j ' \

CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE

NUTRITION AND FOOD HABITS OF THE ANCIENT HA~\TAIIANS · ,,

A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction

~ . .. . of the requirem~nts for the degree of Master

of Science in

Home Economics

by

Nalani L. De Clercq-Kaeck /

June 1977 ,---~----- ~·------~- ---~ ~~------·------·-·------~ ! I

The thesis of Nalani L. De Clercq-Kaeck is approved by:

California State University, Northridge

June 1977 ii ...... ····· ...... ············ ...... ····· ...... - ...... /...... \ \

DEDICATION

To the 20th Century American vloman - those who

inspired me: Dr. Margaret Mead, Eleanor Roosevelt, Betty Friedan, Jaqueline Kennedy Onnasis, Candice Bergen,

Lillian Hellman; those who helped me: my mother, Elan

De Clercq, my advisor, Dr. Ann Stasch, my professor,

Gail Fonosch, my friends Barba.IOa Kistler, Elvie

Wilkinson, Alice Andre, the iate Lillian Van Hook; and

to those who taught me how much women can accomplish:

Claudie Hemenway, Martha Bruske, Kathy MacDonald,

:Dr. Molly Gorelick - this thesis is respectfully dedicated.

iii ) ··c·••=•=,"=••·-"'••·••<"'''''""'-·'"~"~=·~~_,,,~.mh~•M~~··---·~·'"-~•·~····•··-·~"''w-•·~·•·.·~···~.. w•~~-~"~··»·· .. •··••.o=·•·•~~·•1· •···-"~~····•·"'·"··"~'''"·'''''"'·-••···•····'-~···••c \

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A special "mahalo" is extended to Mrs. Nao Wenkam

of the University of Hawaii for material issued in special

printing, and for opening the library of Nutritional .

Studies in the department of Food Science; and to Mrs.

Mary Kawena Pukui, the renown translator and historian

of Hawaiiana, for personal communication. She is the last .... of her kind!

I would also like to remember in loving gratitude

my husband, the late Alexander Paki Kaeck, for inspiring

me to study things Hawaiian~

iv \ \

TABLE OF CONTENTS l

Il Page ! !Dedication ...... iii i jAcknowledgments ...... iv lList of T~bles ...... v i j List of Figures • o •••••••••••• o ••• o • o ••••• o ••••• 0 ••• 0 ••• o • o o ••• vi

I Abstract ... vii I. Introduction ...... ~ ~ . 1

Statement of the Problem •o 3

Limitations 3

II. Review of Literature • 0 5

III. Procedure 7

IV. Discussion 10

Prehistoric ·Origins 10

Hierachy 12

Physical Status 13

.Taro •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• if; ••••••• 15 Sweet Potato ...... 21 Breadfruit 23

Yam ...... 25

Sugar Cane ...... ~ .. e ••• ,...... ,...... 27

Coconut 28

Candlenut •••••••••••••••~'t!.,lle~~'••:~~~ .. ••••••••c.•••e-••••• 29

Ti ••••••.•••••••• o •••••••.•••• ·• •••••••••••••••••••••• 30

',./: Page

Fruits

1. Banana ...... 32 2. Mountain Apple ...... 32 3. Ohelo ...... 33 4. Pineapple ...... 33 Animals Eaten As .Food

1. Hog ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 34

2. Dog •••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••• 35

3. Chicken 36

4. Wild Fowl ...... -.: .... . 36 Seafood 37

Drinks 42

Medicines and Remedies 45

Utensils and Implements 46

Cooking ~fethods ...... 52

Food Customs 54

Foods Introduced Later 56 v. Summary, Conclusion, Recommendations 59

vi \

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Alphabet and Pronunciation Guide •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 9

Graph Showing Increase in Acidity of Poi •••••••••••••••••• 19

Essential and Non-essential Amino Acids Content of Five Hawaiian Fishes ....•.•..•...••...... •...... 40

Chart of Nutritive Value of Specific Foods ••••••••••••.••• 44 ....

. J l I

l'

Vii LIST OF FIGURES

Page

1. Y~p of the Islands ...... ix 2. Taro Plant ...... 16 3. Sweet Potato Plant ...... 22 4. Breadfruit Plant ...... 24 5. Yam Plant ...... 26 6. Ti Plant ...... -31 7. Poi Pounders and Preparation of Poi 47

8. Calabashes and Bowls 49

9. The Imu ...... " ...... 51

10. Lau Lau Wrapping ...... •...... •.....•...... •. 53 l !

viii ABSTRACT

This thesis is a research of the foods used by the ancient

!Hawaiians, both indigenous and those brought to the islands for culti-

:vation by the original Polynesian settlers.

Information was gathered from the University of Hawaii in the

Food Science Department, in the archives of the Bernice P. Bishop

:Museum in Honolulu, and through personal contact with Mary Kawena Pukui,

'renown historian and translator of _the Hawaiin language.

Most of the plants came by way of Indonesia or Malaya, and were

;transported to the islands by canoe, proving a rare feat of navigation iand horticulture.

Although taro, the main staple, is grown and eaten throughout

Polynesia, the Hawaiians were the only group of people to produce from

'it the sticky and bland-flavored paste-called poi. 1be·end result was l ~ food of highly nutritious value and digestibility.

The caste system in Hawaii produced some unusual results in iVaried statures. The ruling class had superior diets due to t~eir ' ;! status. The common people were farmers or fishermen, with a barter

· system used in the exchange of foods between them.

1be non-use of metals demanded the use of wooden implements, and resulted in a method of cooking in an earth oven called an "imu". Plants Here used as medicinal herbs. There '"ere curatives and

treatments for various illnesses kno-v.rn today. · There was also a system

of taboos that influenced the dietary habits.

The people of ancient Hawaii \vere well-formed, healthy, and

physically attractive. It is hoped that a recording of the foods they

ate would produce additional research into the dietary patterns of : ' :today's citizens, and how they have, or will affect, their health. Q

~~,S\ t. __ ~ C~) .. fj ("r·\ r-~ / i

I

IN:TRODUCTION

position pf the foods that are on the market today, there has been an

'upturn in the interest in nutrition, particularly "natural" foods.

'Dietitians today·a:re interested in what foods are culturally acceptable

to patients, in order to prescribe diets that.wlll most likely be

adhered to. Nutritionists are interested in the physical results of

'substitutions in foods that.ordinarily have been eaten for generations lby a particular race of people.

Primitive peoples have existed for centuries on·adequate diets,

·although they did not have the facilities for measuring the nutrient icontent of those foods. Often great harm is inflicted by modern change~

·of these diets. Diets of long duration change when exposed to outside i :influences, not nec<.:ssarily to the advantage of the people consuming ' :them.

The Hawaiians are subjects of food habits imposed upon them by

1 a number of variables! climate, availability of resources, religious

:or superstitious beliefs, and customs, among others. Hm.raiians had no i "rritten language ¥Jit:h which to record their customs. The alphabet is

'composed of the fi-<.1e VO'i>Jels plus the consonants H, K, L, H, N, P, H,

Persons \·Jh<) speak fluent Hawaiian are

1 2

: fast disappearing, as well as the racially pure full-blodded Polynesian,

resulting in a loss of knowledge of the older culture and customs.

Due to the economic and political changes in the Hawaiian

! Islands, and the infiltration of so many other races, diets and food i :habits have changed considerably since Captain Cook first set foot upon' i j : the island of Oahu. Islanders today suffer from an assortment of ills

! that are considered diet-related: diabetes, coronary diseases, gall-

,bladder diseases, dental problems, obesity. Studies are now being

;undertaken to obtain information on these diet changes.

Much can be learned about a race of people from a study of

their food habits, their physical status, their superstitions. The

!author is interested in the ethnic aspects related to nutrition. If we

are to investigate the problems of malnutrition, it would behoove us to:

:determine what changes have been wrought and how they have affected

these people. As dietitians, we can recommend certain prescribed

diets, but we do not really know if there are any personal or cultural

adversions to following the diet. A diet can only "work" if it is

; adhered to.

Perhaps, too, we are overlooking a source of nutrients so nee- • essary during famines in our haste to impose so-called modern methods

,on people. What we may discount as a food may be a precious source of ienergy to a needy population.· We already have evidence that injury can

;be done when a basic food habit has been changed. We have only to read'

. of the results of the lack of i1eeded lime produced when American i Indians '"ere changed· from grinding the maize for their bread in stone

· cor~tainers to the newer method of pulverizing corn in steel containers 3

to obtain flour. There is a grov1ing interest in using insects as a

source of protein, where not so long ago this'would have been consid­

ered epicurally revolting. There has been a general int~rest in re­

turning to older ways of growing food "plants and preparing them as food

in the new "organic foods" craze.

Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this study, then, is:

: 1. To report and discuss the foods consumed by Hawaiians prior to

invasion by other races.

· 2. To list, as fully as possible, the nutrient content of these foods •.

. 3. To present the food habits that may have had a bearing on the

health of ancient Hawaiians.

Limitations

Research on nutrition of Hawaiians has been almost all been

conducted at the University of Hawaii. This research is printed by the ·

University in the form of "bulletins" sold at the Bernice P. Bishop

.~fuseum in Honolulu. Purchase of these bulletins proved expensive, as

:well as the trip to visit the University files and the museum.

Personal contact was made with Mary Pukui, who will be 81 years

·old this year. All of her historical knowledge has been accumulated

•from rememb-rance of her youth, and from translations of ancient Hawaiian

' chants, which, in the absence o£ a vrritten language, is the· form in

vlhich history and geneology are handed down from generation to genera­

tion. The reliabj_li.ty of this form of data collecting was further. 4

:complicated by Hrs. Fukui's fragile physical condition, her limited

;energy, and a hesitation on the author's part to demand too much of her

time.

All information on nutrient content of foods was based on re-

·search from the laboratories of ·the University of Hawaii. There is a

lack of such equipment presently at California State University,

:Northridge. II

REVIEH OF LITERATURE

Work in the nutrient content of native Hawaiian foods has been ! .done in the Food Science Department of the University of Hawaii by jCarey Hiller, Professor Emeritus at the University (18, 14, 12, 10,

'11). Taro, the staple food of the Hawaiians, has been analyzed for

mineral content (13) as well as for other nutrients (19,_ 25, 5).

