International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET) Volume 10, Issue 09, September 2019, pp. 261-267, Article ID: IJCIET_10_09_027 Available online at http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJCIET?Volume=10&Issue=9 ISSN Print: 0976-6308 and ISSN Online: 0976-6316 © IAEME Publication

SUPPLY AND DEMAND FOR DRINKING WATER IN CITY, : A REVIEW OF ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS

Jhon J. Feria Díaz* Faculty of Engineering, Universidad de , Carrera 28 No. 5-267. Sincelejo, Colombia

Rodrigo G. Hernández Ávila Faculty of Engineering, Universidad de Sucre, Carrera 28 No. 5-267. Sincelejo, Colombia

Liliana M. Vitola Garrido Faculty of Education and Sciences, Universidad de Sucre, Carrera 28 #5-267, Sincelejo, Colombia *Corresponding Author

ABSTRACT This research study made a review of the current situation of the aqueduct system from Sincelejo city, Colombia showing water supply and demand along with potential causes of the prevailing water deficit. Similarly, possible and available surface water sources were reviewed, apart from the underground, allowing to expand water supply and find a balance between supply and demand. The study intends to propose alternatives to help lower pressure on the aquifer, the only current source of supply. Keywords: Aqueducts, Aquifers, groundwater, surface sources Cite this Article: Jhon J. Feria Díaz, Rodrigo G. Hernández Ávila and Liliana M. Vitola Garrido, Supply and Demand for Drinking Water in Sincelejo City, Colombia: A Review of Alternative Solutions. International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology 10(9), 2019, pp. 261-267. http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJCIET?Volume=10&Issue=9

1. INTRODUCTION Sincelejo is a mid-sized city from the Colombian region. It is the capital of and has an approximate population of 258,000 people registered for year 2015 [1]. The city has a warm climate, with an average temperature fluctuating between 26.5 and 28.5 °C, with a 37.4 °C maximum recorded value in the month of and an 18.5 °C minimum in January. There are two climatic seasons: one dry, with hot temperatures and high

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 261 [email protected] Jhon J. Feria Díaz, Rodrigo G. Hernández Ávila and Liliana M. Vitola Garrido evapotranspiration, running from to mid-, and a rainy one, from mid-April to mid-November [2], with an average annual rainfall of 1,056 mm [3]. Inadequate provision of public services in Sincelejo, especially drinking water, has been an obstacle for normal growth and economic development [4]. Currently, the city's aqueduct system is only supplied by an underground source, the Morroa aquifer, through 23 deep wells. The first wells were shallow and did not exceed 300 meters, nonetheless, due to increase in demand over the years, the last built wells have reached depths of up to 960m [5]. According to results from studies carried out by the regional environmental authority, exploitation of the Morroa aquifer, in the Sincelejo area, and neighboring cities of Corozal and Morroa, is very intense and has been concentrated in a specific area (Campo de Pozos from Corozal). Static levels are between 50m and 85m deep and pumping levels between 80m and 120m [6]. Aqueduct service coverage is 85.97%, which does not allow to meet the city's water demand [7]. For this reason, service provision is not continuously and efficiently carried out, particularly, in the city slums where there is permanent sectorization in the system. On the other hand, technical losses of the aqueduct system are currently much higher than the value established in Colombian regulations (25%) [8], equivalent to 58% [5]. This has an underground source overexploitation. To mitigate this situation, the company providing the aqueduct service and the municipal mayor of the city have started a plan for the general replacement of the oldest pipes in the distribution network to correct leaks due to deterioration caused over the years.

2. WATER SUPPLY FOR SINCELEJO AQUEDUCT SYSTEM The hydrographic network of the influence area for Sincelejo aqueduct system is made up of a structure of temporary surface currents, only carrying water during the rainy season. Therefore, it is not possible to use them as a reliable and sustainable source to supply the aqueduct system. Morroa aquifer is the most important source of water supply and human development for the communities of municipalities around, such as Sincelejo, Sampues, Corozal, Morroa, and , in the Sucre department; Sahagun and Chinu in Cordoba; and El Carmen in Bolivar (See Figure 1).

Figure 1. Morroa Aquifer. Source: [9].

