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10/2017 – pp. 21–28 Journal of Comparative Cultural Studies in Architecture JCCS-a

Erich LEHNER

Advanced survey of ancient Buddhist and Hindu temples in central for tracking their position within the history of Southeast Asian architecture

Abstract During the last quarter of the first millennium CE, a considerable number of prominent Hindu and Buddhist temples were erected on the island of Java. Although they were constructed of a solid dry stone masonry of precisely-trimmed and tight-fitting blocks, frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have since caused serious damages over time. For more than a century, intensive efforts have been made to restore or even reconstruct these monuments.

The research project consists of two parts: a holistic three-dimensional building survey, and an archi- tectural classification of Javanese candis within the framework of South and Southeast religious building traditions.

After a test phase in 2016, a team from the Department of Building History and Archaeological Research of the Vienna University of Technology, in cooperation with the , the Cultural Heritage Preservation Office Yogyakarta, and the Provincial Culture Office Yogyakarta, began the systematic documentation of 11 monuments using 3D laser scanning and photogrammetry. Thus, these monuments have now been recorded – for the first time – in a holistic three-dimensional rep- resentation. Such a holistic recording can provide new insights into the accuracy of past restorations, reveal modular units and concepts of proportions used by ancient builders, and would be of exceptional importance should further restoration and reconstruction work be necessary in the future, for example, following earthquake damage.

The second part of the project will analyze the architectural concepts of the ancient Javanese temples and place them in context with the religious architecture of continental and South Asia. The aim of the research is to analyze and compare analogies and individualities in spatial concepts, in the concepts of external appearance, as well as in construction techniques. The research will comprise topics such as principles of symmetry and orientation; relationship to the symbol of the , and tripartition of the structure, which is expressed by the different designs of the base zone, the middle zone and the roof zone; the various spatial situations provided for the ritual of ; and the specific use of symbols in the design of sacred architecture.

Keywords: Java, Southeast Asia, ancient temple architecture, Candi, , , 3D surveying methods

Fig. 1 Candi Śiva, historic photograph ca. 1890 CE. At this time, the upper parts of the temple were in ruins, but the structure was already cleaned from vegetation. (Pho- to: Courtesy of Tropenmuseum Amsterdam) Figure 1 JCCS-a 10/2017 21 Advanced survey of ancient Buddhist and Hindu temples in for track- Lehner ing their position within the history of Southeast Asian architecture

1. INTRODUCTION

During the last quarter of the first millennium CE, the Hindu and Buddhist eras developed a high cul- ture in . A considerable number of Hindu and Buddhist temples were erected on the island of Java. Most of these monuments are located within the borders of what are today the provinces of Yogyakarta and Jawa Tengah [Degroot 2009; Giessenbacher 2016]. Because of their relatively solid construction with base, wall and roof zones con- sisting of dry stone masonry of precisely-trimmed and tight-fitting blocks [Dumarçay 1981 pp.8ff.; van Romondt 1996 pp.178f.; Dumarçay 2001 pp.56f.; Le 2010 p.196], the structures from this early period are still preserved. Nevertheless, they have also suffered considerable damage over time, mainly caused by earthquakes and volcanic erup- tions [comp. Newhall et al. 2000 pp.14ff], which Figure 3 are extremely destructive in the region, known as the “Ring of Fire”. Another factor which has con- for example, Candi was found under a tributed to the damage is the violent rainfall, which rice field, and in 2009 Candi was discov- erodes the soil and leads to strong subsidence of ered by chance, when the foundations for a new the masonry. building of the Islamic University of Yogyakarta were to be excavated [Levenda 2011 pp.231ff.] (Fig. 2). The nineteenth century’s enthusiasm for archae- ology, coupled with a growing enthusiasm for Hence, the actual number of ancient Hindu and antique buildings [Tiffin 2009] led to the uncover- Buddhist cult buildings in Central Java is still ing and excavating ancient monuments becoming unknown. At any time, further candis could be dis- a worldwide trend, including in continental and covered under the layers of lava and earth. insular Southeast Asia [Higham 1991 pp.15ff.; Tanudirjo 1995 pp.64ff.; Degroot 2009 p.3]. 2. THE PROJECT However, it led to more than excavating the monuments. Over the centuries, the numerous 2.1. Documentation of monuments using earthquakes caused such serious damage to the an- three-dimensional measurement methods cient Hindu and Buddhist religious structures (called candi), that, by the beginning of the twentieth The goal of the project is to expand the exact build- century, many of them had crumbled and become ing survey and documentation of Javanese candis rather unattractive cairns (Fig. 1). Thus, large parts beyond the hitherto extensively examined objects of several candis such as Candi Prambanan / Loro such as Candi , Candi or Candi Jonggrang were reconstructed [Bernet Kempers Prambanan. Less well-documented candis should 1996 pp.197ff.; van Romondt 1996 pp.175ff.], and be examined holistically in their substance and some of them were even dismantled and rebuilt, placed in relation to one another. such as Candi Sewu or Candi Lor [Dumarçay 1989 p.32; Adrisijanti 2011 pp.21f.; Soekmono In her doctoral thesis at the Leiden University, 1995 pp.26,118ff.] Even the largest monument “Candi Space and Landscape: A Study on the of all, Candi Borobudur, had suffered such strong Distribution, Orientation and Spatial Organization subsidence over the centuries [Errington 1998 of Central Javanese Temple Remains”, Veronique pp.245ff.], that a large part of the structure had to Degroot complains that since 1915 – now more be removed, reconstructed and secured with con- than a century ago – there has been no new in- crete slabs [UNESCO 2005 pp.123ff., Dumarçay ventory of Javanese candis [Degroot 2009 p.17]. 1986 pp.xvff.; Stubbs & Thomson 2017 pp.319f.; In fact, however, even the 1915 inventory is just a von Plehwe-Leisen & Leisen 2015 pp.104ff.]. list of monuments without details.

