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School Desegregation in the North: Eight Comparative Case Studies of Commnity Structur and Policy Making

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School Desegregation in the North: Eight Comparative Case Studies of Commnity Structur and Policy Making SCHOOL DESEGREGATION IN THE NORTH: EIGHT COMPARATIVE CASE STUDIES OF COMMNITY STRUCTUR AND POLICY MAKING Robert L. Crain With Assistance of Morton Inger Gerald A. McWorter James J. Vanecko This research was supported by the Office of Education Department of Health , Education , arid Welfare, Project No. 5-0641-2.12- NATIONAL OPINION RESEARCH CENTER University of Chicago 5720 South Woodlawn Avenue Chicago, Illinois 60637 Report No. llO. April, 1966 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A study such as this owes a huge debt to the two hundred persons who permitted us to interview them and who gracious ly made their files available to us. We are especially conscious of the sacrifices these men made since they were all very busy men and women--school board members , school admin- istrators , public officials , newspapermen , heads of civil rights groups. number of them gave us confidential documents , permitted us to borrow their personal files , and helped us locate other documents which we needed. They spent as long as eight hours in interviews with us. We remember several of these persons as especially helpful , considerate, or insightful; but we have decided not to attempt to thank any of these persons by name here. To thank one or two would be an insult to twenty others who also went out of their way for us; and to thank twenty would be an improper recognition of our debt to a hundred more. We will no doubt disappoint many of these respondents, who were hope- ful that we would present a series of recommendations which they could make use of; but as responsible social scientists we are convinced that our duty is to report facts and possible sociological explanations of these facts and let those who are qualified by experience or training develop specific proposals from this. Many of our informants disagree with us about our interpretation of these data , of course; but in many respects those who disagreed were more helpful than the others , since they forced us to rethink our analysis. We are indebted to Miss June Shagaloff of the national office of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, who gave us valuable advice and information about the national picture. Anyone who at- tempts a study such as this has a great advantage if his cities are described in the City Politics Report published by the Harvard-MIT Joint Center for Urban Studies, under the direction of Edward C. Banfield. iii The research staff is . also indebted to Lisa Paul, .who handled most of the clerical work, and to Lillian Rochon , who typed the manuscript. The members of the research staff were Morton Inger , Thomas M. Landye Gerald A. McWorter , Paul Peterson, Robert T. Stout , and James J. Vanecko. They were responsible for the interviewing, for preliminary drafts of almost all the chapters as indicated below: Cha ter Interviewers First draft b (St. Louis) V anecko Landye others Vanecko III (Lawndale) Vanecko Land ye Landye (Bay City) Inger S tou t Inger (Newark) McWorter Vanecko McWorter (Buffalo) Inger, Stout Inger VII (Baltimore) V anecko Stout Vanecko VIII (San Francisco) Landy Land ye (Pittsburgh) S t ou t Inger Inger The first draft of Chapter XIII was prepared by Vanecko; the first draft of Chapter XIV by McWortet. i'1 . ." . ... .. ". .. .. .. .." .. .. .. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS o . LIST OF TABLES . vii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Chapter INTRODUCTION . 0 The Research Design II" SL LOUIS The St. Louis Political System The School Board and Its Schools The West End Community Conference Report The Interpretation III. IAWNDALE 1956: A School for the Middle Class 1961: The Second Woodside Dispute 1962: The Woodside Dispute , Phase Three 1964: Woodside Phase Four , the Committee Report Interpretation IV. BAY CITY The School Board li . Interpretat ion NEWARK o . 1961: The First School Desegregation Issue Interpretation VI. BUFFALO II . The School Integration Controversy, 1963- 65 The Woodlawn Junior High School Decision Interpretation VII. BALTIMORE The Initial Complaints Interpretation .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .... ...... ..... .. ...... .. ..... ...... ....... ... ..... ... ....... ..... .... ...... ... ..... .... ...... ..... .... TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued Chapter Page VIII. SAN FRANCISCO 105 Central Junior High School 110 The De Facto Segregation Issue Continues 114 Interpretation 116 IX. PITTSBURGH 125 Interpretation 132 A DEFINITION OF THE ISSUE , AND AN OVERVIEW OF THE DECISION PROCESS 137 The Civil Rights Groups and What They Want 137 The Response of the School Superintendent 149 The School Board and the White Voter 160 The Effectiveness of Different Tactics 170 The Tactics of the School Board 175 Summary. 