Dietitians in Hawaii are interested in the prevailing diseases

found in developed countries and in their relationship to the particular

diet of people living in the Hmvaiian Islands (25, 1). There have also:

;been studies conducted in the variety of cultural foods and the inter-

:racial acceptance of foods from each group (7). This is certainly a

fertile field of study for nutritionists and food scientists, as well

'as other professionals, due to the conglomeration of races living in

the Islands; their intermixing in marriage and consequent multi-racial 1 !offspring; and to the peculiar location of the Islands, where almost

.all foodstuffs must be shipped in to supply a growing population.

It is interesting to note that, although the Polynesians did

·not drink milk post-weaning from breastfeeding, and that the majority

·of other races now living in the Ha\

:their Hell--known intolerance of lactose, sim~;.lated milk products nm·!

_ sold commercially utiliu~ coconut milk as a filler to supply the fat

: loss Hhen butterfat is lacking (23, l,).

5 6

It is important that the diets of Polynesians pre-'ilhite influ-

ence be recorded. The full-blooded Polynesian is fast disappearing,

and their language along ~~th them. There already exists dispute over

:translation of Hawaiian words and terms. Popular misinterpretation as 1 i ! !to what constitutes a native Hawaiian food makes information unreli-

able. The transcribing that has been done is not current (6, 21, 26).

Because fruits are naturally associated with the Hawaiian

Islands, analysis of these for nutrients has also been done (18). Fish:

:as a food has been studied (17, 24), along with the Hawaiian limpet known as "ofi" (16). The physique of people is often used as an indication of their

health. Studies in anthropometry are measures of value in determining

the physical status of a race (12, 7). III

PROCEDURE

Information for this paper was obtained in research at the

,University of Hm..raii, in the special library for student.s in the Food

,Science Department, where reprints of all important research that has

·been published is available. Mrs. Nao Wenkan, who collaborated with

Carey Miller in much research, is a member of the faculty at the

.University, as well as Advisor to the local chapter of the American

'Dietetics Association, and she presented the author with a number of

!bulletins and reprints for use in preparing this thesis. Study was

'also undertaken on Hawaiian history at the main library of the

University, where here is a separate wing devoted solely to all avail- able Hawaiian material in print, as well as other Polynesian cultures.

Personal interviews with Mary Kawena Fukui proved of invaluable help, for }ITs. Fukui is looked upon as the most reliable of authorities

:on Hawaiian culture, and has written books on Hawaiian language and

.vocabulary, translated many papers and other data, and collaborated \·lit11

researchers·in many fields for Hawaiian historical writings. Hrs. Fukui

.is also advisor at the Bishop P. Bishop Museum in Honolulu, vlhere she

:verifies and dates artifacts donated to the Museum. The museum also

,proved a valuable source of information through the bulletins purchased in the gift shop, as well as display of artifacts such as tools, ~ooking equipment, and implements. (See figures 7 and 8).

7 8

Laboratory analyses of nutrients were conducted at the

!University, and the author relied upon the accuracy of the equipment

used and the ability of the researchers who recorded such information,

which has been presented in the most eminent of medical journals.

The author also used remembrance of her childhood in Honolulu,

\ ,as well as accounts and stories from her family, which originally i created her great interest in things Ha<:vaiian. Over the years, many

:books and journals about Hawaii have been read and absorbed, and as a

consequence, provided some background material for this thesis. 9

Table 1

ALPHABET AND PRONlJNCIATION GUIDE a as in car e as in let i - as in illusive

0 - as in gQ. u - as in menu

h - as in heel k - as in keel

1 - as in love m - as in marry n - as in now p - as in .E_ull w - as in wheel or as "v" in love before a

SOME R..A.J.JAIIAN \.JORDS USED IN TEXT lau - lah-....- oo Ralo - Rah low imu- ee muh ali'i - ah lee ee pua - poo ah Ohelo - Oh hell oh ti - tee lychee - lie chee poi - poee ,------~~--~------~-·

j

IV

DISCUSSION

Prehistoric Origins

The Hawaiian Islands are the tips of an ancient chain of

volcanoes, all extinct now with the exception of those found on the

island of Hawaii, largest island in the group, and the one forming the

southeastern end of the chain. (See figure 1.) The endemic flora is

mainly Asian and Indonesian in origin and came by way of Indonesia and

Melanesia after the Tertiary period. There are eight islands: Niihau,

Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, Kahoolawe, and Hawaii. Oahu is the

most populated island, as it possesses the largest and most suitable

harbor. Molokai was once a part of Maui on the western side, and the

site of the leper colony at one time.

The environmental contrasts are greater within and also among

the islands and other habitats in Polynesia. The weather is classed as

semi-tropical compared to tropical for the other localities, where

:there exists a uniformity in environment within the geographical bound-

,aries of the region.

The earliest soil of the islands was volcanic ash and silicious

dust, blown by winds, that covered lava and basalt flows. This was

altered, by wind, into clays that produce the reddish brown soil that

covers the slopes and plains of the islands. To this basic soil has

.been added, in the million and more years during which vegetation has I ~ 10 11

covered the land, humus formed by the decay of vegetable matter. Dis-

integrated lava alone is rich in all the nutrients needed for luxurious

plant growth, and provided with more or less constant moisture and warm

sunlight, plants will flourish.

The first Polynesians came from the South Seas in about 750A.D.

While flourishing plant life was fo~nd in what is now the Hawaiian

!Islands, these first discoverers were probably disappointed in finding

[none of the "food plants that they were accustomed to seeing in the 1-

/South Pacific, and doubtless made return voyages in order to bring

these necessities, as well as additional people.

This return, and the preparations for it, are a miracle of

navigation. The crowns of taro, or shoots from the corms, had to be

carefully wrapped with a ball of earth, to preserve the life of the

plant, as would also live sweet potato tubers (or vine cuttings),

banana shoots, root cuttings or breadfruit, paper mulberry slips and

seeds of what plants can be thus propagated. In addition, there had to

be sufficient food and water for an indefinite voyage, for men, women,

and children, as well as for livestock.

For water during a long voyage, rain water must have been col-

lected in the bottoms of the canoes. However, Polynesians possess a

tolerance for sea water, which is also used as a medicine and a sea-

soning, so almost certainly, these voyagers were able to drink some sea

!water as a part of their diet. I The food plants were probably brought to the islands in several

trips. Archeological evidence for this comes from an association

------~------~--~-~------12

,--~~·--~--~------1between the various plants and different gods, assuming that the name i I of I the god stemmed from an ancestor of a tribal group. The food plants that were introduced at this time in history ri j (6, 8, 12) are:

taro sweet potato yam banana sugar cane breadfruit coconut turmeric 'awa ti arrowroot mountain apple candlenut tree

Foods eaten occasionally, or during famine:

fern popolo berries

To these foods must be added three domesticated animals:

-hog dog chicken

Hierarchy

There is little doubt that the Hawaiians were members of a

• culture of farmer s-o--'I'hey-e*eel-led-i-n-p1-ant;-ing-,-and-emplo-y_ed_a_highl_y-__r------

•advanced type of horticulture albeit with primitive tools. Gods were associated with plant life as follows:

Taro, sugar cane, bamboo Kane Sweet potato, gourd, hog - Lono Coconut, breadfruit - Ku Banana - Kanaloa 13

r- There is a H~~~~~~n myth relating that the origin of taro !occurred at the same time as the origin of man. When a boy child

entered the company of men, he was consecrated by a ritual in honor of ILona, the god of rain and agriculture, and not in honor of the god of jwar •. The terms used to describe the human family have reference to the

!growth of the taro plant; human offspring are called 'aha, which liter-

ally means "a taro sprout". The Hawaiian coat-of-arms displays the

!slogan "Ua mau ke ea aka aina ika pono" - "The law of the land is pre-

served in righteousness".

There were four distinct castes in the old Hawaiian civil

I system:

1. Ali'i chiefs and nobles 2. Kahuna priests of Ku and Lono 3. Maka'ainana­ landsmen (bulk of the population) 4. Kauwa outcasts

The ali'i were responsible for the distribution of the land.

kauwa were probably descendants of aboriginies.

Mary Pukui states:

"The kahuna were priests, not witch doctors. They could evoke

!good as well as evil. They were called upon to work cures. There was

:noI separate kahuna for food."

I In other words, the Hawaiians did not have "dietitians".

Physical Status

Polynesians reside in: the Hawaiian Islands, the Marquesas

I :Islands, the Tuamotu group (which includes Tahiti), the Cook Islands,

the Tongan Islands, and the Samo~n group. Of these, the Hawaiians i .possessed the finest physiques. Their skin was light brown, and in i I I ____j I l-~~~--~· -- -~ 14

·excellent condition; hair black or dark brm.m, 1:vavy\ a.nd strong \•lith no

coarseness. Baldness was rare. Coconut oil was used for skin and hair i

conditioning, and Hawaiians employed massage techniques often, as a

beauty treatment as well as a health remedy. Few facial deformities :;.,Xt;y ~- ) were noted, and they were graceful, with good, white teeth. They were lof average height, with the exception of the ali'i, who were well over ! 'six feet tall. This is.a-result of the general better care taken of

the chiefs throughout their lives, as well as a greater consumption of i protein, in the form of dog and pig, by the ruling class. Meat was never abundant among the commoners, who... relied on fish for protein • Corpulence was considered an-attractive feature, and most desirable in women. The ruling class would gorge on food until they were full, then'

call a servant to "lomi lomi" them, massage them until they could con-

tinue to feast. This practice resulted in an abnormal development of

·the abdomen producing the so-called "pot belly".

While the commoners' diet was fairly montonous, it was suf-

ficient to maintain a·healthy race of people (12). 15

TARO (KALO)

Taro is one of the oldest plants known, mentioned in Chinese

!books as early as 100 B.C. and found in Egypt under the name of culcas. l (Figure 2) The scientific name is Caolaasia esaulenta (L.) Schott.

;There were over two hundred varieties known to the Hawaiians, who ex-

celled in the cultivation and number of varieties of taro, although

,these can be broken down into two major classifications: "dry" taro,

1gro'vn in rain-watered localities without the means of irrigation, and

,"wet" taro, planted along streams, marshes, or ditches, where the

'plants are kept flooded under a few inches of water.