Massive volcanic eruptions are the reason that a With regard to candis in Yogyakarta province, a number of ancient monuments on Java have been large number of measured drawings exist and these buried under masses of ashes and earth. In 1966, are kept in the archive of the Balai Pelestarian Cagar

Fig. 2 Candi Kimpulan, accidentally discovered during the excava- tion of the foundations for a new library building at the Is- lamic University of Yogyakarta. (Photo: Lehner)

Fig. 3 Point cloud of Candi , re- sulting from a 3D laser scan- ning test, made by members of our team, Doris Grandits and Lukas Stampfer. (Photo: D. Grandits & L. Stampfer) Figure 2 22 JCCS-a 10/2017 Advanced survey of ancient Buddhist and Hindu temples in central Java for track- ing their position within the history of Southeast Asian architecture Lehner

Budaya Yogyakarta (Cultural Heritage Preservation Yogyakarta. The concrete tasks of the various part- Office) and have been digitalized in an exemplary ners are to be defined after the data processing has manner. They comprise ink plan drawings, mainly been completed. For this purpose, further photo- representations of floor plans and sections. grammetric measurement is to be carried out with the aid of drones, in order to complete the survey At the same time, surveying methods have consider- of the roof zones, which is only partially possible ably improved in recent years. Measurements made using terrestrial surveying methods. possible by photogrammetry and laser scanning exceed the accuracy of conventional measurements Building research on the object is an important and allow the production of three-dimensional mod- basis for several further investigations. As men- els. In particular, it is the three-dimensionality of tioned above, many candis have been restored and the representations which offers the possibility of reconstructed during the last century. Since these an expanded recognition of the building structure. activities were carried out according to the state- Such a holistic recording can provide new insights of-the-art of the time, the consistency of those into the accuracy of past restoration, could reveal reconstructions which were carried out a long time modular units and concepts of proportions used by ago, is questionable [comp. van Romondt 1996 ancient builders, and would therefore also be of ex- pp.175ff.; Bloembergen 2006 p.199; Jordaan 1996 ceptional importance whenever further restoration pp.14ff.]. and reconstruction work is necessary in the future – for example, following earthquake damage. On the one hand, this objective requires additional research on the building structure, to get further in- A team from our department carried out a test us- formation about original structural parts and those ing the 3D laser scanning method on Candi Sari added later (Fig. 4). Moreover, local archives need in April 2016 (Fig. 3). It was found that the pre- to be searched for documentations on historic res- vious measurements showed only deviations of a toration and reconstruction work. few centimeters. However, as already mentioned, the previous measurements were performed only on the horizontal and vertical sections and are 2.2. The embedding of Javanese candis in therefore not adequate for a holistic spatial docu- the of South and mentation of the object structure. Southeast Asia

