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Conflicten Tussen Rome En Inheemse Bevolkingsgroepen in Noord-Afrika 34 V.O.T

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Conflicten Tussen Rome En Inheemse Bevolkingsgroepen in Noord-Afrika 34 V.O.T Faculteit Letteren en Wijsbegeerte Academiejaar 2007-2008 Conflicten tussen Rome en inheemse bevolkingsgroepen in Noord-Afrika 34 v.o.t. - 188 n.o.t. en hun betekenis voor onze kennis van het Romeins imperialisme in het algemeen en haar verschijningsvormen in Noord-Afrika in het bijzonder Wouter Vanacker ~ Promotor: Prof. Dr. D. Pikhaus Verhandeling voorgelegd aan de Faculteit Letteren en Wijsbegeerte, Vakgroep Oudheid en Archeologie, tot het bekomen van de graad van Master in de Geschiedenis 1 Dankwoord In de eerste plaats wil ik Professor Dr. D. Pikhaus, mijn promotor, bedanken voor haar toegewijde begeleiding. Haar kennis en advies waren voor mijn werk onontbeerlijk. Ik bedank ook Prof. Dr. K. Verboven en Prof. Dr. B. Lecocq, die als leescommissarissen de taak op zich hebben genomen om deze verhandeling mede te beoordelen. Voor de vele problemen met de tekstverwerker kon ik steeds bij Koen terecht: aan hem ben ik veel dank verschuldigd. De motiverende steun van mijn vriendin, Mieke, was ook zeer belangrijk voor de uitwerking van mijn thesis. Ten slotte dien ik ook mijn ouders te bedanken omdat zij zich tot op de dag van vandaag om mijn intellectuele vorming hebben bekommerd, zowel door het belang ervan steeds te benadrukken, als door alle mogelijke middelen aan te bieden die voor mijn studies noodzakelijk waren. Hen was eenzelfde geluk niet gegeven. Afbeelding op de voorpagina : Mosaïek uit Tipasa: gevangen genomen barbaren. Omstreeks 150. DUNBABIN (K.M.D.). The Mosaics of Roman North Africa . Studies in Iconography and Patronage . Oxford, 1978, p. 275- 276. Cf. CARCOPINO (J.). “Note sur une mosaïque récemment découverte à Tipasa”, in: Bulletin archéologique du Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques (BCTH ), 1914, p. 586. 2 Inhoud DEEL I Dankwoord 2 Inhoud 3 I. Inleiding 6 II. Theorie en concept naast realiteit 9 II.A. Wiens imperialisme, welk imperialisme? Motief en uitzicht van de Romeins rijkspolitiek 9 a) Complexiteit en definiëring van het begrip “imperialisme” 9 b) dominantie en romanisering 12 c) Motieven van het Romeins imperialisme 14 1. Oorlog als noodzaak voor de sociale en politieke structuren 14 2. Defensief imperialisme, “the accidental expansion” en angst 16 3. Het financieel-economisch motief 23 4. Pull: Thébert en de rol van de lokale elites 27 d) Besluit 28 II.B. Romanisatie in Noord-Afrika en de moderne historiografie 30 II.B.1. Beknopte samenvatting van de Romeinse aanwezigheid in Noord-Afrika (146 v.o.t. - 188 n.o.t.) 30 II.B.2. Economie in Noord-Afrika 37 II.B.3. Romanisering in Noord-Afrika 46 a) CAGNAT en de Franse koloniale historiografie 46 b) Les romains ont-ils conquis l'Afrique? 47 c) Thébert en de “lecture sociale de la romanisation” 48 d) Leveau: un sain réflexe national 51 e) Besluit 52 II.C. De ene bandiet is de andere niet. Latijnse terminologie voor de opstandelingen: propaganda en perceptie 53 III. Conflicten in Noord-Afrika (46 v.o.t. - 188 n.o.t.) 59 III.A. Overzicht 59 III.B. Chronologische behandeling van de conflicten 60 1. Vroegste sporen van onrust en de expeditie van Balbus (34-19 v.o.t.) 61 1.A. SITUERING IN PLAATS EN TIJD 61 1.B. BRONNEN 62 1.C. VERLOOP, OORZAKEN EN MOTIEVEN 62 1.D. EEN REEKS CONFLICTEN ZONDER EINDE? 