Taro was the staff of life for the Hawaiians, venerated in the

!diet, horticulture, and mythology, and grown wherever it was possible

:to grow taro. All the parts of the plant were utilized as food (see

1 figure 2); the principal dish obtained from taro was called "poi". ,Although all Polynesians incorporate taro into their diets, the

,Hawaiians are the only race to turn it into poi.

To make poi, the corms were selected and steamed. Taro was inever eaten raw, as the raw plant contains minute crystals of calcium ioxalate, irritating to mocous membranes. These crystals exist in

capsule-like form which are expelled with great force ~7hen subjected to

'the pressure of chewing, but are dissolved by the heat of cooking.

The taro was steamed in an "imu", an underground oven (see

:figure 9), then peeled and scraped t.rith shells and stone knives.

,Usually children did the peeling, dipping their hands into water to

cool the fingers as t-hey worked. The skin \vas set aside to use as 16

Figure 2.

1.

. ..

. .

1. Leaf (lau) 2. Flower( pua) 3. Petiole (ha) 4. _Corm (kalo)

TARO PLANT 17

fertilizer. The scraping -v1as done by adults, to insure thoroughness.

The Hawaiians were extremely particular about food preparation in every

;stage, having a saying "careless work with the hands puts dirty food

,in the mouth" (6, 21). At this stage, taro could be sliced and dried

·in the sun for use as food duri~g a long voyage or trip. The hot corm

was first broken, then mashed with a stone pounder on a heavy board

that was slightly hollowed out on top, moisture was added, and'the mass

'turned and kneaded, to produce "pa'i'ai". Ti l~aves were cleaned and

laid overlapping each other, on this the pa'i'ai was laid and then it

was wrapped into neat bundles. If poi were needed, the pounding con-

tinued, more moisture was added by .dipping the left hand in water and

passing it over the face of the stone, until it became a sticky paste

:called poi. This was stored in calabashes until used as food, at which·

'time it was kneaded and mixed with more water to the desired consist-

.. ency. All lumps had to be mashed, for perfect poi was a work of art.

Since the Hawaiians did not use utensils, poi was eaten with the

:fingers. Hen could use one or t\·lO fingers, for women 6m fingers were

iproper, but no one ate with three fingers. To do so would be con-

sidered piggish. Etiquette was in force in other ways; never separate

the fingers when eating poi, never insert the fingers into the' poi

above the first joint, never draw the fingers through the poi toward

:oneself. The fingers should be rotated in the poi two times, and the

adhered-to lump was lifted to the mouth without jerking. Each person

;eating must wait until the others have lifted their hands from the bowl

'before inserting his own. The person finishing must run his finger ! ;around to clean the inside of the bmvl; this is called 11 kahi". One 18

did not kahi before everyone \vas finished, for to d\ so would suggest

\ that the others stop eating. Leftover poi was placed in containers to

prevent dirt from entering, and a crust from forming on the top. The

containers were suspended from a house wall in nets between meals as a means of storage.

Hawaiians preferred poi that had begun to ferment, producing

air bubbles called "poha". This gave the poi a more tangy, or sour,

taste. Very fresh poi is usually fed to invalids and babies. Poi, allowed to ferment for a few days, has the unusual ability of under-

going a self-purifying process by which bacteria and yeasts promote the ~ . .. . changes of fermentation thus killing off pathogenic bacteria that might be present. The fermentation process appears to be associated with the now-known east of digestion (20), and the high assimilability of its

component elements, such as calcium and phosphorus. This makes it an extremely good "first food" for infants, as well as those who find

,digestion difficult, all persons without teeth. Organic acids are

!formed duting fermentation at room temperature (Figure 2) that retard

·this action of harmful yeasts and bacteria. The most abundant of these·:

!organic acids have been identified by qualitative tests as lactic and acetic acids, produced by the action of lactobacilli o~ the carbo- jhydrate present, and poi thus supplied the Hawaiians with a source of ithose acids usually supplied in the diets of other peoples by sour milk' and fruits, foods of which the Hawaiians did not partake. The fer- mented product, no doubt tastier, stimulated the flow of saliva and mixed more readily with it, thus making it easier to S\vallow and to digest. Haxiraum acidity results in eight or nine days, beyond >vhi.ch it • 19

I' Table 2. \

pH

2.5

~ 3.0 ~ v-- ...... 3.5 /

4.0 I V' - i 4.5

5.0

5.5 I II 6.0 vJ 6.5 •

7.0 ·~~ 1 2 L ·s T ~~--9 10 Days

Graph showing increase in acidity of poi 20

does not ordinarily progress. As yeasts do not ord\1.arily produce

\ acids, but alcohol, which is changed by enzymatic action to carbon

dioxide and water, this accounts for the gas formation, as "bubbles",

and for the slight thinning of poi as it sours. At refrigerator temper-)

ature, the bacteria grow while the yeasts remain dormant. See table 2

jfor pH factor. Poi has an alkaline reaction, as opposed to the acid ! I ;reaction of most starches, which produces a food highly hypoallergenic.

!When poi is replaced with white rice in a diet, the result is rampant

.: tooth decay. Miller (10) also notes a decrease in starch content

!during fermentation of 0. 5. Taro starch.... has been found to be between ~97.6% and 98.8% digestible. During fermentation, the major starch com-

:ponent, amylose, is converted to amylopectin.

Taro corms steamed in an imu retain as much or more vitamin

!content compared to modern cooking methods (10). On page 44 there

:appears a chart of the nutritive values found in Hawaiian foods. Two

;finger poi is approximately 20% solids. With reference to this data,

;poi is not considered a satisfactory source of vitamin A, although it

icontains more than does an equal amount of white potatoes, Ylhite rice,

iand most other cereals. It contains less ascorbic acid than v7hite

(potatoes, but more than rice or other cereals. The amount of sunlight

[and the use of little clothing by the Hawaiians afforded ample vitamin

in to aid in the efficient utilization of calcium and phosphorous from

·. !taro. Since ;the Hawaiians had no grains in their diet, they needed to

leat large quantities of poi in order to satisfy their caloric require-

iments. The old Hmvaiians might have eaten ten to fifteen pound of poi

!a day, depending on t.he vrork that they were doing. Sufficient taro to 21

, supply 2400 calories, \vhich is less than five. pound\ \vould furnish

approximately 1.6 mg. of thiamine, 0.56 mg. riboflavin, and 10 mg. of

niacin, meeting the R.D.A. for thiamine, more than one-half the niacin,

but less than one third the riboflav:i.n (13).

The green taro leaves were also abundantly used for food. The

young leaves and the petioles were cooked and eaten as we now eat

spinach,_ this vegetable· being called "luau". The leaves \vere combined

with fish (or meat for the ruling class~ laid on ti leaves which were

then tied into bundles called "lau lau", and steamed in the imu. Taro 'leaves provided an excellent source of... vitamin A. It is also a better ; source of calcium, thiamin, ·and riboflavin than spinach. The value of i !ascorbic acid, 62 mg. per 220 gms. of cooked leaves, while not high, is

sufficient to prevent scurvy in the human diet (11). The amount of

iron is slightly less than is found in spinach, but tested out to be

:93% available (15).

SlVEET POTATO ('uala)

The sweet potato (Figure 3) as a staple was exceeded in quanti-

'tative importance only by taro. The scientific name is Ipomoea Batatas

Lam._, and it is regarded by botanists to be of South ~erican origin. 1 [It could not have been introduced into Hmv-aii by seed, but must have

:been by the whole sweet potato, thus eliminating the transport of

;fragile vine cuttings. Its value as an agricultural product surpassed itaro' in that it could be grmm in less favorable localities \vith respect ito sun, moisture, and soil; it matured in much less time (three to six

months as compared to nine to ei.gh teen months for taro) ; and i. t required l I 22 J I I Figure 3. \

5.

4 .

~------'

1. Tuber ('uala) 2. Flesh (i'o) 3. Skin ( 'ili 'uala) 4. Leaf (lau) 5. FlovJer (pua) 6. Vine (ka)

SWEET POTATO PLANT J 23 ! .less labor in planting as ~.rell as less care in cult),vating. The pota­ \ toes were steamed in the jackets in the imu, and eaten that way, al-

though sometimes sweet potatoes were peeled, mashed, and made into poi.

This would not keep more than a few days before fermentation became

excessive, so taro poi was preferred. Surplus was placed in openwork ibaskets or in nets, then hung where the wind would dry it. After the I i imoisture. was gone, the baskets of 'uala \vere stored in a hut co~posed

i 'of a small platform on four posts, walled and roofed. This dried food

could be used for travelling, as when people went to the seashore during

fishing season. There was not the saw,e mythology attached to sweet

-potatoes as to taro, and it ·was not considered a "sacred" plant (6). l . Despite the yellow pigmentation of sweet potatoes, they are not

ja good source of provitamin A, which is converted to vitamin A in the

jbody in order to be utilized. Taro leaves have a higher percentage,

;eight to ten times more yellow pigment, which is masked by the green

'chlorophyll. Sweet potato leaves were often cooked and eaten. These

icould provide a better source of provitamin A than the potatoes. The

!major role of sweet potatoes in the diet would be for human energy.

BREADFRUIT ( 'ulu)

Breadfruit is another staple introduced into Polynesia from

!:rvta.laysia. The scientific name for the species is AY•tocarpus incisa and

,it reproduces itself by means of a sucker growing from the parent root.

The tree grows large, with a distinctive dark green, glossy leaf, pro-

!clueing a fruit larger than a grapefruit, Hith a leathery reticulate

;rind; small stringy core, and a la1~ge mass of starchy edible material, 24

Figure 5.

2.

4. 5. 8. 9.

1. Fruit ( 'ulu) 2. Male flower (ule 'ulu poule) 3. Leaf or flower sheath (malo) 4. Rind (ili) 5. G1,.1m on ripened rind (kepau) 6. Rough markings on skin ('opakapaka) 7. Stem (kuau 'ulu) 8. Flesh ('i'o) 9. Core (pikoi, iho, br 'ikoi)

BREADFRUIT J?LANT 25

which is ready to be picked when the gum on the ski~\ and the skin it- iself turn brown. The fruit is seedless. i This is the legendary object of the voyage of the ill-fated

H.M.S. Bounty under Captain Bligh. Breadfruit never enjoyed the

'popularity in Hawaii it had in tropical Polynesia: it is the main . i

staple in the Marquesas, from where its use was originally disseminated.!

