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161 Trade and Travel in the Arab Gulf in the Middle Ages ARAM, 11-12 (1999-2000), 161-169 N.A. ZIADEH 161 TRADE AND TRAVEL IN THE ARAB GULF IN THE MIDDLE AGES NICOLA A. ZIADEH (1) The Arab Gulf has been, throughout history, a link between the Indian Ocean and lands east, on the one hand, and the Land of the Two Rivers and the adjoining areas on the other. One of the most thriving periods falls between the eighth and the fifteenth centuries, beginning with the rise of the Abbasid caliphate in 750 and coming to an end with the discovery of sea route around the Cape of Good Hope during the last years of the fifteenth century. Fortunately scholars dealing with this period have a wealth of sources which enable them to write a fairly continued and accurate story of trade and travel of the times. They find, at their disposal, Arab geographers who wrote about the Gulf in the nineth and tenth centuries, travellers, both Arab and others, who visited the area between the eleventh and the fourteenth centuries, and finally European travellers who described conditions there early in the sixteenth cen- tury. The fifteenth century presents a gap in our knowledge because Arab ge- ographers and travellers lost an appetite for activity and Europeans were busy in the Atlantic Ocean. (2) Before we proceed to marshall the material provided by such authorities, it may be worth making the following general observations. It was the eastern coast of the Gulf which had established ports of call throughout the period; on the western side the water was too shallow for ships and the shores were sandy. This side, however, proved to be a haven for pirates who caused ships great losses so that merchant ships had to carry armed guards. The eastern coasts, although dry and in most places fruitless, provided harbours for the bigger ships. Goods were usually carried from the tip of the Gulf – from ‘Ubullah and ‘Abbadan – to Siraf and other ports, and vice versa, in small, flat boats. The Gulf enjoyed, especially at its northern tip, a remarkable ebb of water; this was utilized by sailors for their passage north. In order to guide sailors against the shallow waters of the northern reaches of the Gulf, and probably warn them against pirates, an elementary system of 162 TRADE AND TRAVEL IN THE ARAB GULF lighthouses was introduced, which seems to have continued in existence to the eleventh century. The north eastern shores had no harbours, but Oman which many of our au- thors considered as part of the lands surrounding the Gulf was different. So many ships called on its ports to exchange merchandise with its people and to take porvisions of food and water for the long journey, irrespective of the di- rection. Both our geographers and our early travellers are usually silent about his- torical matters. Even such a matter as the lighthouses was not interesting enough to enquire about their origin. One may keep in mind that many authors accepted tales of strange nature about the waters of the Gulf and adjoining water-bodies. Thus Ibn Khurra- dadhbah mentions all kinds of strange fish living in the neighbourhood.1 (3) The Gulf itself was not properly described by either geographers or travel- lers, except by a reference to the dangers to which the ships were exposed be- cause of the shallowness of its northern reaches, which was called “al-Jar- rara”, or “Ghawr Jannaba”.2 On the northern end of the Gulf there were three locations which, at one time or another, served ships of smaller size. These were Basra, al-'Ubullah and Abbadan. The first was up the river and boats could reach it; al-'Ubullah was on the Tigris, larger than Basra and could provide comfortable living con- ditions, while ‘Ubbadan stood on a small island and had a fort which was often occupied by pirates or rebels. However all three were, at various times, centres of voluminous trade activities in the period under discussion.3 What attracted the attention of people in the nothern reaches of the Gulf was the “Khashabat”, wooden lighthouses constructed there, as it was mentioned above, for the guidance of boats. They were placed in the sea close to al- 'Ubullah and ‘Ubbadan.4 Nasir-i-Khisraw, of the eleventh century, gives a detailed account of these “lighthouses”. According to him the “manar” (lighthouse), was a wooden structure which rested on wide flat platform on which four piers of teak wood rested, about 40 dhira (about 27 metres) high, covered by a ceiling smaller than the base. On top of this wooden structure stood a chamber in which the 1 Ibn Khurradadba, al-Masalik Wal-Mamalik, (Leiden, 1888), 60-61; Istakhri, Masalik al- Mamalik, (Leiden, 1928), 28-36; Ibn Hawqal, Surat al-Ard, (Leiden, 1938), 52; Nasir-i-Khisraw, Rihlat (Ar. translation by Y. al-Khashshab, (Cairo, 1945), 100-101. 