66 1.E. BESLUIT 67 2. Bellum Gaetulicum (ca. 3-6/8?) 68 2.A. SITUERING IN RUIMTE EN TIJD 68 2.B. BRONNEN 70 2.C. VERLOOP 70 2.D. NA DE OPSTAND 72 3 2.E. OORZAKEN, BESLUIT 73 3. Militaire confrontaties in Mauretania (15/16-16/17) ? 74 4. De Opstand van Tacfarinas (17-24) 77 4.A. SITUERING IN TIJD EN RUIMTE 77 4.B. BRONNEN 78 4.C. VERLOOP 79 4.D. NA DE OPSTAND 84 4.E. OORZAKEN 85 4.F. BESLUIT 89 5. Aedemon (40-41) 91 5.A. SITUERING IN RUIMTE EN TIJD 91 5.B. BRONNEN 93 5.C. VERLOOP 93 5.D. NA DE OPSTAND 99 5.E. OORZAKEN EN MOTIEVEN 100 5.F. BESLUIT 100 6. De campagnes van Suetonius Paulinus en Hosidius Geta tegen Salabos en de zijnen (42 of 42-43/4?) 101 6.A. SITUERING IN RUIMTE EN TIJD 101 6.B. BRONNEN 102 6.C. VERLOOP 102 6.D. MOTIEVEN EN OORZAKEN 104 6.E. BESLUIT 105 7. Een conflictueuze situatie in Africa Proconsularis (43/44-46/47?) 105 7.A. SITUERING IN TIJD EN RUIMTE 105 7.C. BESLUIT: DE LAATSTE OPSTAND VAN DE MUSULAMII 109 8. Een confrontatie in de Saltus Philomusianus: banditisme pur sang of een conflict met inheemse coloni? 112 9. “Juba III” ? (69) 114 10. Een alliantie van nomaden en stedelingen (ca. 70) 116 10.A. SITUERING IN TIJD EN RUIMTE 116 10.B. BRONNEN 117 10.C. VERLOOP, OORZAKEN EN GEVOLGEN 118 10.D. BESLUIT 122 Intermezzo 1: Rutilius Gallicus' “triumphum” en de “veelzeggende” aanstelling van Domitius Curvius Tullus. 123 11. Agitatie in Mauretania (75)? 124 12. Nieuwe problemen in Mauretania (ca. 83 – 85 of 86 – 87?) 126 12.A. SITUERING IN TIJD EN RUIMTE 126 12.B. OORZAKEN EN GEVOLGEN? 129 13. Revolte van de Nasamones (85-86 of 86-87) 129 14. Diverse problemen onder Traianus (ca. 107- ca. 117)? 131 15. Turbulente jaren ten tijde van Hadrianus (117-122) 134 15.A. SITUERING IN TIJD EN RUIMTE 134 15.B. BRONNEN 135 15.C. VERLOOP EN OORZAKEN 135 15.D. BESLUIT 139 16. De verdrijving van de Autololes (140?-142/4?) 140 17. Zestien jaar confrontaties in Mauretania Caesariensis? (ca. 145- 158/161) 144 18. Volubilis door de Baquates bedreigd? (ca. 168-169) 147 19. Baetica door de Mazices belaagd (ca. 171 en 177) 150 4 Intermezzo 2: Een expeditie in Mauretania Caesariensis 155 20. Gebeurtenissen onder Commodus 155 20.1. Sporen van een conflict 155 20.2. Een nieuwe conlocatio met de Baquates (180) 156 IV. Besluit 159 Het bronnenprobleem en haar gevolgen 159 Lokalisering en identiteit van de tegenstanders van Rome 160 Initiatief voor de strijd en karakter van de conflicten 161 “ut sciant … non plus in usum se habere”- Karakter van het Romeinse imperialisme en zijn motieven in Noord-Afrika 163 Verdeelheid van de inheemse reactie op de Romeinse overheersing 164 BIBLIOGRAFIE 166 I. Antieke bronnen 166 II. Post-antieke bronnen 167 III. Secundaire bronnen 168 DEEL II ADDENDUM Inscripties 2 1. Inleiding 2 2. Verklaring van de afkortingen 3 3. Inhoudstabel 4 4. Overzicht van de inscripties 7 5 I. Inleiding Reizend doorheen wat voorheen Romeins Afrika 1 was, merkt men af en toe nog sporen op van de Romeinse bezetting. Wegen en aquaducten tekenen rechte lijnen in het landschap. Al eeuwenlang werpen ruïnes van theaters en tempels hun schaduw af op de bodem. Nog steeds worden overblijfselen van Romeinse nederzettingen en forten uit de ondergrond tevoorschijn gehaald. Die Noord-Afrikaanse bodem werd een bijzonder dubbelzijdig literair topos in de antieke