)Preferri?g a warmer climate, breadfruit finds limited areas for·culti- lvation in the Hawaiian Islands and enjoys a shorter season.

Breadfruit can be made int~ poi, as is done in Tahiti, but the '

:Hawaiians felt that breadfruit poi was.-. "gaseous" and not as filling as \ .poi made from taro. It is essentially a carbohydrate, low in protein ! ;and fat. It was eaten" either half-ripe or ripe, after baking in the imu

;or directly in hot coals.

Breadfruit is a poor source of ascorbic acid, a fair source of

vitamin A, and a good source of thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin. How-

ever, it was not eaten in as large amounts as was poi, and therefore

'had limited dietary contributions (6, 12).

YA>vJ:

There were three plants referred to as yams that were intro- • ' ' )duced by the ancient Polynesian settlers: uhi- hoi, and pi'a. The uhi,: i

\Diosaorea alata3 was the cultivated yam (Figure 4); hoi- Diosaorea

;bulbifera- was a wild, prolific yam with a bitter taste; pi'a-

!Diosaorea pentaphylla3 is arrowroot, probably never cultivated, but

found growing \vild in all parts of the :i.sl:;mds.

i L. 26

Figure 4.

3. 4. 5.

1. Vine (ka) 2. Flower (pua) 3. Skin ( 'ili) 4. Flesh ('i'o) 5. Core (iho)

YAlvJ. PLANT 27 I The cultivated yams were preferred by later ~isi ting sailors,

\ and used mainly for trade (6). Little information is recorded on

these, and the vegetables are not cultivated nor eaten today.

Arrowroot originally came from Southern Asia. In the Hawaiian

:Islands, ·it grew wild in and on the fringes of lower forest zones.

Seeds are produced but not used for planting. This plant was ori-

ginally grown from cuttings upon introduc.tion. The tuber is mature

when the leaves yellow and wither, the bulb-like root is then grated

and soaked in a bowl of fresh water. When the starchy pulp settled to

the bottom, the water was poured off, .f.nd fresh water added. This was

repeated until the starch lost its "bitterness. It was then wrapped in

ti leaves and steamed in the imu with other foods. It could be patted

and pressed into small cakes, which after being dried in the sun, could'

be stored, thus becoming one of the most important sources of energy in'

times of famine. "Haupia" is a pudding, a treat, made by mixing pi'a

with c~conut cream and steaming or by mixing coconut cream with pi'a in

a calabash. Redhot stones were dropped in, thus cooking the starch to

the desired thickness. The properties of arrmvroot closely resemble

those of cornstarch, and that is used in preparing haupia today.

SUGAR CANE (ko)

Sugar cane (Saccharum officianu~) was introduced into Polynesia

:from southern Asia or Malaysia. It -.;v-as cultivated in small clumps

,around the Hawaiian homestead, but not for the purpose of w..aking sugar. ' It was chewed for pleasure, believed to aid in the development of the

.teeth and jm·:s. Sugar cane juice v.Jaf:l widely used in the preparation of 28

medicinal concoctions (made of ordinary foodstuffs \)mbined ~vith herbs,

\ taken internally) or che\ved after taking an unpalatable medicine. The

cane stalks were placed on a fire and heated, pounded or chewed to

soften and break d0\~1 the fibers, then the juice was squeezed out with

the hands. As this was a long, tedious process, it is doubtful that

the Hawaiians consumed much sugar, as measured by the amount grown

around a hut. The syrup that was formed was given to babies only a few

weeks old as food. On a long journey, or in times of drought or famine,'

a piece of the stalk was chewed to relieve the gnawing pangs of hunger.; ! Sugar cane served as a sweet between ...meals, being especially liked by children (6).

While devoid of vitamins, it provided a relatively high content

of easily-assimilated carbohydrate.

Of the many varieties known to the Hawaiians, the only one

, grown now is the "lahaina", from Tahiti. The Hawaiian Sugar Planters

I 1 Association tries to preserve old varieties for breeding purposes.

COCO~TUT (niu)

Coconut trees arrived in Polynesia frou Halaysia, but did not

enjoy the popularity in Hawaii as in other parts of Polynesia, due to

'the cooler semi-tropical climate in the islands a little too far to

! the north. The scientific name is Cocos nuc-ifera. Coconuts vJere not

'used as food, other than for feast desserts, as in haupia, or in

'kulolo, in •-

make a pudding. -Sometimes the grated meat was mixed with bananas, or 29

half-ripe, the meat is pliable and jelly-like, and ~~e liquid is plen­ \ tiful. This liquid is called coconut milk. When the nut is fully

ripe, the meat is solid and the liquid less in quantity. Coconut cream

is the term used for the rich liquid expressed from the grated mature

meat.

There were uses for the plant other than for eating, although

many were connnected wi·th food. The swelling base of the trunk ·of the

tree was cut into food containers; the fibrous sheath at the base of

the leaf stalk was used as a wrapper for bundles of food or for fish bait; the leaf stalk served for beating... or pounding the banks of taro beds; and the shells were used for·bowls for food or cups for

drinking (6).

Coconut is a poor source of vitamins, chief benefits lying in

the liquid content and in supplying fat in a diet.

CANDLE\\TUT (kukui)

The Candlenut tree (Aleauites moluccarza) is assumed to be one

f of the few endemic plants found in Hawaii. There are no native tra- ! i ditions concerning its introduction as with other plants that were

brought in by early settlers, yet the nuts are not resistant to water

and therefore could not have been carried by ocean currents, and are

too large to be swallowed by birds and carried to Hm.;aii for deposit in·

excreta. The disseminat.ion on the islands is mostly due to the at-

traction it held for wild hogs, \'Jho fed on the rich oily kernel.

Kukui nut meat was and is used only as a relish in the food

category. The nuts are roasted in-hot ashes, the kernals removed and j 30 f mixed with Hawaiian salt. This is a highly prized ~ticle of seasoning

!to the natives for use with fish and poi. The plant has many other i .uses. The gum of the tree was chewed by children, and this same gum

; was used for glue. The oil and meat of the nut were used medicinally. 1 ! ; !The brown pigment was used as a dye for fishnets or on canoes, and also ! !for tattooing. The nuts were strung on the rib of a palm leaf and t jburned as torches or for use as heat. The polished nuts were etrung ito make handsome ornaments of attire. One particularly interesting use iwas in fishing: the fishermen would chew the meat to extract the oil, I ; lwhich was then spat on the surface of the water in order to clear the ..... :view below the surface for spotting fish below.

Kukui wood alas made good house timbers, and was excellent as ifuel for starting the imu (6).

TI (ki)

This lovely shrub, Cordyline terminalis Kth., also had many ' •uses (Figure 6). The· tuberous saccharine root, when cut into suitable

pieces, steamed in the imu, and chewed, was a favorite sweet. During ifi am1ne, . large quantities of the root were steamed, grated, mashed,

!mixed with water, and drunk as a liquid. Bundles of leaves v7ere used ' .overi the imu during the cooking to keep in the heat and to protect the

;food from contamination. Packages were made of the leaves, including

the "lau lau" (see figure 10) mentioned previously. I 31 ( Figure 6. \

1. 3.

, .. :~ :.;.- - 4. •,. • •f

. :_I 5 • .-:~

1. Leaf (lau-ki, la-ki, or Za'i) 2. Leaf bud (mu'o) 3. Blossom (pua ki) 4. Stalk ('au) 5. Root (mole)

'I'I PLAN'I' 32

FRUITS

BANANA (maia)

The native banana, MUsa sapientum L.~ is also an ancient plant,

!said to have originated in India. Early colonists brought roots for iplanting, although one wild variety produces fertile seed, and there­ ! ifore it is possible that this plant was growing when the Hawaiians reached the islands, having been originally distributed there by birds in flight. At the time of the first European visitation of Hawaii,

Jthere were fifty known varieties. ... In ordinary times, bananaq .were not a staple but a delicacy, land were reserved for the ali'i. Some varieties had to be cooked to be

!edible, and these were roasted over hot coals or in the embers.

At weaning time, babies were offered bananas. If the child

; Jrefused to eat the fruit, weaning was postponed (21).

Banana leaves were also used in the imu, in the same manner as

;ti leaves. While nutrient content is noted in the chart, bananas were i jnot eaten in a quantity to be dietetically important in nutrient con- tribution. When half-ripe, one half to one third of the carbohydrate

:may be in the form of starch, causing digestive disturbanc·es. When

!fully ripe, almost all the carbohydrate is in the form of sugars, and i i ;readily disgested (18).

MOUNTAIN APPLE (ohia ai)

Scientifically knmm as Ja:rnbosa maZaccensis (Linn.)~ this beau- tiful plant was endemic, like the kukui nut tree, deriving from the 33

Indonesian area. The tree grovlS from t•.;enty to thil."~~Y feet high, tvith

\ ja profusion of bright red blossoms that give place to an equally at-

!tractive' red fruit. The fruit is about two inches long, ovoid, the

]flesh is white, the flavor slightly saccharine. The fruit contains two

' !large brown seeds. It is a poor to fair source of vitamins and mineralsl i

: (18).

OHELO BERRY

The ohelo (Vaooinium retiouZatim) belongs to the cranberry

,family, and is also an endemic plant, distinctive of the uplands as the '

'mountain apple is of the valleys. \mile it is used to make jam a:nd

elly now, it was eaten raw by the early Hawaiians, and provided a poor to fair source of vitamins (18).

PINEAPPLE (hala ai)

Some elderly Hmvaiians consider the pineapple to be indigenous to Hawaii. The fact that pineapple plants have been reported as still

;growing in various once-populated valleys seems to be evidence that the

Hawaiians did cultivate them around their houses. Each of the small ihexagonal sections seen on the rind of the fruit actually represents a

'botancially individual fruit, so pineapple is actually a collection of

.frui..ts.