2 Istakhri, 28-29, Masudi, Muruj al-Dhahab, Vol. 1, 229-230; Ibn Hawqal, 52. 3 Ibn Hawqal, 53; Muqaddani, Ahsan al-Taqasim, (Leiden, 1906), 117-118. 4 Istakhri, 228-29; Ibn Hawqal, 52. N.A. ZIADEH 163 guards watched the ships at night giving them signals through a light protected by a glass lamp.5 (4) The establishment of the Abbasid caliphate (750) and the rise of numerous cities in its domain, either as restored or newly-built ones, led to a demand on commodities fron India and lands east. Besides, this kind of merchandise was also exported to the coasts of the eastern Mediterranean. It must be remem- bered that, besides the Abbasid caliphate there were two other empires which were interested in various means of trade and kinds of goods. There was the Byzantine empire on the one hand and the Chinese empire under the Tang dy- nasty (618-906). This one in particular was condusive to progressive trade re- lations with areas which were served by the Gulf.6 This narrow, and somehow treacherous and pirate-infested stream of water was busy with energetic and profitable trade and commerce.7 Siraf, on the Persian side of the Gulf, more to the north, was the main port of call. According to Istakhri it was the great harbour of Fars; it was a great city with nothing but buildings…. There was neither water nor farming. It had no animals. Yet was the richest town in Fars….. Its people spent most of their lives on the seas….. Some prople's wealth could be estimated at four thousand thousands (4,000,000) of dinars.8 The picture depicted by the nineth century geographer is supplemented by al-Muqaddasi, the master geographer of the tenth century, who describes Siraf as a city which was the gate (of trade with) China. He adds that he had not seen, in the world of Islam, more wonderful than its houses. They, he says, were built with teak wood and bricks, the price of each of which could be more than 100,000 dirhems.9 On the other side of the Gulf Suhar, the capital of Oman, was the very port where ships anchored not only for provisions and water, but also for exchange of merchandise.10 Traders thus began their journey from al-'Uballah, heading for Siraf where warehouses provided additional goods. From there ships may coast along the Persian mainland to Sind, or make towards Suhar for provision for the journey across the ocean to India or to East Africa. Ships on their various long journeys carried silks, camphor, musk, spices, ivory, iron ore and copper.11 5 Nasir-i-Khisraw, III. 6 Hourami, G.F., Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean, (Princeton, 1951), 61. 7 “Cathay and the Way Thither”, Haklyut Society, 2nd Series, Vol. 38, (1915), 89-93. 8 Istakhri, 34, 138-139. 9 Muqaddasi, 426. 10 Ibn Hawqal, 48; Muqaddasi, 92. 11 Ziadeh, N.A. Geography and Travel among the Arabs, (Beirut, 1962), 228. 164 TRADE AND TRAVEL IN THE ARAB GULF This prosperous trade between the lands of Islam and China, when ships from China reached the Gulf, witnessed a deterioration so that ships from ei- ther area met half-way in Malabar. Beside, the volume of trade decreased somehow – both areas suffered political disturbances.12 Trade with East Africa seems to have continued in full swing. (5) But appetite and need for commodities from the East seems to have revived in the following centuries, late under the Sung dynasty (960-1279) of China. In the eleventh century Nasir-i-Khisraw visited both sides of the Arab Gulf, spending about nine months in al-Hasa, whose ruler was also master of the Isles of Bahrain. He speaks of the wealth of the land and the comfortable life people enjoyed. The only reference he makes about material for trading, is about pearls of Bahrain, which have always been a desired commodity as far as China; but even pearls did not impress the great Ismali propogandist. He adds that Mahruban on the Eastern coast, was a centre for the collection of customs duties,13 an indication that another port had already begun to share trade importance with Siraf, although this port continued to export some mer- chandise to China as is indicated by al-Marwazi who says that Persians led their ships to Khanfu (Canton) from Siraf while the Arabs went to that port from Basra.14 Khanfu, he says, has a river over which bridges were built, on one side of which were the markets of foreign traders, while the other side was occupied by native merchants. According to the rules of the place merchants of either side transacted business during the day, but at sunset a drum was beaten and people returned to their respective quarters.
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