10/2017 – pp. 21–28 Journal of Comparative Cultural Studies in Architecture JCCS-a Erich LEHNER Advanced survey of ancient Buddhist and Hindu temples in central Java for tracking their position within the history of Southeast Asian architecture Abstract During the last quarter of the first millennium CE, a considerable number of prominent Hindu and Buddhist temples were erected on the island of Java. Although they were constructed of a solid dry stone masonry of precisely-trimmed and tight-fitting blocks, frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have since caused serious damages over time. For more than a century, intensive efforts have been made to restore or even reconstruct these monuments. The research project consists of two parts: a holistic three-dimensional building survey, and an archi- tectural classification of Javanese candis within the framework of South and Southeast Asia religious building traditions. After a test phase in 2016, a team from the Department of Building History and Archaeological Research of the Vienna University of Technology, in cooperation with the Gadjah Mada University Yogyakarta, the Cultural Heritage Preservation Office Yogyakarta, and the Provincial Culture Office Yogyakarta, began the systematic documentation of 11 monuments using 3D laser scanning and photogrammetry. Thus, these monuments have now been recorded – for the first time – in a holistic three-dimensional rep- resentation. Such a holistic recording can provide new insights into the accuracy of past restorations, reveal modular units and concepts of proportions used by ancient builders, and would be of exceptional importance should further restoration and reconstruction work be necessary in the future, for example, following earthquake damage. The second part of the project will analyze the architectural concepts of the ancient Javanese temples and place them in context with the religious architecture of continental Southeast Asia and South Asia. The aim of the research is to analyze and compare analogies and individualities in spatial concepts, in the concepts of external appearance, as well as in construction techniques. The research will comprise topics such as principles of symmetry and orientation; relationship to the symbol of the mandala, and tripartition of the structure, which is expressed by the different designs of the base zone, the middle zone and the roof zone; the various spatial situations provided for the ritual of circumambulation; and the specific use of symbols in the design of sacred architecture. Keywords: Java, Southeast Asia, ancient temple architecture, Candi, Hindu architecture, Buddhist architecture, 3D surveying methods Fig. 1 Candi Prambanan Śiva, historic photograph ca. 1890 CE. At this time, the upper parts of the temple were in ruins, but the structure was already cleaned from vegetation. (Pho- to: Courtesy of Tropenmuseum Amsterdam) Figure 1 JCCS-a 10/2017 21 Advanced survey of ancient Buddhist and Hindu temples in central Java for track- Lehner ing their position within the history of Southeast Asian architecture 1. INTRODUCTION During the last quarter of the first millennium CE, the Hindu and Buddhist eras developed a high cul- ture in Indonesia. A considerable number of Hindu and Buddhist temples were erected on the island of Java. Most of these monuments are located within the borders of what are today the provinces of Yogyakarta and Jawa Tengah [Degroot 2009; Giessenbacher 2016]. Because of their relatively solid construction with base, wall and roof zones con- sisting of dry stone masonry of precisely-trimmed and tight-fitting blocks [Dumarçay 1981 pp.8ff.; van Romondt 1996 pp.178f.; Dumarçay 2001 pp.56f.; Le 2010 p.196], the structures from this early period are still preserved. Nevertheless, they have also suffered considerable damage over time, mainly caused by earthquakes and volcanic erup- tions [comp. Newhall et al. 2000 pp.14ff], which Figure 3 are extremely destructive in the region, known as the “Ring of Fire”. Another factor which has con- for example, Candi Sambisari was found under a tributed to the damage is the violent rainfall, which rice field, and in 2009 Candi Kimpulan was discov- erodes the soil and leads to strong subsidence of ered by chance, when the foundations for a new the masonry. building of the Islamic University of Yogyakarta were to be excavated [Levenda 2011 pp.231ff.] (Fig. 2). The nineteenth century’s enthusiasm for archae- ology, coupled with a growing enthusiasm for Hence, the actual number of ancient Hindu and antique buildings [Tiffin 2009] led to the uncover- Buddhist cult buildings in Central Java is still ing and excavating ancient monuments becoming unknown. At any time, further candis could be dis- a worldwide trend, including in continental and covered under the layers of lava and earth. insular Southeast Asia [Higham 1991 pp.15ff.; Tanudirjo 1995 pp.64ff.; Degroot 2009 p.3]. 