The nutrients shown on the chart are of the modern fruit, vlhich

.has been developed to contain larger amounts of ascorbic ad.d. No starch is sto·ced in the fruit, therefore it ·vlill not increase in m.;eet- ness after it has.been harvested, the sugars are formed in the leaves of the pJ;omt an§ transferred to the fruit (18). 34 The scien tif ic names is llruzru:rs como sus. \ ANIMALS EATEN AS FOOD iHog (pua' a)

Hogs are everywhere in Polynesia as part of sustinence, and ' ;werei brought into Polynesia from Southeast Asia, where they play an ! I !important: part in native life, except where Hinduist, Buddhist, ·or i ' ;Mohammedist dietary restrictions exist.

Pigs were raised as domestic animals. There is no record of ithe characteristics, but through ancient chants it is discerned that .~ !there were many varieties. Domestic hogs were fed on scraps of taro, sweet potato, yam, banana, and breadfruit. Tney were allowed to run

!about until of the size to be fattened, and then were penned up. The lwild hogs in the uplands ate kuktii nuts, mountain apples,. seeds, roots,

:and parts of various ferns. They were also allm~1ed to help themselves

;from cultivated sweet potato plots. Presumably they were hunted with ispears. The wild boar's tusks grew very long, and after the animal was

;hunted and killed, the tusks were made into ornaments of attire. Ex-

I amples can be seen today at Hawaiians formal functions, worn ~n women's ~ ·• . ;govms.

Figures given in the chart are current, presumably the values

I 'are more or less equal to the old stock. Other data is unavailable as

,no analyses vJere made before the arrival of foreigners.

As stated before, pig was mostly enjoyed by the ruling class

'except for an occasional feast. Even the right to hunt wild boar was

:restricted to the ali 1 i' s discretion (6). The ·pig tvas cleaned and 35

gutted after it 1\las killed, then rubbed vrith calt diot s•-on'-'s were v • \ L

to steam for hours.

Pork is still preferred today by the Hawaiians over beef, and i this may .account in part for the ready acceptance of Chinese food in the ! lislands, as the Chinese also were not beef eaters. lnog (' ilJ.o)

Dogs were brought into Polynesia along the same route as hogs, !' !probably even before, as to the Maori people, pig is unkno~n1. Some

!dogs were raised as pets for a child •. -. There are even. stories that the

!dog was suckled by a woman, as there are stories about women suckling piglets, however, Mrs. Pukui states that this custom was limited to in- stances where the puppy was raised as the child's close companion.

The dogs that were raised as food have been described as fol- lows: "It was long-bodied, short-legged, of the terrier type. The

!large ears were held erect, the tail carried in an upward curve. The

'coat has been said to be white and pale yellow. The forelegs were

'bandied, very commonly one leg was bent more than the other." The

'skull was shorter and rounder, due to the soft diet of poi used to fat-;

~ 'ten the dog for eating.

Dog was cooked in the same way as hogs. Unfortunately, no nutrient content has been recorded. It is assumed that the dog ~vas a source of protein,. and \vas subjected to the same "kapu" as hog. That they were raised and nurtured in such large numbers can be attributed to the fact that they vlere considered a prime article of diet, prized by the rulers, __ ;Jnd e:very\vhe.rE; rr:_g(lJ:"<:l~d as a_ ~P':_c;ia:~ luxury for great I 36 { feasts. Numbers prepared for feasts have been wTitt\\n about by early

\explorers and missionaries, and the author remembers that dogs Here

!prepared for feasts as late as the 1930s. The numbers used as food can I !also be judged by the amount of ornaments in the Bishop Museum made I :from the teeth of dogs prepared for food. Only the long canine teeth i ;were used for the purpose of adornment, as can be seen at the Bishop ' ' ijMuseum.

' !Chicken (moa)

The chicken was introduced into Polynesia via Malaysia, and

I ~ 'then in,to Hawaii along with the vegetation and animals already men-

jtioned. Chickens were not as large a supplier of protein as was sea-

:food for the commoner, and the Hawaiians never ate eggs, for to do so

1'1:vas considered as eating the "life" (6). Probably chicken was less

'esteemed as a food item because, after steaming in the imu, it has less '

flavor for eating with the bland poi than does fish.

Wild Fowl

Wild chickens were eaten, as well as. other \vild birds: the

!honeysucker, the black honey-creeper,' plover, ravens, goose, and others.:'

1In or:der to catch wild birds, the Hawaiians used a net,~ peited the

:birds with stones, or would smear a branch with gum from the breadfruit

:tree.' The wild bird landing on the gum would become ensnared and

.quickly caught by hand. Because of the amount of labor involved in

'eapturing wild birds, they were never an important food item in the

:c.let'1. f6), • I ' 37

Seafood

Fishing ranked second to taro cultivation as a way of life for

the ancient Hawaiians. Most fishing was done on the leeward side of

!the islands, and the reefs were used as fishing zones. There is only

:on barrier reef in the islands, a small one in Kaneohe Bay on the wind-

;ward side of the island of Oahu; the remainder of the reefs are clas-

sified as discontinuous. fringing type (6). The maximum depth of fish-

.ing waters was 1,200 feet, providing roughly 1,000 square miles of

fishing area.

Fishing was an art and it \vas enjoyed not only as a means of .... ,providing food but as a recrBation as well. Almost every conceivable

! ;method was used in catching. Seafood was caught by hand; the items fsought included shellfish, octopus, crab, lobster, eel, sea urchin, sea;I I

1cucumber, and shrimp. Other methods used were snaring, spearing,

'poisoning, netting, basket catching, hooking and luring. The spears i !used were six fe.et long and made of hardvmod (Halo, 1903). A low-

:growing, woody-stemmed herb called "auhuhu" was found which contained

:a toxic poison that stunned fish but did not poison the meat, leaving

'the meat reliable for eating. Baskets were used by women, who placed

!shrimp, seaweed, ripe breadfruit, or cooked sweet potato \vithin as bait. i ;Nets and fishing lines were made from a plant that grew native in

:Hawaii - the olona. Properly cured and prepared, the fiber had great

'tensile strength and- did not kiTJ,k. It lasted long, ho\vever used) and was resistant to damage by moisture. Hawaiian men -v1ere masters of the

thrnw net, which is still used today. A very long net was also used.

This' \·Ws spread in a large. circle f1ear the shore. T:i leaves \vere tied 38

to this net along the top of the net to frighten and impel the fish

!toward the shore. The two ends of the net were then pulled ashore by

:the efforts of many people and the fish caught thus were divided among

:all who helped. The Hawaiian vmrd for this method is "huki lau". A

:feast right on the site followed_ the fishing activities. Fishing was

ialso carried out at night. The fishermen would swim out, or canoe out,

:to the reef, where they could walk ankle deep in water, carrying a

:kukui nut torch that mesmerized the fish, who were then caught easily

:by hand or speared.

The following list states the most popular fish utilized as

food; Hawaiian name, popular name, and scientific name:

Hawaiian Name Connnon Name Scientific Name

'Ahi yellow-fin tuna Neothunnus macopterus _Aholehole albacore Thwnas germo .Ak.u tuna Thunnus Thynnus ·Akule scad Trachurops crwnenophthaZ.rnus !Anae mullet MugiZ.idae :Au marlin Makaira !Awa milkfish Chano s c hanos :Humuhumu trigger fish Balestoidei 'Kahala amberjack Seriola Ialan.d-z: •Kaku barracuda Sphyraena Nahimahi dolphin Coryphaena hippLwus }1anini (and Palani) surgeon Acanthuroidei .Malolo fJ:ying fish Oxyporhamphus micropterus ·o'io bone fish AlbuZ.a Vulpes iapelu mackeral Deeaptel~us Pinnulatus iOpakapaka snapper Latjanidae !Puhi eel· Muraenidae 'Uhu parrot fish Scardae ·'Ulua jack fish CCll~agoides ajax Snyder ·!Hake (and Kumu) goatfish Sr;:ardae

Other edible foods obtained from the sea include the sea

!urchin (vana), turtle E'ea), octopus (he'e), the Hawaiian oyster

' (pipihi), the Hawaiian limpet (opihi), fresh -.:...rater shrimp (opa 1 e), and

: se;;r,.;reeds (limu kohLt, _~i_Dltl_ (:1(! ele, and }:L~1u_}_ipo~). ___ The viscera of 39

·fish and shellfish Here eaten, vlhich added nutrients to the diet and

supplied a valuable source of vitamin A. The bones of the fish sup-

plied the Hawaiians with calcium and phosphorus (ten to fifteen times

'more phosphorus than taro). Often fish were eaten raw, flavored with

i ·sea water or with limu, on the spot as they were caught, and octopus,

i :opihi, and sea urchin were always consumed raw. The fish that was left :

iover from a large catch were salted to preserve the flesh for future

meals, and the Hawaiians began to prefer the flavor of the flesh pre-

'pared in this manner.

Seaweed, limu, did not take the place of vegetables in the diet,:

'but was used more as a relish, to flavor other foods or to add a spicy,

)aromatic flavor that would greatly add to the palatability of the some-

what monotonous blandness of poi. The protein content of limu is from

ifour to eight percent, and carbohydrates from twenty-four to fifty-five:

:percent. The carbohydrates that algae contain are chiefly hemicel-

luloses that yield pentoses and galactose on hydrolysis. As man pos-

.sesses no enzymes that can break down these polysaccharides, they are

:not disgested, and therefore limu provides crude fiber which would ; 'serve a useful purpdse in preventing constipation. The iodine. content is not of importance, due to the large amounts of sea salt and fish

that were consumed, providing a mor~ reliable source of this element.

The opihi was, and still is today, one of the favorite foods of

the Hawaiians, although presently in short supply due to environmental

:conditions. Only tVJo varieties have scientific names, Helaioniscus ie1>aravus Nuttall and .H. Jl:egentabs Bowerby.} based on shell shape.