literatuur, waarbij nu eens de vruchtbaarheid van de maritieme gronden, dan weer de infertiliteit en de leegheid van de woestijn werd benadrukt 2. In welke mate was die ambiguïteit analoog met de relaties die Rome met de inheemse bevolking onderhield? * * * Sinds het einde van de Derde Punische Oorlog nam de Romeinse invloed in de door Rome bezette Noord-Afrikaanse gebieden voortdurend toe. Voor de inheemse bevolking in het binnenland van Afrika werden de gevolgen van de veroveringen evenwel pas echt voelbaar sedert het einde van de Republiek en het begin van het principaat. In deze uiteenzetting zullen wij ons toeleggen op de spanningen die de opkomst van de Romeinse overheersing met zich mee brachten in de regio die, omringd door zeeën van water en zand, door de Arabieren, en met hen Count Byron, het “Eiland van het Westen” werd genoemd, en die in de Oudheid samenviel met de provincies Africa Proconsularis, Mauretania Caesariensis en Mauretania Tingitana 3. Wij zullen daarbij ons onderzoekskader chronologisch beperken tot de periode 46 v.o.t. tot ca. 189 n.o.t. 4 – niet alleen omdat die beperking ons in staat stelt om de ontgonnen problematiek diepgaand te behandelen, maar ook omdat het zo bekomen tijdsbestek de belangrijkste integratiefasen omvat en dus het meest aan onze probleemstelling tegemoet komt. In het eerste deel van ons betoog zullen wij aan de hand van de huidige opvattingen in 1 Met “Afrika” bedoelen wij in dit betoog steevast de Noord-Afrikaanse gebieden die tot het Romeinse grondgebied hebben behoord, met uitzondering van Aegyptus en Cyrenaica. Het betreft de noordelijke streken van de huidige maghreblanden Marokko, Algerije en Tunesië, en van westelijk Libië. De aanduiding “Africa” verwijst stelselmatig naar de provincie Africa Proconsularis. 2 LEIGH (M.). “Lucan and the Libyan Tale”, in: The Journal of Roman Studies, 90 (2000), p. 95-109 en cf. infra. 3 COUNT BYRON KHUN DE PROROK. “Ancient Trade Routes from Carthage into the Sahara”. Geographical Review , Vol. 15, 2 (april 1925), p. 190 4 v.o.t.: voor het begin van onze tijdrekening; n.o.t.: na het begin van onze tijdrekening 6 het moderne onderzoek een aantal belangrijke begrippen pogen te verklaren. Het is van groot belang om de gebruikte terminologie te verduidelijken, gezien zij vaak geen antieke wortels heeft. Al te vlug heeft men immers anachronistische principes en voorstellingen aan de moderne concepten gekoppeld. Hoe karakteriseert de hedendaagse geschiedschrijving bijvoorbeeld het geladen concept “imperialisme” in de antieke context? En wat wordt verstaan met het proces “romanisering”? Na de behandeling van dergelijke initiële vragen vernauwen we onze focus in het theoretische gedeelte ten gunste van een ruimtelijk en chronologisch afgebakende problematiek, met name het debat rond het Romeins imperialisme, en het verzet daartegen, in de veroverde Noord-Afrikaanse gebieden. In hoeverre heeft Rome haar stempel gedrukt op de culturele, sociaal-economische en politieke organisatie van de uiterst heterogene, Noord- Afrikaanse bevolking? In welke mate waren de lokale bevolkingsgroepen ontvankelijk voor eventuele nieuwe gezagsstructuren en samenlevingsvormen? De veelzijdige antwoorden die door vorsers op deze vraag – en zo ook op alle bovenstaande – werden gegeven, blijken vaak de vrucht van sociale en politieke ideologieën.
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