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Flexible Dieting and Metabolic Adaptation During Weight Loss: a Comprehensive Review Bryce Lahaie University of Rhode Island, Bryce [email protected]

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Flexible Dieting and Metabolic Adaptation During Weight Loss: a Comprehensive Review Bryce Lahaie University of Rhode Island, Bryce Lahaie@My.Uri.Edu University of Rhode Island DigitalCommons@URI Senior Honors Projects Honors Program at the University of Rhode Island 2017 Flexible Dieting and Metabolic Adaptation During Weight Loss: A Comprehensive Review Bryce LaHaie University of Rhode Island, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/srhonorsprog Part of the Nursing Commons, Nutritional and Metabolic Diseases Commons, and the Sports Sciences Commons Recommended Citation LaHaie, Bryce, "Flexible Dieting and Metabolic Adaptation During Weight Loss: A Comprehensive Review" (2017). Senior Honors Projects. Paper 523. http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/srhonorsprog/523http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/srhonorsprog/523 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Honors Program at the University of Rhode Island at DigitalCommons@URI. It has been accepted for inclusion in Senior Honors Projects by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@URI. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Running Head: METABOLIC ADAPTATION DURING WEIGHT LOSS 1 Metabolic Adaptation During Weight Loss Bryce LaHaie The University of Rhode Island METABOLIC ADAPTATION DURING WEIGHT LOSS 2 Abstract The purpose of this research proJect is to acquire knowledge on the metabolic adaptation that occurs during weight loss. Metabolic adaptation is a phrase often used among the fitness community as a way to describe the fluctuations in metabolism that occur during a caloric deficit. Metabolic changes that take place during weight loss favor decreased energy expenditure resulting in the down- regulation of metabolic rate. Metabolic rate is summarized by total daily energy expenditure, which has several components that collectively influence the amount of calories that an individual burns in a day. During a caloric deficit that is required for weight loss, a number of mechanisms are manipulated that function to reduce the effects of weight loss by promoting metabolic adaptation. The research included in this proJect is designed to learn about the mechanisms that characterize metabolic adaptation. Keywords: metabolic adaptation, weight loss, metabolic damage, diet METABOLIC ADAPTATION DURING WEIGHT LOSS 3 Metabolic Adaptation During Weight Loss Metabolic adaptation is frequently and inaccurately referred to as metabolic damage. This phrase is most often used among the fitness community as a way to describe the changes that take place within the metabolism when an individual consumes a very low caloric intake over a long period of time. Many people who are new to the fitness lifestyle are vulnerable to falling into traps of fad diets and diet myths. The influence of social media and advertising often has negative effects on individuals who lack knowledge on proper ways to lose weight or live a healthier lifestyle. Frequently, this results in these individuals consuming very low calories because they cut out certain foods or entire food groups from their diet. While this is unhealthy for a variety of reasons, a detrimental effect is the significant impact that eating low calories has on metabolic rate and thermoregulation. In general, the body adapts to a very low caloric intake and will down-regulate as a way to counteract these effects. The same results are noticed in professional bodybuilders, fitness competitors, or members of the fitness community who go through very strict dieting phases in preparation for bodybuilding competitions or photo shoots. Often times these individuals must restrict their calories significantly in order to achieve a very low body fat percentage to be competitive on stage. The preparation for bodybuilding competitions can last 20 weeks or longer, which provides the body with a significant timeframe to adapt to low calories. Metabolic adaptation can happen to anybody who intentionally or unintentionally consumes very low calories over an extended period of time. METABOLIC ADAPTATION DURING WEIGHT LOSS 4 Endocrine System and Metabolism The endocrine system plays a significant role in metabolic adaptation. There are several hormones that are involved in metabolic rate and regulation. These hormones play a role in the regulation of body composition, energy intake, and energy expenditure. Thyroid hormones, specifically T3, are directly related to metabolic rate. Hypothyroidism, or low-circulating thyroid hormone, contributes to a low metabolic rate and hyperthyroidism contributes to a high metabolic rate, which is more commonly referred to as a fast metabolism. A diagnosis of a hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism is not the