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Surface Water Quality and Landscape Gradients in the North Carolina Cape Fear River Basin: the Key Role of Fecal Coliform

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Surface Water Quality and Landscape Gradients in the North Carolina Cape Fear River Basin: the Key Role of Fecal Coliform Surface Water Quality and Landscape Gradients in the North Carolina Cape Fear River Basin: The Key Role of Fecal Coliform Jennifer B. Alford, Keith G. Debbage, Michael A. Mallin, Zhi-Jun Liu Southeastern Geographer, Volume 56, Number 4, Winter 2016, pp. 428-453 (Article) Published by The University of North Carolina Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/sgo.2016.0045 For additional information about this article https://muse.jhu.edu/article/641170 Access provided by Elon University (13 Jan 2017 15:22 GMT) Surface Water Quality and Landscape Gradients in the North Carolina Cape Fear River Basin The Key Role of Fecal Coliform JENNIFER B. ALFORD Elon University Salem College KEITH G. DEBBAGE University of North Carolina at Greensboro MICHAEL A. MALLIN Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington ZHI-JUN LIU University of North Carolina at Greensboro Although relationships between specific land Aunque las relaciones entre los tipos específicos types and water quality have been well estab- de tierra y la calidad del agua han sido bien es- lished, studies that observe these relationships tablecidos, los estudios que observan estas rela- across large heterogeneous landscapes are less ciones a través de grandes paisajes he terogéneos common. This paper seeks to add to the growing son menos comunes. En este trabajo se pretende body of literature related to how various land añadir al creciente cuerpo de literatura rela- use configurations might influence the geog- cionada con la forma en que varias configura- raphy of surface water quality across a large, ciones de uso de la tierra pueden influir en la heterogeneous river basin network like the Cape geografía de la calidad del agua de superficie a Fear River Basin (CFRB) in North Carolina. través de una red de cuencas hidrográficas am- Findings suggest that fecal coliform bacteria plia y heterogénea como la cuenca del río Cape concentrations that exceeded state standards Fear (CFRB) en Carolina del Norte. Los resulta- were positively associated with transitional dos sugieren que las concentraciones de bacte- land types (i.e. mixed forest and low density rias coliformes fecales que excedieron las nor- developed–open space (< 20 percent impervi- mas estatales se asociaron positiv amente con ous surfaces)), especially when these land types tipos de tierra de transición (es decir, bosques encircled urbanization in the upper reaches mixtos y baja densidad desarrollado–espacio of the river basin in both 2001 and 2006. As abierto (<20 por ciento de las superficies im- a result, it is argued that the transition from permeables)), sobre todo cuando estos tipos mixed forest and low density developed–open de tierra rodeaban urbanización en la parte space to a more urban environment provides alta de la cuenca del río. Como resultado, se a series of well recognized human activities argumenta que la transición de bosque mixto within the landscape gradient that can increase y baja densidad desarrollado–espacio abierto fecal coliform counts. a un entorno más urbano ofrece una serie de southeastern geographer, 56(4) 2016: pp. 428–453 NC Landscape Gradients and Fecal Coliform 429 actividades humanas bien reconocidos dentro Tu 2011, Crim et al. 2012, Huang et al. del gradiente de paisaje que se puede aumentar 2013). However, these studies typically el recuento de coliformes fecales. considered relationships at the local wa- tershed scale or by observing a specific key words: Water quality, land use, fecal portion of a river basin. Although various coliform, watersheds, river basins federal and state agencies have conducted palabras clave: calidad del agua, usos extensive studies related to water quality de la tierra, coliformes fecales, las cuencas and land types, spatial analysis of larger hidrográficas, cuencas fluviales river basins is less common in the geogra- phy literature, because of the large spatial context and complexity of these heteroge- neous landscapes. Analysis of the spatial introduction variation of surface water quality within There are over 3.6 million miles of a river basin context is critical if we are rivers and streams in the United States, to better understand how different land- each exhibiting unique characteristics scape features and activities in different that are physically, biologically, and portions of the basin impact the geospatial chemically influenced by the diverse characteristics of surface water resources landscapes they traverse (US EPA 2010). throughout the entire river basin network. Much of the lit erature has focused on the Bacterial pathogens (such as fecal coli- inter-relationships