In July 2017, we launched a 3D documentation of There are a number of scholarly works on cen- Candis in the province of Yogyakarta, conducted tral Javanese candis, many of which are of high by a team comprising students and staff from our quality. Almost all of these works focus on litera- Department of Building History and Archaeological ture, and and their iconography, Research of the Vienna University of Technology and the dating of the buildings [e.g.: Acri & Creese (TU Wien) in cooperation with the Gadjah Mada & Griffiths (eds.) 2011; Degroot & Klokke 2010; University Yogyakarta (UGM), Balai Pelestarian Cagar Miksic 2010; comp. also Degroot 2009 p.1; Chihara Budaya Yogyakarta (BCPB), and Dinas Kebudayaan 1996 pp.101-112; Kastawan 2009 pp.2,6ff.,18ff.], DIY (Provincial Culture Office Yogyakarta). The whereas not much has been done so far in terms workshop included building surveys using 3D laser of contextualizing the architectural concepts of scanning and photogrammetry. Particular attention Javanese candis within the history of architecture was paid to the selection of suitable measurement in India and continental Southeast Asia. From a techniques and software in order to use the most historical point of , although Java’s relations appropriate methods for the recordings. with cultures such as the in the last quarter of the first millennium CE are reason- A presentation at the UGM gave the preliminary ably well-known [Munoz 2006 pp.140ff.], concrete results of the workshop during which eleven monu- comparisons between the building cultures of the ments were surveyed using laser scanning and/ respective regions have not yet been established. or photogrammetry: Candi , Candi Sari, Thus, even in comprehensive publications, where Candi Sambisari, Candi Ijo, Candi Barong, Candi these building cultures are placed in relation to , Candi , Candi , Candi one another, there is a lack of direct comparison, Gampingan, Candi Kimpulan, and Situs Payak. It with only a few attempts being made and such was proposed by the Indonesian partners to es- connections only briefly touched on [e.g. Chihara tablish a center for candi research in Yogyakarta, 1996 pp.154ff.; Soekmono 1995]. In particular, based on a cooperation between the TU Wien, the comparisons to Khmer architecture would lead to UGM, and the Cultural Heritage Preservation Office a better understanding of principles in Javanese

Fig. 4 Façade detail of Candi Kalasan. Three-dimensional renderings of candis would provide de- tailed information about origi- nal structural elements and those added later, which could be used as a basis for checking the accuracy of historic resto- rations and reconstructions. (Photo: Lehner)

Fig. 5 Candi Prambanan, Java (above), and , (below): compari- sons to Khmer architecture would lead to a better un- derstanding of principles in Javanese candi architecture. (Photo: Lehner) Figure 4 Figure 5 JCCS-a 10/2017 23 Advanced survey of ancient Buddhist and Hindu temples in central Java for track- Lehner ing their position within the history of Southeast Asian architecture

