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War and Algorithm 16028-0303f-Finalpass-r01.indd 1 9/24/2019 12:03:26 PM OPEN ACCESS The open access publication of this book is made possible by a grant from Riksbankens Jubileumsfond (The Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation) for the Advancement of the Humanities and Social Sciences. 16028-0303f-Finalpass-r01.indd 2 9/24/2019 12:03:26 PM War and Algorithm Edited by Max Liljefors, Gregor Noll, and Daniel Steuer London • New York 16028-0303f-Finalpass-r01.indd 3 9/24/2019 12:03:26 PM Published by Rowman & Littlefield International Ltd 6 Tinworth Street, London, SE11 5AL, United Kingdom www.rowmaninternational.com Rowman & Littlefield International Ltd. is an affiliate of Rowman & Littlefield 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706, USA With additional offices in Boulder, New York, Toronto (Canada), and Plymouth (UK) www.rowman.com Selection and editorial matter © Max Liljefors, Gregor Noll, and Daniel Steuer, 2019 Copyright in individual chapters is held by the respective chapter authors. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: HB 9781786613653 PB 9781786613646 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Available ISBN 9781786613653 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN 9781786613646 (paper : alk. paper) ISBN 9781786613660 (electronic) The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. 16028-0303f-Finalpass-r01.indd 4 9/24/2019 12:03:26 PM Contents Acknowledgments vii List of Illustrations ix 1 Introduction: Our Emerging World of War 1 Max Liljefors, Gregor Noll, and Daniel Steuer 2 Prolegomena to Any Future Attempt at Understanding Our Emerging World of War 9 Daniel Steuer 3 Anthropokenosis and the Emerging World of War 53 Howard Caygill 4 War by Algorithm: The End of Law? 75 Gregor Noll 5 Law’s Ends: On Algorithmic Warfare and Humanitarian Violence 105 Sara Kendall 6 Omnivoyance and Blindness 127 Max Liljefors 7 Of the Pointless View: From the Ecotechnology to the Echotheology of Omnivoyant War 165 Allen Feldman v 16028-0303f-Finalpass-r01.indd 5 9/24/2019 12:03:26 PM vi Contents 8 Visions 191 Max Liljefors, Gregor Noll, and Daniel Steuer Bibliography 205 Index 223 About the Authors 231 16028-0303f-Finalpass-r01.indd 6 9/24/2019 12:03:26 PM Acknowledgments We would like to express our sincere gratitude to colleagues who have gen- erously commented on parts of this manuscript: Leila Brännström, Antonia Hofstätter, and Jayne Svenungsson. We would also like to thank a number of people who helped to ensure that a rough manuscript was transformed into a book. With subtlety and candor, the indefatigable Tim Carter has edited our language. Frankie Mace at Rowman & Littlefield provided us with an extraordinary amount of support throughout the whole process. Last but not least, two anonymous referees offered helpful remarks on our book proposal. Max Liljefors would like to thank Lila Lee-Morrison, Aud Sissel Hoel, Kristin Veel, Nanna Bonde Thylstrup, and Daniela Agostinho for valuable discussions throughout various stages of the project. Gregor Noll would like to thank Matilda Arvidsson, Leila Brännström, Moa Dahlbeck, Markus Gunneflo, Valentin Jeutner, Amin Parsa, and Aleksandra Popovic for commenting on his chapter. He would like to acknowledge the generous support of the Marianne and Marcus Wallenberg Foundation, the Ragnar Söderberg Foundation, the Swedish Foundation for Humanities and Social Sciences, and the Torsten Söderberg Foundation. Daniel Steuer would like to thank Megan Archer, Roland Begenat, Tim Carter, Paul Davies, Antonia Hofstätter, German Primera, Jeanne Riou, and Philipp Schönthaler for discussions and valuable comments on the project throughout its various stages. vii 16028-0303f-Finalpass-r01.indd 7 9/24/2019 12:03:26 PM 16028-0303f-Finalpass-r01.indd 8 9/24/2019 12:03:26 PM List of Illustrations 2.1 The universal monoculture of informational naturalism 29 4.1 Autonomous AI as part of cybernetics 81 4.2 Monotheism is to law what cybernetics is to AI 95 5.1 The Project Maven seal. Image source: Tom Simonite, “Pentagon will expand AI project prompting protests at Google,” Wired, May 29, 2018 (available at https://www .wired.com/story/googles-contentious-pentagon-project-is- likely-to-expand/) 116 6.1 Hieronymus Bosch (or follower) 130 The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things, 1505–1510 Oil on poplar panel 47 × 55 in. (119.5 cm × 139.5 cm) Museo del Prado, Madrid (Detail) 6.2 Gabriel Orozco 136 Island within an Island (Isla en la Isla), 1993 Silver dye bleach print (Cibachrome) 