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Number System in Arabic and English: a Comparative Analysis

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International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) ISSN (Online): 2319-7064 Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 | Impact Factor (2014): 5.611 Number System in Arabic and English: A Comparative Analysis Mohamed .A1, S. A. Shanavas2 1Associate Professor (Retired), E.M.E.A College, Kondotty 2Associate Professor, Dept. of Linguistics, University of Kerala deleted in some nouns will be restored before the ي Unlike English and many other languages, Arabic has three final ،أخى، دًى،فى، ) in the five nouns و aani’. The dropped‘اٌ numbers: singular, dual and plural. Dual are suffix أر .father أة: أثىاٌ aani’e.g‘ اٌ is restored before adding (رواثى morphologically marked in Arabic whereas in English the marbuuTa is added toحbrother. If the feminine marker أخىاٌ: number two plus plural is used to mark the dual. For ّ لطخ : .e.g د example two cities, two buildings etc are used while in a singular noun, it will be changed into regular . د cat .’ t’ marbuuTa is turned into the regularلطتبٌ Arabic ‘madiinataani’ ‘binaaʾaani’ are used instead of ‘ithnataa- mudn-in or ithnataaabniyat-in’. In respect of number, Sanskrit is similar to Arabic. 2. Plural Formation In Arabic 1. Dual Formation in Arabic There are two types of plurals in Arabic: the regular and jamʿsaalim جًع عبنى irregular. The regular type is known a ʾuuna is added to the singular form if theؤٌ In order to form dual in Arabic, a dual suffix is added to a where a suffix madiinat +-aani = noun is in nominative case. If it is in accusative or genitive‘ يذَخ+آٌ =يذيُتبٌ .singular stem e.g /يغهًىٌ:يغهى يغهًيٍ is added to the stem. E.g ئيٍ madiinat-aani’. ( two cities). The suffix –aani or ayni case the suffix‘ depending on case will be used to form dual. If the noun is /muslim-un : muslimuuna / muslimiina / Mualims. is added to آد in nominative case, -aani is used. If it is in accusative or In order to mark the soundfeminine plural .muslimaat/ Muslim women /يغهًبد .genitive case –ayni is used to mark the dual the singular form e.g the) جًع انتكغيش two ambassadors The irregular plural which is known asوصم عفيشاٌ number.WaSalasafiinaani beween two ambassadors. broken plural) are very many in Arabic. They are knownثيٍ عفيشيٍ arrived.‘baynasafiirayni they visited two ambassadors. as broken plural because unlike sound plural, the structureصاسواعفيشيZaaruusafiirayniٍ The word ‘safiiraani’ in the first example is the subject of of the singular form is not preserved in the plural either by / Sinw-un : Sinwan-un / صُى : صُىاٌ the verb waSala and is in nominative case. But in the second addingsomething as in :tuxmat‘ تخًخ : تخى example the word ‘safiirayni’ is the second term of an one of twin brothers or subtracting as in عذ : أعذ annexation structure and in genitive case. The same word in tuxam’ ‘indigestion’ or changing the singular as in ʾasad: ʾusd ‘lion’ or by changing the form coupled withأ the third example is in accusative case as it is the object of man’ or changing is‘ سجم :سجبل the verb ‘zaaruu’. The rule is applicable only if the letters in addition as inrajul: rijaal rasuul: rusul‘ سعىل: سعم man’ coupled with subtraction as‘سجم the base word are regular ( sound).e.g.rajlun with ‘ya’ messenger. ( ibnu-Hishaam,264). The most common (يُمىصخ twomen’, or defective‘سجﻻٌ rajulaani judge broken plural patterns are listed here under triptote and أنمبظending preceded by kasra e.g. al-qaaDiiً .qaaDyaani’ two judges. diptote categories‘لبظيبaaniٌ+ afʿul/ This pattern is used as a plural for faʿl as a/ أفعم (1 ’with the ending of alif noun having the sound ʿayn’ irrespective of its ‘laam(يمصىسح) If the base word is defective كهت’e.g. ‘kalb و ya’ or ‘ يpreceded by fatHa, there are two types of duals: in one of being sound or defective by deer. The plural form of ظجً’cub‘Daby ,جشو’It occurs in three dog‘jarw .ي ’which the alif is to be changed into ‘ya eyes’ is irregular. This is the pattern for a‘أعيٍ aʿyun دجهً cases: one where the alif occurs after three letters as in Hublayaani’ feminine noun having four original letters ,the third of‘دجهيبٌ Hublaa’ pregnant the dual of which is‘ ’ʿuqaabثعمب ,Diraaʿرساع as in يذّحtwo pregnant women. In the second case the alif which which is maddah .forearm, eagle فتً as in ي’occurs as the third letter is a substitute of ‘ya ʾafʿaal/ This pattern is for trilateral noun to which/أفعبل (in the dual 2ي fataa’ young man, the alif is to be changed into‘ isdefectiveعيٍ cannot be the plural form as its أفعم ’daxalama ahu –l ssijnafatayaani‘ دخم يعه ّانغٍ فتيبٌ .form e.g ثىة اثىاة: two young men entered the jail with him’. The third case is e.g‘ afʿila/ It is the plural of a masculine quadriteral/أفعهخbut is used for 3) 3 ي’that where alif is not a substitute of ‘ya اغعًخ:غعبو .e.g يذّحMataa’ which is used as a proper noun whose third letter is maddah‘يتً prolongation asin loaf of bread سغيف: أسغفخ matayaani’. The second type is food‘ يتيبnoun. Its dual form isٌ فتً : فتيخ ’fiʿla/ It is the plural form of ‘fatan/ فعهخwhich occurs 4) 4 و ’that where ‘alif’ is to be changed into ‘waa fuʿala/ It is the regular plural form for the/ فعهخin two cases: the asif is a substitute of ‘wa’ as in ‘ ʿaSa’ stick 5) 5 whose فبعم aSawaani’ two adjective of human beings on the pattern‘ عصىاand its dual isٌعصىwhose origin isعصب غبص:لبض ساو:لعبح ، :غضاح، سيبح sticks or the alif is not the substitute of ‘waa’ and is not used ‘laam’ is defective as in نذ Ladaaif it is used as a proper noun نذي.for prolongation e.g takeاءLadawaani. Nouns ending with the feminine markerواٌ chameleon. The دشثبء دشثبواٌ: .before the suffix.e.g و’a ‘waa Volume 5 Issue 3, March 2016 www.ijsr.net Paper ID: NOV162036 Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 1163 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) ISSN (Online): 2319-7064 Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 | Impact Factor (2014): 5.611 .jauhar : jawaahir / gem/جىهش : جىاهش as noun as in فىعم faʿ ala/ It is used as plural of an adjective ofhuman/ فعهخ (6 / Saumaʿ t: Sawaamiʿ/صىيعخ : صىايع fauʿala/ as/ فىعهخ كبيم:كًهخ، being whose ‘laam’ is sound as in .monastery عبدش:عذشح،عبفش:عفشح ّ ،ثبس:ثشسح xaatam : xawaatim / ring/خبتى : خىاتى faaʿal / as/ فبعم faʿlaa/ It is used as plural for an adjective used as/فعهً (7 / qaaSiʿaaʾ : qawaaSiʿ/لبصعبء : لىاصع faaʿilaaʾ / as/ فبعﻻء :جشدً ، passive participle in the pattern ‘faʿiil’ as in .a type