176 XI. SCHOOL SYSTEM ACQUIESCENCE 179 The Stages of the Decision Process 179 Civil Rights Activity and Acquiescence l83 The Acquiescent School Board 201 Race Liberalism. 207 Cohes ion 216 Sunnary 221 XII. THE SCHOOL BOARD Board Member Attitudes 223 Correlations with Race Liberalism. 227 Socio- economic Status and Liberalism 238 School Board Recruitment and School Board Acquiescence. 241 Cohesion and Board Recruitment Patterns 245 Board Organization and Cohesion. 249 The Effect of Size of Board 250 The Negro Board Member 252 Election Versus Appointment of Board Members 253 Methods of Board Appointment 255 Suntary 257 . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued Chapter Page XIII. COMMNITY CHARACTERISTICS AND PATTERNS OF SCHOOL BOARD RECRUITMENT 259 Recruitment Source 270 Deviant Cases 278 The Causes of Board Cohes ion 279 Summary 288 XIV. THE COMMNITY AND THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT 29l The Goais of the Civil Rights Movement . 0 302 Sunuary . 305 XV. WHY CONFLICT? 309 APPENDIX THE SELECTION OF THE SAMLE OF CITIES 317 II. COMPARING THE EXTENT OF SCHOOL SEGREGATION IN THE EIGHT CITIES co . 323 REFERENCES 329 vii ... ... .... ... .... .. .... ... ..... ..... ."... ....... ..... .. ..... ..... .. .... ..... LIST OF TABLES ble Page Percentage' of Negro Students Who are in Integrated Schools and Amount of Civil Rights Activity 138 Careers of Prominent School Superintendents 158 Effectiveness Civil Rights Groups and Other Organizations XI. Ranking Cities Spec ific Actions Taken to Meet Civil Rights Demands 186 XI. Ranking of Cities on "Tone" of Response to the Civil Rights Movement 188 XI. Ranking of Cities on Acquiescence Scale 188 XI. Ranking Cities on Total Amoun t of Civil Rights Activity. 197 XI. Questions Used Measure Attitudes Toward Civil Rights 210' XI. Association between Items of Race Liberalism Scale (Yule. ' s Q) 212 Xl. 7. Actual "Race Liberalism" Scores and Interviewer Estimates of Race Liberalism 213 XII. I. Economic Liberalism Scale 224 XII. Constituency-Orientation Scale 225 XII. 3 Radical Right Scale 226 XII. Civic Du y Scale 227 XII. 5. Race Liberalism and Response to "Politician I s First Duty is to Represent the View of His Constituency 228 XII. Constituency Orientation , Attitudes toward Disagreement and Race Liberalism for School Board Members 229 XII. 7. Conflict Orientation and Attitudes toward Professionalism of School Superintendent , Quality of Private Schools and Importance of School Board 233 .. .. .. .. ..- -.. .. .. .. .. .. ... .... .. ..... ... ..... .... ..... LIST OF TABLES Cont inued Tab le Page XII. S. , Politica 1 Activity and Conflict Tolerance 235 XII. Poli tical Activity and Race Liberalism of . 235 XII. lO. Occupation of School Board Members and Race Liberalism 239 XII . 11. Political Activity, Race Liberalism , and Father Occupation of School Board Members 240 XIII. 1. Suburbanization of Economic Elite 272 XIII. 2. Criteria Used to Select Board Members 280 XIV. 1. A Typology of Civil Rights Activity 292 XIV. Civil Rights Activity Ranking 294 XIV. Militancy Scale 295 XIV. Militancy and Background Characteristics 298 XIV. Rankings of Social Status and Size of Negro Population 301 XIV. Comparison of Civil Rights Goals in Seven Cities 304 . ... ..... ...... ...... .. ..... .. ..... .... ... ....... .. .... .. ....... .. ......... .. ...... ......... .. .... LIST OF ILLUSTRATTONS Figure Page XI. Components of Acquiescence 189 xt. 2 The Influence of Civil Rights Activity on the Key Response 192 XI. 3. Influence of Board t s Key Response on Subsequent Civil Rights Activity 193 XI.4. Relationship of Board I s Key Response to Its Final Level of Acquiescence 195 XI.5. Relationship between Acquiescence and Amount of Civil Rights Activity 198 XI. 6. Effect of Acquiescence on Duration of Civil Rights Ac t i vi ty . 200 XI. 7. Flow Chart of Recruitment of Decision Makers in School Integration Decision, and Channels of Influence Operating on Them 202 XI. 8. Percentage of Population Negro and Acquiescence 206 XI. Region and Acquiescence 208 XI. IO. Education of White Population and Acquiescence 209 XI. II. Race Liberalism and Acquiescence 215 XI. 12. Cohesion and Acquiescence 219 XII. 1. Revised Flow Chart for Predicting Acquiescence 243 XII. Political Activity of Board Members and Race Liberalism 244 XII . 3. School Board Socio- economic Status and Race Liberalism. 246 XII. 4 . Political Activity of Board Members and Cohesion of Board. 247 XIII. 1. Percentage of Board Members of High Social Status and Percentage of Members Politically Active 262 XIII. 2. Recruitment Source and Cohesion 266 . .- -. ..,. ... ... .. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Con t inued Figure Page XIII. A Typology of School Board Recruitment 268 XIII. Suburbanization of Economic Elites and Recruitment Source of Board 273 XIII. Socio- economic Status of the Population and Cohesion of School Bo rd 281 XIII. Socio-economic Status of the
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