only condition in which these hormone levels vary. During a caloric deficit that is needed for weight loss, there will be fluctuations in these hormone levels (Trexler, E.T., A.E. Smith-Ryan, and L.E. Norton, 2014). A controlled clinical trial called POUNDS LOST aimed to explore the relationship between thyroid hormone levels, body weight, and resting metabolic rate (RMR). In general, this study found a positive relationship between T3 level and body weight, RMR, and other metabolic parameters. Thyroid hormones regulate RMR through increasing ATP production; however, the mechanisms associated with the metabolic changes that were observed during this study are not well known. Essentially, as body weight decreases T3 levels also decrease and results in a reduced metabolic rate (G Liu, L Liang, G A Bray, L Qi, F B Hu, J Rood, F M Sacks, Q Sun, 2017). Leptin, also known as the “hunger hormone,” is secreted from fat cells distributed throughout the body. Leptin decreases in short-term energy restriction and lower body fat levels. This means that during a caloric deficit, there is a METABOLIC ADAPTATION DURING WEIGHT LOSS 5 decrease in serum leptin, which is also noted in lower body fat percentages. When weight loss occurs and body fat is reduced, the size of the fat cells decrease and there is a reduction in the total amount of leptin that is secreted and circulating in the body (Robinson, S. L., Lambeth-Mansell, A., Gillibrand, G., Smith-Ryan, A., & Bannock, L., 2015). When leptin is released into the blood, it travels to the hypothalamus, where it delivers a message that indicates how much fat storage is available and the body will then respond based on that message. If there is low leptin, the body recognizes that there is reduced fat storage and it will slow the metabolism in order to conserve energy. The normal range of serum leptin is approximately 3.7 to 11.1 ng/mL (Robinson, S. L., et al., 2015). Individuals who undergo intense dieting phases, such as bodybuilding competitors, experience a significant decrease in leptin levels. One study reported that a professional bodybuilder on a six-month diet for contest prep had a leptin level of 1.36 ng/mL by the end of his diet. Similar findings were reported in thyroid hormone concentration (Robinson, S. L. et al., 2015). These reductions are responsible for the decrease in metabolic rate that contributes to metabolic adaptation during weight loss. Insulin also plays a role in metabolic rate and energy availability through regulating macronutrient metabolism and muscle protein breakdown. Insulin levels predominately decrease due to an improved insulin sensitivity when weight is reduced (Maclean, P.S., et al., 2011). However, the mechanism of these hormones in the response to weight reduction is more complex than previously thought. As adipocytes decrease in size during weight loss, not only is there less leptin secreted, the smaller cells become more insulin sensitive and require less insulin to carry out METABOLIC ADAPTATION DURING WEIGHT LOSS 6 the same metabolic role (Maclean, P.S., et al., 2011). It may seem that because there is a decline in body mass and a subsequent decline in leptin and insulin, the relative relationship between the hormones and body capacity will cause no metabolic changes. However, this is not the case. Thus, the slowed metabolism is manifested as a plateau in weight loss. Testosterone also plays an important role in regulating adiposity. Testosterone level is inversely correlated with fat storage. There is currently not adequate research to determine the exact role that testosterone plays in adiposity, but there are suggestions that it may repress adipogenesis (Maclean, P.S., et al., 2011). Ghrelin is the orexigenic hormone, which has a stimulating effect on the appetite. Ghrelin increases during a period of calorie restriction and decreases in well-fed states. However, studies show these hormones are lower than what is expected for the amount of fat mass that is lost after weight loss occurs (Maclean, P.S., et al., 2011). This means that the brain receives signals that the body is in a state of low energy and the metabolic adaptations that occur are aimed at preserving body fat and reversing the effects of weight loss. In summary, there is a down-regulation of several hormones involved in regulating metabolic rate during a caloric deficit. Research shows there is a decrease in leptin, insulin, testosterone, and thyroid hormones with subsequent increases in cortisol and ghrelin. Evidence supports that these hormone levels remain in this fashion during maintenance of a low body fat percentage even after the period of active weight loss has ended. The body’s response to the changes in hormone levels that occur during and after weight loss is reflected in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) portion of the hypothalamus. Much like the hormonal changes discussed previously, METABOLIC ADAPTATION DURING WEIGHT LOSS 7 the changes
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