-associated pathology. Lysine deacetylases are key sus- 45 pects given their well-established roles as cancer- and
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