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“Frozen Conflicts” in Europe Anton Bebler (Ed.) “Frozen conflicts” in Europe Anton Bebler (ed.) “Frozen conflicts” in Europe Barbara Budrich Publishers Opladen • Berlin • Toronto 2015 An electronic version of this book is freely available, thanks to the support of libraries working with Knowledge Unlatched. KU is a collaborative initiative designed to make high quality books Open Access for the public good. The Open Access ISBN for this book is 978-3-8474-0428-6. More information about the initiative and links to the Open Access version can be found at www.knowledgeunlatched.org © 2015 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0. (CC- BY-SA 4.0) It permits use, duplication, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you share under the same license, give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ © 2015 Dieses Werk ist beim Verlag Barbara Budrich GmbH erschienen und steht unter der Creative Commons Lizenz Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0): https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Diese Lizenz erlaubt die Verbreitung, Speicherung, Vervielfältigung und Bearbeitung bei Verwendung der gleichen CC-BY-SA 4.0-Lizenz und unter Angabe der UrheberInnen, Rechte, Änderungen und verwendeten Lizenz. This book is available as a free download from www.barbara-budrich.net (https://doi.org/10.3224/84740133). A paperback version is available at a charge. The page numbers of the open access edition correspond with the paperback edition. ISBN 978-3-8474-0133-9 (hardcover) eISBN 978-3-8474-0428-6 (ebook) DOI 10.3224/84740133 Verlag Barbara Budrich GmbH Stauffenbergstr. 7. D-51379 Leverkusen Opladen, Germany 86 Delma Drive. Toronto, ON M8W 4P6 Canada www.barbara-budrich.net A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from Die Deutsche Bibliothek (The German Library) (http://dnb.d-nb.de) Jacket illustration by Bettina Lehfeldt, Kleinmachnow, Germany – www.lehfeldtgraphic.de Typesetting by Anja Borkam, Jena Table of contents Anton Bebler Introduction ...................................................................................................... 7 Republic of Cyprus vs. Northern Cyprus James Ker-Lindsay The Cyprus Problem ...................................................................................... 19 Muhittin Tolga Ozsaglam Comments ...................................................................................................... 35 International Crisis Group Recommendations .......................................................................................... 39 Moldova vs. Transnistria Natalya Belitser The Transnistrian conflict .............................................................................. 45 Erwan Fouere OSCE’s efforts to resolve the conflict ........................................................... 57 Georgia vs. Abkhazia and Southern Ossetia Sergey Markedonov The conflict in and over Abkhazia ................................................................. 71 David Matsaberidze Comments .................................................................................................... 107 Sergey Markedonov The South Ossetia conflict ........................................................................... 111 David Matsaberidze Comments .................................................................................................... 119 International Crisis Group Recommendations ........................................................................................ 121 Azerbaijan vs. Nagorny Karabakh Thomas de Waal The elusive search for resolution of the Nagorny Karabakh dispute ........... 125 Irada Baghirova Comments .................................................................................................... 137 6 Table of contents Aram Simonyan, Menua Soghomonyan and Alik Gharibyan Comments .................................................................................................... 143 International Crisis Group Recommendations ........................................................................................ 147 Serbia vs. Kosovo Anton Bebler The Serbia-Kosovo conflict ......................................................................... 151 Ilir Deda The normalization agreements between Kosovo and Serbia ........................ 171 Oliver Ivanovi The Kosovo Serbs and normalization .......................................................... 179 Sonja Biserko Serbia’s recognizing realities ....................................................................... 183 Ukraine vs. Russia Anton Bebler Crimea and the Ukrainian-Russian conflict ................................................. 189 List of Contributors ...................................................................................... 209 Index ............................................................................................................ 211 Introduction Anton Bebler The structure of international community has over centuries experienced countless changes resulting from state amalgamation and integration and, on the other hand, disintegration and dissolution of large states leading to ap- pearance of smaller state formations. In earlier times the non-recognition of new entities by other states had often had little or no consequence but later became important due to growing interdependence of states. Global politics in the first half of the XXth century had been strongly marked by the break- down and/or disappearance of several multinational and colonial empires, although their partial contraction in Northern and Southern America started already in the XVIIIth and XIXth centuries. As their result a number of new states were created in Europe and Asia, on the territories of the disintegrating Austro-Hungarian, Russian, Ottoman and Chinese empires. Some of them proved to be short-lived (Slovak Soviet Re- public, Independent state of Fiume, independent republics of Ukraine, Geor- gia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, et al.) and were absorbed by stronger neighboring states. But some nevertheless survived and obtained international recognition, also from the successor of the former imperial overlord. Such were the cases of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenians (later renamed into Yugo- slavia), Czechoslovakia, Finland, Poland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, who subsequently entered the League of Nations. Two former Chinese dependen- cies formally proclaimed their independence but in fact became protectorates of Soviet Russia and later of the Soviet Union. Mongolia eventually, more than two decades later obtained limited international recognition and almost five decades later was admitted to the United Nations. The former Chinese dependency Tuwa has been however never internationally recognized and in 1944 was simply annexed by the Soviet Union and included into the Russian Federation. One year later the Soviet government made a similar attempt in Northern Iran which was since 1941 occupied by Soviet troops. A secession- ist Gilan Republic was proclaimed but did not survive the evacuation of the Soviet Army under British-American political pressure. The next wave of new state creation started in the 1940s under the influ- ence of the Second World War and followed the defeat of Fascist Italy and the destruction of the Third Reich. During the Second World War Iceland separated itself from Denmark. Occupied Germany (1945-1949) and Austria (1945-1955) lost their international status as independent states and under foreign occupation constituted parastates of a special kind. Similarly as in Eastern Asia (China, Korea, Vietnam) the political-ideological polarization 8 Anton Bebler during the “Cold War” caused the division of amputated Germany (and Aus- tria) into occupation zones followed by the much-longer division of Germany into two separate states (FRG, DDR). The “Free Territory of Trieste” (FTT), a parastate officially under UN jurisdiction, formally existed between 1947 and 1954 on the former Austrian territory occupied and annexed by Italy after the First World War. Under the terms of an interstate protocol this parastate was abolished and its territory divided between Italy and Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav zone of earlier military occupation was then subdivided into two parts which today belong to Slovenia and Croatia. The process of decolonization in Africa, Asia, Oceania, the Caribbean and Mediterranean attained its acme in the second half of the XXth century. Two former British colonies in Mediterranean Europe-Cyprus and Malta became independent. The wave of decolonization brought to well over a hundred the number of new independent states and members of the United Nations. Fur- thermore in the 1960s to 1980s secessionist and other movements fighting central governments in post-colonial African states (Nigeria, the Congo, An- gola, Mozambique, Sudan, Ethiopia) and in Asian multinational states (My- anmar, Indonesia, Sri Lanka) had created new parastates. Many of the inter- nationally unrecognized parastate entities in Asia and Africa were later sub- dued by the respective central governments at the end of civil wars e.g. in Nigeria, the Congo, Angola, Indonesia et al. Some had however existed for decades with their state symbols, governments, military and police forces. The most recently crushed secessionist parastate had been since 1976 main- tained by the movement
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