~Formerly, opih:i. abounded in Ha\va:Lian ;..;aters year round. They were 40

Table 3

ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID CONTENT

Mg. amino acid per 16 mg. of nitrogen

Egg }fulii Pro- FAO. Fish in Amino Acid Ulua Ahi rna hi Aku tein prov. General

Threonine 2.91 2.69 2. 71 2.78 5.0 2.8 2.0 - 8.1 Valine 8.59 9.43 9.75 9.33 7.4 4.2 4.0 - 7.8 Methionine 2.69 2.54 2.46 2.37 3.1 2.2 1.4 - 4.4 Isoleucine 3.80 3.46 3.74 4.04 6.8· 4.2 2.6 - 7.6 Leucine 4.69 4.45 4.54 4.00 9.0 4.8 4.1 - 12.5 Phenylalanine. 3.01 2.25 2.34 2.80 6.0 2.8 1.7 4.6 Lysine 8.55 8.46 8.90 8.41 6.3 4.2 6.4 - 14.4 Tryptophan 1.54 1.71 1.14 1.14 1.7 1.4 0.4 4.6

NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID CONTENT

Mg./16 mg. nitrogen

Mahi· Fish in Amino Acid Ulua Ahi Aku mahi General

Histidine 2.84 3.32 2.45 2. 70' 1.2- 6.2 Alanine 3.49 2. 77 3.13 2.94 5.1 - 7.0 _Glycine 2.85 2.59 2.34 2.18 4.3 - 7.4 Proline 2.32 2.54 2.47 2.53 4.2 - 6.0 Glutamic Acid 10.54 10.03 12.12 6.0 - 20.2

Chart Showing essential and non-essential Amino Acid content of four of the most popular fish ·eaten in Hmvaii (24). 41

•found near the shore, and could be eaten by all classes of people. The

.soft parts of the opihi, which contain larger amounts of fat, calcium,

;phosphorus, and iron than the hard parts (foot and mantle), were mixed

.with poi and constituted one of the first solid foods for infants in

the old days, along with mother's milk. The shellfish was also useful

as a travel food - shells have been found in caves on the slopes of

:~illuna Kea recently in bubble caves at an elevation of 12,500 feet, in

!Maunaloa, and in the crater of Haleakala on the island of Maui.

The percent of protein found in opihi is greater than that ifound in clams, far greater than found in oysters or mussels, with less

than two percent fat. Compared to Glams, they are a better source of

.calcium, phosphorus, and iron, although smaller in copper; and they are

'a good source of iodine and riboflavin, the latter comparable to lean i ;beef and v7hole eggs (16). 1 It is interesting to note that, although opihi grow in shallow

waters and are exposed to sunlight, they are a poor source of vitamin D.

;It appears, therefore, that they are unable to synthesize vitamin D.

The Ha,.;raiians -.;v-ere quite adept at "fish farming", cultivating

•fish in the shallow poinds formed by holes in rocks along the shore,

'and also constructed by piling small stones to form enclosures: In

:high tide, the sea would bring in an added bounty of larger fish, which .

:were stranded when the tide went out.

}Iullet were found to be able to live in the shallow, muddy

ponds that produced "wet" taro. No doubt, this was first discovered by

:accident: mullet were placed in the Hater for fresh-keeping, and

thrived, thus supplying the Ha>-miians with a ready food supply. /... ·········· Fish protein is 85 95 percent digestible.\ Table 4 shows four \ j of the most popular Ha\vaiian fish -vli th essential amino acid composition

jand non-essential amino acid content. These tested out comparable to

! (forty-two fish found in North American waters.

Salt was another item obtained from the sea. Shallow pans,

!lined with clay, were constructed along the shore near the high water

rline. Coarse salt crystals remained in the pans as the tide receded, i' 1 These crystals were mixed with minerals from the cliffs (mostly iron) i ;called ala'e, which colored the salt crystals red and provided added

i !minerals in small quantities to the diet. In the use of sea water for ! ~ !flavoring and cooking, the Hawaiians had a source of fluorine.

DRINKS

The Hawaiians did not dr~nk liquids, except for water. After

weaning, no milk was consumed, as they did not have dairy animals.

:strangely enough, there are no known cases of lactase deficiency due to·

1this fact, as in the Orientals, and Hawaiians today readily accept milk•

:and dairy products into their diets. The coconut was not a source of

liquid in the diet, but was used as a safe water supply when fresh

water was not available. The Hawaiians did not store water, but

gathered it fresh from underground springs as needed.

The only alcoholic beverage that v7as in use in ancient Hawaii

was awa. This was made from the giant pepper plant, cal1ed kavm, found

throughout Polynesia. It is strictly an Oceanic plant, \vhose place of

origin i.s unknown. Apparently the drinking of mva was not restricted

to the ali'i, but.was common ever:;vhere, being used principally as a

parco:t:ic_ to induce relax(j_t:i.on and J?!:Ornot:e sleep.. It had ceremon:Lal 43

l~~-! uses, and was also used as a curative4 The distinc'tion among the dif- \ ferent classes relates more to its uses by each class rather than its

restriction. The ali'i drank it for pleasure, the kahuna class used it i ' :ceremonially, and the working class for relaxation after labor. i The following is a quote from Mary Pukui:

ashes mixed with water. Then enough root to make a small ball in the

! ~outh was chewed for a long time, taken out with the fingers and put in 'a bmvl. This was repeated until there... was sufficient chewed fiber for 1the quantity desired. Water. was a.d.ded. Sometimes, for chiefs, the 1 :liquid of the coconut was used thus making one of the first "cocktails".

~ bundle of fiber (a sedge) was dropped in and turned round and round

:clockwise, while pressing down to.· catch up the fibers. The sedge was

then tucked down all around the inside of the bowl with the fingers

of both hands, closed in, lifted up, and squeezed. Then the fibers were.

'shaken out, and the sedge, formed into a funnel-shaped nest with a little depression in the center, held over the cup while the 'awa was ' poured through it into the cup. The drinker took his cup outside, dip-

ped his right index finger in three or five times, eacbtime passing his ' i hand back over his right shoulder and flipping the drops of 'awa up and

backward. \mile doing this a prayer was offered to the family gods,

'"Here is food for the gods," with whatever requests the drinker had in

:mind. He then came back into his house and sat and drank his 'mva,

'topped off with a sweet banana or a stock of sugar cane to take the ------.. ·- ...... ' ~·------·------Table 4

NUTRITIVE VALUES OF SPECIFIC TYPES

wt. Iapprox. I Cal- I Prot. Fat ICHO ICa I P Fe V I T A M I N S Food ~s. measure ories I gm. gm. gm. mg. mg. mg. A I Thiamin Ribo- Nia- Ascorbic meg. flavin cin Acid I I.U. I meg. mg. mg. Hullet-raw hoo t fillet I 90 o- ~Opihi jlOO 23 large 21 0 :shrimp-rmv 1100 '6 to 8 I 84 17.9 .8 .1 63 1166 ·1.6 60 50 140 2.2 0 Squid-raw I 48 1 squid I 35 7. 8 • 2 12 84 • 2 10 58 . 7 a- Banana !lcio t cup I 89 1.3 .2 23.1 . 4 20 · .2 150 26 38 .6 6 8 _ r~~!~it bJ ~~~ed I 134 I 1.4 I .. 3131.71 241 67 I .i ! 261 109 I 56 !1.3 I 10 ; :lo~~~~!n ~00 ~r~its 30 j .3 :1 7.81 _ 7 13 I .4 0 29 36 -~ _:_!!_·L--::{~:.00 z .cup 67 l .6 .1 16.0 11 22 .4 o 42 15 ·-4---:~-·-·- 2'.:!~ves k?O . ~ ~~~~ 53 I 5. 4 1.1 8. 6 134 116 1. 8 5688 230 464 1. 6 :;---~~---- ,Coconut .~.00 _1 ~~Pd 306 I 2.9 29.6 11.9 18 84 1.7 0 27 trace .6 · 0 ' 11 ~':Y.... e 1 ~ -·- :s·~;eet!_~o 1 small I. 141 2 1 33 40 58 0.9 8100 9 .07 . 7 22 ;~ork 1100 I I 374 1·23 _31___ ~,_10 1139 3.0 0 0.54 0.25 4.8 0 --!

~ .l ~ 45

bitter taste mvay. He then ate sparingly of v.'arm food and soon slept

,peacefully.''

NEDICI~'ES Ai'ID REMEDIES

'Awa was used medicinally, for congestion in the urinary tract,

rheumatism, asthma, and obesity. Hany of the food plants were used

'medicinally: oil from the kukui nut was used as a purgative; syrup

:from sugar cane was used as an energy food during the times of weakness

much as glucose is used today. The tightly furled new leaf of the ti

plant was chewed and the juice swallowed to relieve a tight, dry cough.

,Ti leaves were placed on the body and head to reduce fever, the main

;beneficial result was due to the coolness of the fresh leaf reducing i ;body heat. The 'olena (turmeric) was used solely for medicine and not

:as a spice? such as is done today.

Plants Yrith other uses were also subjected to use as medicine.

The hau, a large-leafed shrub raised for use as wood, was used as a

!laxative. The popolo (meaning "black")· berry, the deadly "nightshade"

plant of the continent >vhich was made into Belladonna, was benign in

the tropics, and the berries were eaten right off the bushes, the leaves I

~ere used as a green vegetable or as a medicine to heal cuts and

; bruises. The juice from the shiny, black berries was used for eye

drops.

Some plants \vere used only as curatives. The vlild tree fern,

called "hapuu", which today is a landscaping item \¥as dried, powdered,

and used to help those on a reducing spell. A swamp reed, called

11 ·"akaakai naku • \•laS mixed with other i!lgreclients to cure internal • 46

1 ,hemorrhage of the intestines (ulcers). "K• a ' o. k o a~\1 ~"' ' ~ ca 11ec 1 th· e

:native Hawaiian tea, bre>ved for use as a tonic. "Pau-kala", or

Hawaiian prickly poppy, bears a round black seed that was used as an

analgesic. The "ohi'a-lehua" was prescribed as a tonic to stimulate

the appetite of a debilitated child. "Lau-kahi", a native broad-leafed:

plantain, was used internally for diabetes; coconut water was also used '

for diabetes.

So it would seem that, without medical knowledge, the Hawaiians,

were able to treat illness and disease among them, much as other primi- : tive races have, unknowingly discovering... and using drugs that are found to have value by modern scientists.. So free were they from devastating

disease that when the 1vhite visitors brought in measles and other

simple childhood diseases, the Hawaiians died from these illnesses in

great numbers.