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 262 [email protected] Supply and Demand for Drinking Water in Sincelejo City, Colombia: A Review of Alternative Solutions

The Morroa aquifer covers an area of 526.9 km2 in the central part of Sucre, on the northwest of Colombia, between flat coordinates with origin: X1 = 1,500,000, X2 = 1,540,000, Y1 = 846,000, Y2 = 880,000 [3] [9]; supplying a population close to 400,000 inhabitants [1]. The Aquifer, which groundwater feeds the aqueduct system of Sincelejo is heterogeneous and multi-layered, so it is not easy to assign similar characteristics of water quality in its influence area. Nonetheless, usually groundwater from this aquifer has good organoleptic quality, with a predominant phase of calcium or sodium bicarbonate type with bicarbonate percentage greater than 60%, salinity varying between 180 and 1,200 mg/L, minor chlorides at 20 mg/L (in dry season), sodium ion between 40 and 260 mg/L, sulfate ion between 5.2 and 60.0 mg/L and with very little corrosive aggressiveness [10]. Due to the decent quality of the underground source, a conventional physicochemical water treatment is not necessary to perform. It only requires disinfection [11] and then to be sent to the city's storage and distribution system. Generally, 78.5% of water extracted from the Morroa aquifer is used as a source of drinking water; 8.1% for the commercial and institutional sector; 5.6% for agroindustrial activities and 6.1% for livestock [12]. According to a recent study on groundwater footprint for the Morroa aquifer, the authors found that this aquifer has very high levels of groundwater stress, even higher than many aquifers worldwide, indicating that the aquifer´s sustainability could be at risk [12].

3. DEMAND FOR DRINKING WATER OF SINCELEJO CITY According to the information published by the company providing the aqueduct service, Sincelejo currently has a water demand of 819.41 L/s, not completely covered by water extracted from deep wells (605.48 L/s) [5]. The flow deficit extracted from the aquifer to meet demand and high technical losses of the aqueduct system are responsible for the city’s inadequate aqueduct service, reflected in a permanent water sectorization in the neighborhoods and an irregular frequency in the permanent supply from service. Due to the above and, to guarantee a balance between water supply and demand in the city's aqueduct service, it is necessary to supply water from other sources such as rivers or reservoirs, as well as to implement the artificial aquifer recharge [12] because natural recharge is very low -about 7 to 34 mm/year [6]. Only this way, it is possible to lower the risk of water shortages currently faced by the municipal aqueduct system

4. ALTERNATIVES OF SURFACE SOURCES OF SUPPLY Because there are no surface water currents with continuous and sufficient flows to be considered reliable as sources of water supply in a radius of 50 km around, then the three rivers relatively close to Sincelejo city were considered, due to their flow and current continuity throughout the year. These are the Magdalena, Sinú and San Jorge rivers.

4.1. Water Collection from Magdalena River Magdalena river is the largest river system in Colombia with a length of 1,612 km, a source in the Magdalena Lagoon at a height of 3,685 meters above sea level. The drainage basin area covers 257,438 km2, representing 24% of the Colombian territory. The Magdalena River valley has an average rainfall of 2,050 mm per year [14] and the river flows into the southwest of the Colombian Caribbean and forms a triangular delta of 1690 km2 [15]. The average annual discharge of water from Magdalena River is 7,200 m3/s with an annual volume of water discharged into the Caribbean Sea of 228 km3 [16]. However, recent studies have defined an average flow of 6,497.21 m3/s for the river, a minimum flow of 1,520 m3/s and a maximum flow of 16,913 m3/s [17] depending on the dry or rainy season on the basin.

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 263 [email protected] Jhon J. Feria Díaz, Rodrigo G. Hernández Ávila and Liliana M. Vitola Garrido

Seventy-nine percent of Colombia's population, including its main cities, Bogota, Medellin, Cali and , are in the Magdalena Basin, corresponding to approximately 38 million inhabitants [14]. Most of the country's population depends on the Magdalena River as a source of water and food. Several cities in Colombia lack municipal wastewater treatment plants, so they directly discharge their pollutants into the river, including domestic and industrial wastewater, contaminated waste from mining, oil-related activities and agricultural runoff [18].

4.2. Water Collection from the Sinu River The Sinú river basin is on northwestern Colombia, within the Cordoba and Antioquia departments, in the southwest region of the Colombian Caribbean region and flows from south to north at a current length of 415 km. The Sinú river basin originates in the Paramillo massif located between 7°8′9″ - 9°27′2″ N and 75°55′31″ –75°58′18″W. The river is the main water system in Cordoba and its valley is home to agricultural and livestock activities [19]. Agricultural soils are mainly used for corn (548 km2), cotton (227 km2) and rice (96 km2), but also for , beans, red pepper, sorghum, bananas and corn [20]. An average of 1,100- 2,000 mm of rain falls in this region per year, the southern part of the Sinú river valley being wetter than the northern zone. Average annual temperature is between 26 and 30°C [21]. According to [17], the average water flow of the Sinú river is 398.09 m3/s, maximum flow is 858.2 m3/s and minimum flow is 29.10 m3/s.