between various land form) in surface water systems historically use configurations and surface water qual- have been linked to agricultural and de- ity have been grounded in, but not limited velopment activities and the presence of to, geography, hydrology, aquatic biology, specific landscape eatures.f These features and environmental planning (Meybeck and activities may include increases in im- and Helmer 1989, Arnold and Gibbons pervious surfaces, high livestock density, 1996, Booth and Jackson 1997, Liu et al. and failing wastewater treatment plant in- 2000, Tong and Chen 2002, Rothenberger frastructure. Relationships between urban et al. 2009, Tu 2011). Although there is and suburban development and non-point a growing literature that highlights rela- sources of fecal concentrations in surface tionships between specific land types and waters have also been well documented. surface water quality, the U.S. Environ- Mallin et al. (2000) and Holland et al. mental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates (2004) observed that fecal coliform pol- that only 19 percent of streams and rivers lution in tidal creeks in North and South have been fully assessed by federal and Carolina was positively correlated with state agencies (US EPA 2013). watershed population and percent of de- Some studies have observed signifi- veloped land, and particularly correlated cant relationships between different land with percent impervious surface coverage. types and water quality across different In coastal watersheds of South Carolina, geog raphical scales (Aspinall and Pearson Kelsey et al. (2004) observed high fecal 2000, Tong and Chen 2002, Kelsey et al. concentrations in populated areas that 2004, Schoonover and Lockaby 2006, were likely contributed by the high con- Tu et al. 2007, Wilson and Weng 2010, centrations of domestic pets (i.e. dogs and 430 alford et al. cats) associated with human populations. of CAFOs and related activities can trig- Government agencies have also played ger a variety of landscape changes that a vital role in identifying the spatial pat- may result in habitat fragmentation and terns and sources of fecal coliform bacte- the reduction of continuous forestland. ria in surface water systems. The USGS Some of the adverse effects of these (2003) observed water quality trends practices include increases of pathogens across watersheds in Virginia primarily and nutrients entering groundwater sup- representative of urban, agricultural, and plies and surface waters both adjacent to mixed land types. They found that fecal and downstream of CAFO sites (Mallin sources were highly variable and key con- et al. 2015). This process can lead to the tributors included human, wildlife, and eutrophication of water bodies, often domesticated pet waste as well as various resulting in hypoxic conditions (i.e. low land use activities. In addition to non- dissolved oxygen) that alter both the point sources of fecal microbes, urban and quality and quantity of surface water suburban watersheds frequently contain resources and aquatic habitats across point sources of fecal inputs that are typ- multiple geographical scales (Mallin and ically associated with wastewater treat- Cahoon 2003, Burkholder et al. 2007). ment spills and leaks that contribute sig- Another consideration when observing nificantly to unpredictable fecal “spikes” the spatial context of surface water quality in surface water systems. across a large spatial scale, such as a river Across rural landscapes, sources of basin, are the variations and or changes fecal pollution may be highly variable on the landscape that result in different and are typically related to human activ- and often complex landscape patterns or ities. Potential sources of fecal microbes gradients. Landscape gradients may exist may result from the presence of livestock due to natural features in the landscape on the landscape, spraying livestock such as geological, climatic, and topo- waste onto fields, and failing septic sys- graphical patterns as well as anthropocen- tems or high density of septic systems. tric changes to the landscape that may be Changes in agricultural practices may driven by socioeconomic decisions. As a re- also increase fecal concentrations in sur- sult, gradients are far likelier to occur than face waters. Over the past few decades, sharp land use boundaries. These sorts of the concentrated animal feeding oper- land use gradients may include forest land ation (CAFO) industry has emerged as being converted to agricultural or urban a common practice in the United States areas or as more recent trends suggest, ag- and Europe as pasture livestock produc- ricultural land being converted to urban tion has moved from the field to large areas (Wear et al. 1998, Schoonover et al. building facilities (Mallin and Cahoon 2005, Grimm et al. 2008). Grimm et al. 2003, Rothenberger et al. 2009, Mallin (2008) note that when considering
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