UTENSILS AND IMPLEMENTS

The Hawaiians lived completely without the use of any type of

:metal, and also were not acquainted with the plants or animals that make'

:fibers for cloth. For cloth, the bark of the paper mulberry tree was ipounded.into sheets, then decorated with earth-tone dyes,.. to make "tapa". Tapa was used for clothing and for bed sheets. For uses other :

than these, the Hawaiians used the large, glossy, dark-green leaves of

'the ti plant.

Planting implements consisted of u digging stick to make a hole

for the plant to occupy, and shells for handheld hoes or spades for

weeding. Usu.ally_weeding and cultivating uas done by hand and often 47 Figure 7. \

Top: POI POUNDERS Bottom: PREPl\.PJ-'>.TION OF POI 48

. by foot; the Ha\vaiians Here very adapt in using their bare feet and

:toes in this fashion.

One of the few plants that can be seed-cultivated that was

!brought by the Hawaiian voyagers was the bottle gourd, Lagenaria

:siceraria., called "ipu" by the .Bawaiians. There were cultivated to

.make holding utensils of all sorts (Figure 8). Those with a bulbous

'base and a long, thin neck were used as water containers during a long

.voyage. The ipu nui, or large gourd, was used &s a "suitcase" when

:travelling, or to hold the large nets of fishermen between uses. Very

·small gourds v7ere used as cups and as individual poi containers for

·babies. A squatty-shaped gourd was used for meat or for fish con-

:tainers. Hawaiian gourds were sometimes decorated by engraving a

'design by hand on the outside surface. They were suspended in nets for·

,storage. Large containers had lids, which were sometimes hinged with

;two cords attached through holes.

Wood was used for many items that other countries made from

·metal or ceramic clay. The most desirable wood.for bowl making came

• from the kou tree. Other v70ods were kamani, milo, and occasionally

:coconut.' Only in Hawaii were bowls, called "umeke", made deep- other

/Polynesians did not make poi.

To make bo;.lls, a block of ·wood >vas hollowed with stone chisels,

;then fired to burn out the inside central section. Hhen carving was completed, the bowl ~vas 11 seasoned" by soaking it in sea \vater, and then poi r.vas allowed to ferment in it for a period of time. The exterior of the bowl '\vas then smoothed and polished Hith bainboo leaves and kukui nut oil in order to waterproof the article. Great care •vas taken of 49

I! Figure 8. \ \

....

CALABASHES AND BOWLS ) 50 Hooclen bm-ds, for they v1ere considered aesthetic as. 1vell as practicaL \ After eating, the bowls were soaked in a spring separate from the one used for obtaining drinking water. If a wooden bowl cracked, it was not thrown away, but repaired. These were considered equally as good as undamaged bowls. Wooden platters were also made and used, some in- eluded a separate compartment for slat. Some platters had carved sup- ports. Bowls were also. used for holding refuse of meals - 11 garbage".

The poi board, on which the pai 1 ai was beaten to obtain poi, was; ' made of the wood of the ohi 1 a-lehua tree (see MEDICINES AND RE~lliD1ES).

The board was five to six inches deep, twenty-four to thirty inches ... wide, and three to six feet .long. Poi pounders were ·usually made of porous rock, although there are examples of wooden and ivory pounders in the Bishop Museum (see figure 7), possibly for the ali 1 i. There are · instances on the island of Kauai.'where women pounded poi using a stirrup-shaped pounder, but only on this island.

Utensils were made with which to eat, and food was eaten with the fingers. Hmvever, fingerbowls, called "ipu holoi lima", were carved to clean the hands during meals, with inner projections to scrape poi off of the fingers (see figure 8).

Coconut shells were cut in half with a shark 1 s.tooth and polished to use as cups, for water or for awa. Wooden bowls were also

awa, for the ali'i these included elaborately imaginative representations of human figures in the design, and were studded with

teeth of animals.

The coconut was husked by hitting it on a pointed rock set in

g1."0'.md until ·the husk vms loosened an.d coutd be peeled off by hand. 51

Figure 9.

THE IHU

(_ __ 52 J { ·Cooking utensils >vere shell scrape-rs and stirrers, \ooden mixing sticks

and taro knives, and funnels made of two gourds fitted together.

A stone pestle and wooden mortar were used to grind bait for

fishing. Two types of fish hooks were made: one-piece and two-piece,

usually from bone, human, bird, pig, or dog teeth, pearl or turtle

shell. I

COOKING METHODS

As the Hawaiians had no metals, it was not possible for them to

!make pots or pans with which to cook.

The most. common method of coo'l~ing was in an nimu", or earth

over (Figure 9). This cooking process was a combination of roasting

:and steaming, called "kalua". The imu consisted of a shallovl depres-

!sion in the ground in which a fire was built, using dried coconut

;fronds and pieces of soft wood from the hau shrub. Volcanic rock could:

:be used as it is porous and tempered by heat; other stones would explode

:in the fire. As soon as the stones became red-hot, wet grass and leaves

.were spread over the stones to prevent the food from scorching. The

!food, pig, dog, fish, bundles of "lau lau" (Figure 10), were placed in

the imu. These were then covered with ginger or banana leaves, finally:

the leaves were covered with mates, and old tapa, and the earth re-

:turned over all. A bamboo tube could be inserted to allow for the ad- idition of water to create steam. Food cooked in this manner took many

!hours, particularly if a pig or dog were included. l

:extracted by uncovering the imu, it was alloHed to c.ool before being

served. Sometimes pigs were salted and filled with hot rocks, v..rrapped 53

Figure 10 .

......

LAU I.... A.U WRAPPING :in old tapa cloth, and left on a poi board for 48 hours as another way

!of cooking. The meat was then eaten from the inside, as the Hawaiians

never ate raw meat. Another method of cooking was to place meat and/or

greens, or sweet potato in a wooden calabash and adding enough water to

:cover. Small stones were heat~d and dropped into the calabash, causing; ithe water to boil. Usually the stones had to be added more than once. ' !In this way the food was stewed to cook it.

Another style of cooking was to broil the food directly in the

hot coals. Breadfruit and banana were broiled in the skins, while

other foods were wrapped in ti leaves for broiling.

Leftover meat was made into lau laus, or boiled (see above) for

;the next meal. Fish was always preserved by salting and sun-drying.

FOOD CUSTONS

1bere were many taboos prevalent in olden days. As has been

. discussed, only the ali'i ate pig and dog regularly, commoners only

Jusing it at a feast. Certain foods were forbidden to women, these i foods being pork, bananas, coconut, ulua (fish), shark, turtle, mahi

· ~ahi (propoise), \vhale, sting ray. If these taboos were violated, the

penalty was death. Men ate separately from women and children, but the

:men were responsible for building the ovens and cooking the food for

:all. This custom vlas abolished in 1819, when Kamehameha II, at a

: great feast, arose from his table and sat dov.'Il to eat at the women's

table. This resulted in the abolishment of all taboos.

There were also kapu in relation to fishing. Certain districts

• \vere restricted; some sections \.;ere reserved for the ali' i. Hhen 55

'fishermen went out, all talking Has forbidden. Homen were forbidden ito fish in deep waters, but could catch shellfish, salt, or seatveed

along the shore, and shrimp in the streams. Even today, few women fish

;in Hawaii, and never with a throw net. Men made the fish nets and

·women could make only the lines •. Women were forbidden to plant taro

but could plant sweet potatoes. Certain taro was r~served only for the ipoi of the ali'i, that which had a rich purple color. During menses,

:a woman must remain out of contact with menfolk;. her food was brought

'and fed to her by a woman during this time.

Food was sacrificed to the gods for a plentiful season, at a

"heiau", or alter. There is a shrine on the lower slopes of Mauna Loa

called "Haiau Ho'o-ulu-ulu-'ai", the shrine for increasing food.

Prayers \vere said before every meal, and food that was prayed over must.

be finished at that sitting.

"Ohana", the term for kin, is a figure of speech essentially

;relating to the growing of taro. When a taro sprouts, that sprout has

'the name of "'oha". 'Ohana, then, means literally offshoots of the

:t;aro plant, and as applied to human beings, means "offspring of common i stock". A parent taro is referred to as the nmakua'' and this word also

:means a human parent. "Palili" refers to the tender shoots of' the taro: ' ! corm that grow to be "' oha"; and p·alili also means descendants. l : "Kupuna", the word for grandparents or ancestors, comes from the word

!nkupu", meaning nto grow". In a taro plant, the leaves represented the' isky, and poi, from the corms, represented earth.

The \vord 11 puJe" means prayer. "Ai" means "to eat", as in

. pai' ai. Aina means farmland. 56

Bananas, w·hen carried on a trip, meant bad luck.

Pregnant women are forbidden to eat extra salt.

As some men were taro planters and others were fishermen, a

system of barter arose. Fishermen ·would live close to the sea, while

'taro planters, needing drier, arable land, would live farther from the

ocean, therefore lacking the time and conditions for fishing. Land was

!under the jurisdiction of the ali'i nui, or ruling chief; food was

given to him as 11 taxes" for the area that he des_ignated for a farmer

:or a fisherman.

FOODS LATER INTRODUCED J }funy of the plants considered as native Hawaiian were actually

: intro.duced after the coming of the white man. Perhaps the most famous

'of these horticulturists was~Don Francisco de Paula Marin, who earned

the Hawaiian name of 111-funini". He brought iri grapes, dates, figs,

;guavas, chermoyer, and the local favorite, the mango, all pre-1828.

,The mango (Mangifera ir~iaa) is a medium-sized fruit from two to four

.inches in diameter, and from three to seven inches in length. The skin' \ ;{s smooth and thick, and cannot be eaten. The pulp color ranges from

pale lemon to deep apricot. There are many varieties now in the

islands, skin color ranging from yellow to deep purple when ripe. The

1 flavor is compared to peaches, but with its o\m characteristics.

;}fungoes are a good source of provitamin A. Different varieties have

different values of ascorbic acid, from fair to excellent.

The lychee (LitaJd.. ahinesis) \vas introduced by C. Afong, from

China. It is a small ovoid fruit ab(JUt one and a half inches in j 57 -r - .. •diameter. The outer shell-like covering is reddish.brown, and the \ flesh surrounding the single brown seed is translucent white. The

sweet flavor of the fresh lychee reminds one of the Muscat grape and is

1 often eaten as dessert. The dried fruit, known as "lychee nut", bears i :somewhat.the same relationship to the fresh fruit as raisins to grapes.