16 × 20 in. (40.64 × 50.8 cm) Courtesy of the artist and Marian Goodman Gallery ix 16028-0303f-Finalpass-r01.indd 9 9/24/2019 12:03:26 PM x List of Illustrations 6.3 Walter Hahn 142 Dresden, view from the city hall tower on the ruined city center, 1945 Negativ 5 × 7 in. (13 × 18 cm) Courtesy of SLUB Dresden/Deutsche Fotothek 6.4 Gerhard Richter 144 Townscape Paris, 1968 Oil on canvas 78.7 × 78.7 in. (200 × 200 cm) Froehlich Collection, Stuttgart © Gerhard Richter 2019 (0045) 6.5 Aerial view of the destruction after the atomic bomb over Hiroshima, August 1945 145 U.S. Navy National Museum of Naval Aviation Commander Francis N. Gilreath Collection 6.6 NASA, first color photograph of the whole earth, shot from the ATS-3 satellite, November 10, 1967 151 Wikimedia Commons 6.7 NASA, the “Blue Marble” photograph of the earth, shot from Apollo 17 spacecraft, December 7, 1972 152 Wikimedia Commons 6.8 Caspar David Friedrich 157 Wanderer above the Sea of Fog, ca. 1817 Oil on canvas 37.3 in. × 29.4 in. (94.8 cm × 74.8 cm) Kunsthalle Hamburg, Hamburg 6.9 Gilles Mingasson 158 A drone pilot and a drone sensor operator practice on a simulator at Holloman Air Force base in New Mexico, 2012 Courtesy of Gilles Mingasson 6.10 The “phases” of a perspectival gaze 159 Max Liljefors 16028-0303f-Finalpass-r01.indd 10 9/24/2019 12:03:26 PM Chapter 1 Introduction: Our Emerging World of War Max Liljefors, Gregor Noll, and Daniel Steuer In June 1945, a group of American nuclear physicists, led by Nobel laure- ate James Franck, presented the U.S. government with a report on the likely consequences of dropping an atomic bomb. The Franck report advised that, rather than dropping the bomb on Japan without warning, the United States should publicly demonstrate the effects of the weapon, so as to allow for “the possibility of taking into account the public opinion of [the U.S.] and of the other nations before deciding whether these weapons should be used against Japan. In this way, other nations may assume a share of responsibility for such a fateful decision.” The U.S. government decided otherwise, and atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and August 9, 1945. Why is this sequence of events relevant to a book on war and algorithms? The situation today does not, at first glance, seem analogous to that of 1945: no world war is about to conclude, and it does not seem that some single decision that will transform the fates of millions is imminent. Neither are we privy to the details of some new Manhattan project for the twenty-first century. But the rejection of the Franck report’s recommendations tells us at least this much: that a war, even if it is about to be won, is not a good time to begin a public deliberation over transformative military technology. And while the actual use of a nuclear weapon is far more grave than even the most disquieting truths publicly revealed about new developments in military tech- nology, we now know that a weaponized form of knowledge has already been established in the world, and that the world has already been transformed by it. Convening the court of public opinion to rule on the nuclear bomb would not have done away with that technology, even if it might have delayed its use. The same applies to the military use of algorithms today. The Franck report proposed demonstrating the bomb’s effects in order to provide that 1 16028-0303f-Finalpass-r01.indd 1 9/24/2019 12:03:26 PM 2 Chapter 1 court of public opinion with evidence. The evidence of the effects of algo- rithmic warfare available to us today is much more difficult to make sense of than any such demonstration of the effects of the atom bomb would have been. Nonetheless, we must at least attempt to make sense of this evidence. The first point we wish to make in this introduction is that public debates about radically new and powerful ways of waging war must take place long before any conflicts that might motivate their employment. Once technolo- gies have emerged and matured, history will have invested itself in the new possibilities, and the space of politics will have shrunk. Because we are approaching our subject before it has fully matured, describing and analyzing it presupposes a measure of speculation. Franck and his colleagues saw, with appropriate clarity, that radically innovative ways of waging war will radi- cally transform our societies, even in times of peace. Major conurbations, as suitable targets for the use of nuclear weapons, would become huge liabilities for the United States, as the report made clear.
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