stone اعيش:أعشي، لتيم:لتهىجشيخ jaaʾiz : jawaaʾiz/ gift / جبئض:جىائض faaʿil / as noun / فبعم fiʿala/ It is used as a plural form of ‘fuʿl’ pattern as/فعهخ (8 HaaʾiD /دبئط : دىائط as a feminine adjective as in فبعم لشغ:لشغخ، دسج: دسجخ ّ،دة :دثجخ ،كىص :كىصح in .fuʿʿal/ Used as a plural form for a singular adjective : HawaaʾiD/a lady who menstruatesفعّم (9 .Taaliq: Tawaaliq / devorsed / :غىانمطبنك دب ئط : دبئط on the pattern ‘faaʿil’ or ‘ faaʿila’ as in It can generally be used in all feminine ) فعبئم (18 : دي ّعُبئذخ : َّىح weather itيذّح ’fuʿʿaal/ It is used as plural form for an adjective on quadriliterals whose third letter is ‘ maddaفعّبل (10 :saHaabat/ عذبثخ : عذبئتis marked by ‘ta’ marbuuta as in صبئى : ّصى او ،دبكى : ّدك بو ، لبسئ : ّلشاء asin فبعم the pattern fiʿaal/ used as plural for thirteen singular forms ( saHaaʾib/ cloud or not marked for feminine gender but/فعبل (11 /ʿajuuz: ʿajaaiz / عجىص : عجبئض faʿl-un, faʿla-tun/ is used a feminine as in/ ، فعهخ فعم :nouns/adjectives) .They are .old woman كعت : كعبة ، لصعخ : لصبع ّ،يشح .both as nouns or adjctives.e faʿaalii / This plural form is generally used in/ ) فعبنً (faʿal-un, faʿalat-un/ that is not derived 19/ فعم،فعهخ :يشاس :jamal, seven singular patterns which are listed below/ : جًبل جًم from defective or geminate as in ʿadhraaʾ : ʿadhaarii / a/ : عزاسي عزساءfaʿlaaʿ/ as/فعﻻء .1 : ثًبس ثًشح,jabal: jibaal. moutainججم , camel : ججبل ,jimaal .virgin رئت : رئبة .fiʿl,fuʿl/ e.g/،فعهفعم .thamart, thimaar/ fruit / maumaat :mawaammin / a/ يىيبح :يىاو faʿlaat /as /فعﻻح .rumH : rimaaH/ lance, 2/سيخ : سيبح ,Diʾb: Diʾaab/ wolf/ .large desert : ظشاف .e.gفبعم that has the meaningفعيم، فعيهخ .spear siʿlaat : siʿaalin/ a ghoul/: ععبنغعﻻح / fi ʿlat /فعﻻح kariim: 3/ كشيى : كشاو,zariif: ziraaf/graceful, chaming/ ظشيف hibriyat: habaarin/ a rough /هجشيخ :هجبس fiʿliyat/ as / فعهيخ .kiraam/ noble. 4 .shariif: shiraaf/honorable. ground / : ششافششيف ʿarquwat: ʿaraaqin / a /عشلىح : عشاق faʿluwat/ as/ فعهىح .faʿlaan/ as an adjective and its feminine 5/ فعﻻٌ، stick that is put horizontally on a bucket.( 276, AuDaH l عطشبٌ .faʿlaa/e.g / فعهً /faʿlaana/ فعﻻَخ،gender .( fuʿlaan/ as an masaalik/ فعﻻʿaTshaan: ʿiTaash\thirastyٌ/:عطبػ ʿadhraaʾ : ʿadhaarin / a / عزساء : عزاسي faʿaalaa/ as/ ) فعبنً (fuʿlaana/ 20 /فعﻻَخ adjective and its feminine gender .xumSaan: ximaaS/ lean, slim. vergin/ خًصبٌ :خًبص fatwa: fataawaa / a formal /فتىي: فتبوي faʿlaa/ as/ فعهً.faʿil/ 1/ فعمfuʿuul/ It is general in four forms: One is/ )فعىل (12 daʿwaa : daʿaawaa / a/دعىي : دعبوي .namir, numuur /leopard, tiger, and the legal opinion / ًَش : ًَىس .e.g remaining three are the trilateral noun the ‘ʿayn’ of claim. Hublaa: Habaalaa/ a/ دجهً :دجبنً fuʿlaa/ as / فعهً .2 فهظ : فهىط which has ‘sukuun’ and its ‘fa’has fatHa as in xunthaa : xayaathaa / a / خُثً :خُبثً.Dirs: Duruus/ pregnant woman/ ظشط : ظشوط fals:fuluus/ orkasra as in/ .jund:junuud/ army. hermaphrodite/ جُىد :جُذ or Damma as in / Hayraan : Hayaaraa /ديشاٌ : ديبسي faʿlaan/ as/ فعﻻٌ fuʿuul/ as 3/ فعىل :fiʿlaan/ It is general in four/ ) فعﻻٌ (13 .fuʿal/ as perplexed/ فعم,ghurab: ghirbaan/ crow/,غشاة : غشثبٌ in faʿaaliyy / .
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  • The Differences Between Spoken and Written Grammar in English, in Comparison with Vietnamese1