4.3. Water Collection from San Jorge River San Jorge River is born in the Paramillo National Natural Park (Ituango municipality, Antioquia) and runs between San Jeronimo and Ayapel mountain ranges, before emptying itself into the Magdalena River in Bolivar. The river basin of San Jorge river has an area of 9,901 km², shared by the Cordoba, Sucre and Bolívar departments (Loba Branch). The hydrological system of San Jorge River is structured by a floodplain and by a contributing basin, the first consisting of spouts and marshes and the second by the main river and countless secondary rivers and ravines. In the Bolivar department, it has an area of approximately 37,469.9 hectares, equivalent to 3.78% of the basin area. The San Jorge has an approximate length of 368 km and its hydrological system is made up of more than 155 water bodies, marshes and wetland complexes. The rainfall record shows low values in the floodplain, ranging from 1,000 to 2,500 mm. Relative humidity records averages for the sub-regions of 74%, which changes directly with the rainy season and temperature. It has a minimum flow of 24 m³/s and a maximum of 697 m³/s [22]. Currently, the San Jorge River is one of the rivers with the greatest fish wealth, but its high pollution and deterioration are due in large part to fishing with explosives and obtaining gold from its waters through the mercury flotation method [ 23]. Figure 2 shows the location of the three surface sources proposed as water source alternatives for the aqueduct system of Sincelejo city.

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 264 [email protected] Supply and Demand for Drinking Water in Sincelejo City, Colombia: A Review of Alternative Solutions

Figure 2. Surface Sources: Magdalena, Sinú and San Jorge Rivers Basin

4.4. Water Collection from Reservoir Currently there are no technical studies to define whether it is possible to build a reservoir to harvest water in the rainy season of the region, and thus, have a surface storage to supply the aqueduct system of Sincelejo. Nonetheless, the region is characterized by being classified as a tropical dry forest, with elevated temperatures and intense evapotranspiration levels [2]. The foregoing, together with increasingly recurring natural phenomena such as "El Niño", puts the sustainability of the reservoir alternative at risk as a feasible alternative solution to the aqueduct system deficit.

5. CONCLUSIONS The aqueduct service of Sincelejo city in Colombia shows a high vulnerability by relying solely on the Morroa aquifer as a source of water supply, even more so, when it has been demonstrated that it is a very unsustainable underground water resource and that their phreatic levels alarmingly descend every day. The surface water catchments taking as a source a river, is an alternative that is worth considering as a solution to the intense pressure that the region

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 265 [email protected] Jhon J. Feria Díaz, Rodrigo G. Hernández Ávila and Liliana M. Vitola Garrido underground waters have today, since the operating flows and periods of exploitation of wells would descend and the natural recharge to the aquifer would be more effective.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author J.J. Feria express gratitude to the Civil Engineer Cristian Sierra y Mauricio Martelo for her valuable contributions to this work.