!Lychee are an excellent source of ascorbic acid and a good source of

niacin.

The papaya (Carica papaya) came in 1848, via Mrs. G. F.

!Wunderberg. It is a melon-like fruit with a smooth, thin skin and yel-·: ! low to salmon-pink flesh. Numerous round black seeds, enclosed in a .... •gelatinous membrane, cling to the.inner wall. Green, unripe papaya i :contains papain, a protein~splitting enzyme, which is not in the ripe

fruit. While not of probable nutritional significance in aiding the

disgestion of protein, few people claim digestive distress after eating;

papaya. The papaya is a good source of calcium, and an excellent

source of provitamin A and ascorbic acid.

The Macadamia nut (Macadamia integrifolia) arrived through the

efforts of E. W. Jordan. It is enclosed in an extremely hard shell,

the flavor of the meat is enhanced by cooking in hot oil. It is low in:

moisture, high in fat, protein, and carbohydrate. The~nuts are a good

source of calcium, phosphorus, and iron, and of the vitamins thiamin,

riboflavin, and niacin.

The avocado (Persea americana and P. drymifolia) was brought in

1895 by Admiral Beardsley. The fruit is pearshaped, sometimes weighing.

up to three pounds. The green skin ranges from red to purple to black

and varies from smooth to -.;..rarty in- texture. The flesh is light green, 58

Surrounding a single large seed. \

; \provitamin A, riboflavin, and niacin. i i

... SillfMAR.Y, CONCLUSION, Al'."'D RECOMHE"NlJATIONS

So the ancient Hawaiians, dependent upon what the island and lthe sea around it produced, with no knowledge of the use of metals,

! lgrew to be a hardy race with splendid physiques. By today's standards, I lthe only vitamin in short supply was ascorbic acid, yet there are no early accounts of recognition of the symptoms of scurvy by European and

English explorers, who certainly would have recognized the manifesta- tions of the disease.

The early Hawaiian was a good farmer. He had enough crop plants to supply body energy and nutrients. His crops grew and he bar- vested every month. He knew his plants in microscopic detail and re- cognized the varietal differences. In times of peace, there were few famines and little hunger.

The·superior physical stature of the ali'i is attributed to the better diets available to them as a ruling class. The standard of beauty with regard to corpulence helped to make feasting and eating a pleasure that is recognized today. There is still a tendency for

Hawaiians to gain a great deal of weight as they grow older, although they retain the grace and carriage recorded upon by Captain Cook in the log.of his first visit to the islands.

Many of the "kapu" rules were measures of health. Food was never eaten hot in the -.mrm climate, and farming was done early in the day so that one could rest in the heat ·of the day after a meal. As

59 60

-men once did all the cooking, it is not considered "unmanly" for men

to be the cooks in a family today. Host of the Ha<&aiian, or part-

Hawaiian, men in the islands learn to be good cooks and are interested

in recipes.

The making of poi from taro, peculiar to the Hawaiians among

Polynesians, provided the most advantageous way of eating taro. Poi

is recommended today by doctors as a staple food, for infants, chil-

dren, and those with specific health problems. It is a nutritious

carbohydrate food, highly digestible, vrith good mineral and vitamin

content, that is well tolerated and almost nonall~rgenic. It can be

used therapeutically in soft diets, cases of malnutrition, .allergies

to cereals, for the elderly without teeth, and persons with gastric

ulcers.

The increased use of taro is being advocated in many localties

of the world for human consumption and as a stock feed. Unpublished

studies show an indication of family dietaries to be deficient in

calcium, resulting in the occurrence of rickets in infants. Increased

production and use of taro \vould tend to decrease the use of imported

refined foods and increase the calcium content of these diets, as well

as make the islands more nutritionally self-sustaining.

Hawaiians readily assimilated the foods of other races that

( came to settle in the islands, especially for a people with tradi- tionally distinct customs. These people have also been most influ-

enced by Chinese food and have adopted rice as a staple, often eating

it ,.;ith traditionally Hawaiian foods. They have, however, retained a

preference for stewing foods, among all cooking styles, probably due

to an ancient heritage of techniques. 61

Further research possibilities exist. Some research has al-

ready been accomplished in Hawaii as to how new foods of other races

have affected the health of the Hawaiians, but not on the Hawaiians as

a group living mvay from the islands, where they come into contact Hith:

still other foods, or are unable to get certain foods to v7hich they may have been accustomed for a lifetime. Perhaps substitutions have

been made to imitate the foods they miss.

Other research would benefit a world dying for want of more human energy and protein. Can taro, or perhaps even poi, be incor­

porated into the diet effectively to provide these elements? We have already ascertained that taro is an ancient plant known to .the coun­

tries that today are suffering from these devasting shortages, and

also that poi is virtually a "super food" in many categories. These are questions in which this researcher has a deep interest.

Scientists today are deeply concerned with the cultural aspects of races and the information derived from these facts. It is hoped

that this study will provdie further "food for thought" on one of a

disappearing minority: the full-blooded Hawaiian. 62

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2. Bergman, H. F. Hawaiian Herbs of Hedicinal Value. Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle, 1922.

3. Chamber of Commerce, Honolulu, Public Health Committee, foods Used In Hawaii, Nutritional Sub-committee Hearing, December 1953. (Honolulu: Governm?nt Printing Office, 1953), pp. 1-35.

4. Davis, Y. E. and J. R. Beaton, "Coconut Oil As a Dietary Source of Fat with Special Reference to Filled Vdlk", Hawaii Medical Journal, 28. (1969) pp. 459-63.

5. Derstine, Virginia and Edward L. Rada. Some Dietetic Factors Influencing the Harket for Poi in-•Havmii, Agricultural Economics Bulletin no. 3, (Honolulu: U!).:i,versity Press, 1952).

6. E. S. Craighill Handy and Elizabeth Green Handy, Native Planters in Old Hawaii, Their Life, Lore, and Environment, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Series, Bulletin no. 233, (Honolulu: Museum Press, 1972), pp. 69-263.

7. Howard, Kajorin Lekhakul. "Food Choice and Acculturation Among Some Ethnic Groups in Hawaii", Hawaiian Nedical Journa~, 36, (January, February 1967), pp. 1-4.

8. Mac Caughey, Vaughn. "The Food Plants of the Ancient Hawaiians", The Scientific Nonthly, (January 1917), pp. 75-80.

9. Miller, Carey D., The Nutritive Value of Some Native Foods Compared with Highly Hilled Cereals, extract from the Proceedings of the Seventh Pacific Science Congress, ·VII, (1953), pp. 428-9.

10. ------, Food Values of Poi, Taro, and Limu,· Bernice P. Bishop Museum Series, Bulletin no. 37 (Honolulu: Huseum Press, 1927), pp. 1-25.

11. ------·----,..----·-, Food Values of Bre_?dfr!:!J.t, Taro Leaves, Coconut, and Sugar Cane, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Series, Bulletin no. 64 (Honolulu: Huseum Press, 1929), pp. 1-23.

12. ------, "The Influence of Foods and Food Habits upon the Stature and Teeth of the Ancient Hawaiians", Havmii Agricultural Experimental Station, Miscellaneous Paper no. 94, (Honolulu: University Press, 1974), pp. 167-75. 63

: 13...... -----·------·-----.. --, c\delia Baue·r, and lie.l.er1 D-e11rtir1g. 0 TH.ro as a Source of Thic.unin.e) t~iboflcrvin, and 1\T:tac·in", .Journal of the. American. Dietetic Association, 38, no. 5 (Hay--T9S2), pp. 435-8.

14. ------, and Barbara Branthoover, Nutritive Value of Some Hawaiian Foods, Hawaii Agricultural Experimental Station, circular no. 52, (Honolulu: University Press, 1957), pp. 1-19.

15. ------, and Lucille Louis. "The Availability of the Iron in Hawaiian-grovm Vegetables", Journal of Nutrition, 30 (December 1945), pp. 485-95.

16. ------, and Ruth C. Robbins, "Chemical Analysis and Vitamin Assays of Opihi, The Hawaiian Limpet", The PhilippiD:e Journal of Science, 71 (1940), pp. 141-63.

17. ------, Nao Wenkam, and Mable Walker. "Composition. of Some Hmvaiian Fishes", Hawaiian Hedical Journal, 18 (November, December 1958), pp. 144-5.

18. ------, and Nao S. Wenkam, Composition of Uawaii Fruits, Ha-vmii Agricultural Experimental Station, bulletin no. 135, (Honoluly: University Press 1965), pp. 1-87.

19. Potgieter, Martha. "The Utilization of the Calcium and Phosphqrus of Taro by Young 'tiomen", Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 16 (November 1940), pp. 898-904.

20. , "Taro As A Food", Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 16 (June, July 1.940), pp. 536-40.

21. Pukui,_ Mary Kawena •. Personal interview. Honolulu, Hawaii. February 1st, 2nd, 8th, lOth, 1977.

22. Standall, Bluebell R. The Nature of Poi Carbohydrates, Hawaii Agricultural Experimental Station, Journal Series no. 1200, (Honolulu: University Press 1946), pp. llf6-8.

23. ------, and Han Giok Kian, Nutritive Quality of Simulated Milk }lixtures Prepared from Tropical Plant Products", Journal of Food Science, 30 (1968), pp. 426·d6.

24. ------, and Felicitas Sambajon Cabbat. "The Composition of Essential and Certain Non-essential .c'\rnino Acids i.n Selected I-ia\.;aiian Fish", ~-tl_ of Food Science:, 30 (1965), pp. 172-·7.

25. ------~, and David R. Bassett. Purification B. Policar, Hargan: t Thorn. "Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, and Proximate Analyses . of Some Ready-to-eat Foods", Journal of the Aner:tcan Dietetic ~li..SSOC:LaE::-..?.!2.' (N;;J.y 1970)' PP· 3~------~- 64

'26. ~lilder, Ger.rit P., "Ea·rly Plant Life of Ha-waii", .H:h_d Pac§_c:_ Magazine, 44 (1932), pp. 3-17. 65

BIBI.IOGR,·WHY

1. Malo, David. Hawaiian Antiquities Translated by N. B. Emerson. Edited by W. D. Alexander. Bernice P. Bishop Nuseum Special Publication no. 2. Hawaii, 1903.