2. THE PROJECT However, it led to more than excavating the monuments. Over the centuries, the numerous 2.1. Documentation of monuments using earthquakes caused such serious damage to the an- three-dimensional measurement methods cient Hindu and Buddhist religious structures (called candi), that, by the beginning of the twentieth The goal of the project is to expand the exact build- century, many of them had crumbled and become ing survey and documentation of Javanese candis rather unattractive cairns (Fig. 1). Thus, large parts beyond the hitherto extensively examined objects of several candis such as Candi Prambanan / Loro such as Candi Borobudur, Candi Sewu or Candi Jonggrang were reconstructed [Bernet Kempers Prambanan. Less well-documented candis should 1996 pp.197ff.; van Romondt 1996 pp.175ff.], and be examined holistically in their substance and some of them were even dismantled and rebuilt, placed in relation to one another. such as Candi Sewu or Candi Plaosan Lor [Dumarçay 1989 p.32; Adrisijanti 2011 pp.21f.; Soekmono In her doctoral thesis at the Leiden University, 1995 pp.26,118ff.] Even the largest monument “Candi Space and Landscape: A Study on the of all, Candi Borobudur, had suffered such strong Distribution, Orientation and Spatial Organization subsidence over the centuries [Errington 1998 of Central Javanese Temple Remains”, Veronique pp.245ff.], that a large part of the structure had to Degroot complains that since 1915 – now more be removed, reconstructed and secured with con- than a century ago – there has been no new in- crete slabs [UNESCO 2005 pp.123ff., Dumarçay ventory of Javanese candis [Degroot 2009 p.17]. 1986 pp.xvff.; Stubbs & Thomson 2017 pp.319f.; In fact, however, even the 1915 inventory is just a von Plehwe-Leisen & Leisen 2015 pp.104ff.]. list of monuments without details. Massive volcanic eruptions are the reason that a With regard to candis in Yogyakarta province, a number of ancient monuments on Java have been large number of measured drawings exist and these buried under masses of ashes and earth. In 1966, are kept in the archive of the Balai Pelestarian Cagar Fig. 2 Candi Kimpulan, accidentally discovered during the excava- tion of the foundations for a new library building at the Is- lamic University of Yogyakarta. (Photo: Lehner) Fig. 3 Point cloud of Candi Sari, re- sulting from a 3D laser scan- ning test, made by members of our team, Doris Grandits and Lukas Stampfer. (Photo: D. Grandits & L. Stampfer) Figure 2 22 JCCS-a 10/2017 Advanced survey of ancient Buddhist and Hindu temples in central Java for track- ing their position within the history of Southeast Asian architecture Lehner Budaya Yogyakarta (Cultural Heritage Preservation Yogyakarta. The concrete tasks of the various part- Office) and have been digitalized in an exemplary ners are to be defined after the data processing has manner. They comprise ink plan drawings, mainly been completed. For this purpose, further photo- representations of floor plans and sections. grammetric measurement is to be carried out with the aid of drones, in order to complete the survey At the same time, surveying methods have consider- of the roof zones, which is only partially possible ably improved in recent years. Measurements made using terrestrial surveying methods. possible by photogrammetry and laser scanning exceed the accuracy of conventional measurements Building research on the object is an important and allow the production of three-dimensional mod- basis for several further investigations. As men- els. In particular, it is the three-dimensionality of tioned above, many candis have been restored and the representations which offers the possibility of reconstructed during the last century. Since these an expanded recognition of the building structure. activities were carried out according to the state- Such a holistic recording can provide new insights of-the-art of the time, the consistency of those into the accuracy of past restoration, could reveal reconstructions which were carried out a long time modular units and concepts of proportions used by ago, is questionable [comp. van Romondt 1996 ancient builders, and would therefore also be of ex- pp.175ff.; Bloembergen 2006 p.199; Jordaan 1996 ceptional importance whenever further restoration pp.14ff.]. and reconstruction work is necessary in the future – for example, following earthquake damage. On the one hand, this objective requires additional research on the building structure, to get further in- A team from our department carried out a test us- formation about original structural parts and those ing the 3D laser scanning