REFERENCES [1] Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística, DANE, Banco de la Republica, Informe de Coyuntural económica regional, Sincelejo, Sucre (Sincelejo, Colombia: DANE, 2015). [2] Y. Abreu y M. Díaz, Determinación de la geometría del acuífero Morroa y localización de futuras zonas de posible exploración y explotación del acuífero, mediante el uso de líneas sísmicas y pozos de petróleo (Sincelejo, Colombia: Carsucre-Aguas de la Sabana, 2004). [3] Corporación Autónoma Regional de Sucre - CARSUCRE, Revista Proyecto de Protección Integral de Aguas Subterráneas (PPIAS) (Sincelejo, Colombia: Carsucre, 2005). [4] G. Ballut-Dajud, N. Garza, Real estate sub-markets in a Colombian Caribbean intermediate city: the case of Sincelejo, revista de economía del caribe, 2015, 16, 99-128. [5] Veolia - Aguas de la Sabana S.A E.S.P. (ADESA), Plan base para la oferta y demanda del sistema de acueducto de la ciudad de Sincelejo (Sincelejo, Colombia: ADESA S.A., 2019). [6] H.M. Herrera, M.C. Vargas, J.D. Taupin, Estudio Hidrogeológico con énfasis en Hidrogeoquimica del Acuifero Morroa, Colombia, en: Estudios de Hidrología Isotopica en America latina 2006 (Viena, Austria: IAEA, 2009) [7] Aguas de la Sabana S.A. E.S.P., Plan Director de Acueducto de Sincelejo – Informe ejecutivo (Sincelejo, Colombia: ADESA, 2012). [8] Ministerio de Vivienda, Ciudad y Territorio, República de Colombia, Resolución 0330 de 08 de junio de 2017 (Bogotá, Colombia: Diario Oficial de Colombia, 2017) [9] V. Vergara, G. Gutiérrez, H. Florez, Vulnerability assessment to pesticides contamination via DRASTIC method in the Morroa aquifer, Ingeniería & Desarrollo Universidad del Norte, 2009, 26, 51-64. [10] L.D. Donado, Evaluación de las condiciones de explotación del agua subterránea en la zona de recarga del acuífero Morroa, Departamentos de Sucre y Córdoba, Colombia (Bogotá, Colombia: Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 2000). [11] Ministerio de Vivienda, Ciudad y Territorio, Republica de Colombia, Titulo B Sistemas de Acueducto, Reglamento Técnico del Sector de Agua Potable y Saneamiento Básico, RAS (Bogotá, Colombia: Ministerio de Vivienda, Ciudad y Territorio, 2010). [12] A.J. Pérez, J. Hurtado-Patiño, H.M. Herrera, A.F. Carvajal, M.L. Pérez, E. Gonzalez- Rojas, J. Pérez-García, Assessing sub-regional water scarcity using the groundwater footprint, Ecological Indicators, 2019, 96, 1, 32-39. [13] J.D. Restrepo, P. Zapata, J.M. Díaz, J. Garzón-Ferreira, C.B. García, Fluvial fluxes into the Caribbean Sea and their impact on coastal ecosystems: The Magdalena River, Colombia, Global and Planetary Change, 2006, 50, 1-2, 33-49. [14] J.M. Coleman, Deltas: Processes of Deposition and Models for Exploration (Minneapolis, USA: Burgess Publishing Company, 1976).

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 266 [email protected] Supply and Demand for Drinking Water in Sincelejo City, Colombia: A Review of Alternative Solutions

[15] J.D. Restrepo, R. Escobar, M. Tosic, Fluvial fluxes from the Magdalena River into Cartagena Bay, Caribbean Colombia: Trends, future scenarios, and connections with upstream human impacts, Geomorphology, 2018, 302, 92-1051. [16] J.C. Restrepo, J.C. Ortíz, J. Pierini, K. Schrottke, M. Maza, L. Otero, J. Aguirre, Freshwater discharge into the Caribbean Sea from the rivers of Northwestern South America (Colombia): Magnitude, variability and recent changes, Journal of Hydrology, 2014, 509, 266–281. [17] L. Tejeda Benitez, R. Flegal, K. Odigie, J. Olivero Verbel, Pollution by metals and toxicity assessment using Caenorhabditis elegans in sediments from the Magdalena River, Colombia, Environmental Pollution, 2016, 212, 238-250. [18] J. Feria, J. Marrugo, H. Gonzalez, Heavy metals in Sinú river, department of Córdoba, Colombia, South América, Rev. Fac. Ing. Univ. Antioq., 2010, 55, 35-44. [19] J. Marrugo-Negrete, J. Pinedo-Hernández, S. Díez, Assessment of heavy metal pollution, spatial distribution and origin in agricultural soils along the Sinú River Basin, Colombia, Environmental Research, 2017, 154, 380-388. [20] M. Ruiz, G. Bernal, J. Polania, Influencia del Río Sinú y el mar Caribe en el sistema lagunar de Cispatá, Bol. Invest. Mar. Cost., 2008, 37, 29-49. [21] Corporación Autónoma Regional del Sur de Bolívar – CSB, Plan de ordenamiento y manejo de la cuenca hidrográfica del río San Jorge parte baja, municipio de Magangué Bolívar (Magangué, Colombia: CSB, 2009). [22] J. Olivero, B. Johnson, E. Arguello, Human exposure to mercury in San Jorge river basin, Colombia South America, The Science of the Total Environment, 2002, 289, 41-47.

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 267 [email protected]