    The Differences Between Spoken and Written Grammar in English, in Comparison with Vietnamese1

    GIST EDUCATION AND LEARNING RESEARCH JOURNAL. ISSN 1692-5777. NO. 11, (JULY - DECEMBER) 2015. pp. 138-153. The Differences between Spoken and Written Grammar in English, in Comparison 1 with Vietnamese Las Diferencias entre la Gramática Oral y Escrita del Idioma Inglés en Comparación con el Idioma Vietnamita Nguyen Cao Thanh2* Tan Trao University, Vietnam Abstract The fundamental point of this paper is to describe and evaluate some differences between spoken and written grammar in English, and compare some of the points with Vietnamese. This paper illustrates that spoken grammar is less rigid than written grammar. Moreover, it highlights the distinction between speaking and writing in terms of subordination and coordination. Further, the different frequency of adverbials and adjectivals between spoken and written language is also compared and analyzed. Keywords: spoken and written grammar, English, Vietnamese 138 1 Received: July 15, 2015 / Accepted: September 10, 2015 2 [email protected] No. 11 (July - December 2015) No. 11 (July - December 2015) CAO Resumen El principal objetivo de este artículo es describir y evaluar algunas diferencias entre la gramática oral y escrita del idioma inglés y comparar algunos aspectos gramaticales con el idioma vietnamita. Esta revisión muestra como la gramática oral es menos rígida que la gramática escrita. Por otra parte, se destaca la distinción entre el hablar y el escribir en términos de subordinación y coordinación. Además, la diferencia en el uso de adverbios y adjetivos entre la gramática oral y escrita también es comparada y analizada. Palabras clave: gramática oral y escrita, inglés, vietnamita Resumo O principal objetivo deste artigo é descrever e avaliar algumas diferenças entre a gramática oral e escrita do idioma inglês e comparar alguns aspectos gramaticais com o idioma vietnamita.
  • Adjective in Old English

    Adjective in Old English

    Adjective in Old English Adjective in Old English had five grammatical categories: three dependent grammatical categories, i.e forms of agreement of the adjective with the noun it modified – number, gender and case; definiteness – indefiniteness and degrees of comparison. Adjectives had three genders and two numbers. The category of case in adjectives differed from that of nouns: in addition to the four cases of nouns they had one more case, Instrumental. It was used when the adjective served as an attribute to a noun in the Dat. case expressing an instrumental meaning. Weak and Strong Declension Most adjectives in OE could be declined in two ways: according to the weak and to the strong declension. The formal differences between the declensions, as well as their origin, were similar to those of the noun declensions. The strong and weak declensions arose due to the use of several stem-forming suffixes in PG: vocalic a-, o-, u- and i- and consonantal n-. Accordingly, there developed sets of endings of the strong declension mainly coinciding with the endings of a-stems of nouns for adjectives in the Masc. and Neut. and of o-stems – in the Fem. Some endings in the strong declension of adjectives have no parallels in the noun paradigms; they are similar to the endings of pronouns: -um for Dat. sg, -ne for Acc. Sg Masc., [r] in some Fem. and pl endings. Therefore the strong declension of adjectives is sometimes called the ‘pronominal’ declension. As for the weak declension, it uses the same markers as n-stems of nouns except that in the Gen.
  • 1 Comparing Pluralities Gregory Scontras

    1 Comparing Pluralities Gregory Scontras

    Comparing Pluralities Gregory Scontras ([email protected]) Department of Linguistics, Harvard University Peter Graff ([email protected]) Department of Linguistics and Philosophy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Noah D. Goodman ([email protected]) Department of Psychology, Stanford University Abstract What does it mean to compare sets of objects along a scale, for example by saying “the men are taller than the women”? We explore comparison of pluralities in two experiments, eliciting comparison judgments while varying the properties of the members of each set. We find that a plurality is judged as “bigger” when the mean size of its members is larger than the mean size of the competing plurality. These results are incompatible with previous accounts, in which plural comparison is inferred from many instances of singular comparison between the members of the sets (Matushansky and Ruys, 2006). Our results suggest the need for a type of predication that ascribes properties to plural entities, not just individuals, based on aggregate statistics of their members. More generally, these results support the idea that sets and their properties are actively represented as single units. 1 Keywords: Comparatives; plurality; set-based properties; natural language semantics; mental representations Word count: 3801 1. Introduction When we think and talk about groups of individuals—pluralities—do we represent the collection as a single entity with its own properties? For example, when we say “the red dots are big” is there an aggregate size for the group of red dots to which we refer? In this paper we investigate this question by studying plural comparison—e.g.