Figure 6

candi architecture [Soekmono 1995 p.38] (Fig. 5). The significance of groundplan shapes is also Although the ancient Khmer architecture differs closely connected to the extent of the symmetries. in some cases in the spatial concept as well as Considered as a geometric shape, a rectangular in terms of appearance, there are also similarities groundplan has two symmetry axes; a square, four, which make a comparison reasonable. Comparisons and a circular groundplan has an infinite number of should also be carried out with other building cul- symmetry axes (Fig. 6). Thus, usually, lower-rank- tures. In this context, the as ing building parts such as vestibules usually have the source of the religion is, of course, an essential a rectangular floor plan, while high-ranking rooms, part. However, other Hindu and Buddhist architec- such as the cella, are built on a square groundplan. tural traditions, as well as earlier and later ones, have to be considered, such as those in , In numerous candis in Central Java, not only the Sri , , Myanmar, Bangladesh, , main part, such as the cella, but also the entire , etc. building is erected on a square groundplan [comp. Degroot 2009 pp.148ff.]. This is because the candi is mostly reduced to the cella – in contrast to Hindu 2.2.1. Symmetry, orientation, and the maṇḍala temples where longitudinal groundplans result from assembling cella and vestibule, as is the case in The main principles of symmetry, orientation, and India or (partly) in continental Southeast Asia (for the relationship to the maṇḍala as the bearer of example at the Khmer temples of Phimai or Phnom mythological meanings are essential criteria for Rung). However, there are also several candis contextualizing Javanese candis within the archi- erected on cross-rectangular groundplans, such as tectural cultures of Asia. the Buddhist Candi Sari, Candi Plaosan Lor, or Candi Banyunibo. The actual function of these buildings Symmetry is an essential feature in the hierarchical (Candi Sari and Candi Plaosan are often considered order of buildings and constructions – not only in to be monastic buildings) [Bandaranayake 1974 Southeast Asia but in most architectural traditions p.275; Chihara 1996 p.97]needs to be investigated worldwide. Symmetry is expressed by the outer ap- in greater detail. pearance, the spatial concept, and the groundplan. Generally, the appearance of prestigious buildings Considering the fact that the circle is the highest- is characterized by the symmetrical design of the ranking geometrical form, one may expect there front – and in most cases, the rear as well. Since to be cult buildings erected on circular ground- the designs of the front and rear sides generally dif- plans too. And in fact, circular groundplans occur fer from each other, the lateral sides almost always in Buddhist stūpas – but stūpas are usually not have asymmetrical façades and are thus marked erected as independent main structures in Central as lower ranking. The exceptionally high prestige Java. Here, elements of circular plan occur only of candis is expressed by the fact that the lateral at the highest points of the buildings – which is sides of a number of candis are also symmetrical. actually quite characteristic of a high-ranking com- ponent (Fig. 7). Symmetries are found not only on the façades but also extend to the entire spatial concept. The main reason why there are no circular spaces Consequently, the entrance to the cultic area, or circular temples is that they cannot be combined the entrance into the actual cult building, the an- with other components. However, there is another terooms, and the main room (the cella) all are important reason why circular groundplans, which Fig. 6 situated on a continuous axis. There are some lack orientation to a certain , are Hierarchy of geometrical exceptions, such as Candi Prambanan, Candi rarely realized: in both and , forms, based on symmetries: the rectangle (2 symmetry Sambisari, or Candi Barong, where the main axes the orientation of religious buildings according axes) is considered lower- are staggered: an interesting phenomenon that to the cardinal directions east, west, south, and ranking than the square (4 would need to be researched more thoroughly. north is obligatory [Michell 1988 pp.72f.,159]. The symmetry axes), while the circle (an infinite number of symmetry axes) is considered the highest-ranking form. (Photo: Lehner)

Fig. 7 As the circle is considered the highest-ranking geometrical form, circular elements usu- ally appear only at the high- est position on South East Asia temples: , Candi IV / Java (left); / Cambodia (2nd from left); Mamallapuram, Shore temple / India (3rd from left); Bagan, Gubyaukgyi / Myanmar (right). (Photo: Lehner) Figure 7 24 JCCS-a 10/2017 Advanced survey of ancient Buddhist and Hindu temples in central Java for track- ing their position within the history of Southeast Asian architecture Lehner

Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 application of the cardinal directions means that the If rathas can be regarded as being an approach to cult building is anchored in the cosmic system: the a near-circular groundplan, there is also a further horizontal axes east-west and south-north intersect interpretation for their application, and that is the at the center of the holy of holies and create a third, accentuation of the axial orientation, as realized in vertical axis which, as the center of the world, con- a maṇḍala. Maṇḍala can be drawn, painted, made of nects the earthly world with the underworld beneath color powder sprinkled on the ground, or even built. and the world of the gods above. In the Buddhist According to Miksic, the three-dimensional forma- stūpa, this vertical axis materializes in the yaṣṭi, the tion of the maṇḍala can be regarded as the original representation of the world axis, which penetrates form [Miksic 1990 p.50]. It also played an important the structure [Snodgrass 1992 pp.163ff.,320ff.; part in the building process of erecting a candi, as Kottkamp 1992 pp.61ff.]. In the , this a hidden maṇḍala was found during the reconstruc- concept is expressed by the tower rising above the tion of Candi Sewu [Dumarcay 1989 p.23]. cella. This arrangement generates verticality: an es- sential characteristic of prestige architecture as can A maṇḍala is a meditation aid important in both Fig. 8 be seen in numerous building cultures worldwide. , and the word “maṇḍala” By staggering the corners of actually means “circle” [Snodgrass 1992 p.104], the temple tower as the high- est-ranking building part, the However, returning to the subject of approaching a but in most cases, it is the combination of circle and square of the groundplan is groundplan form which is as close as possible to a square. The circle always forms the central figure, transformed into a shape simi- circle (as the highest-ranking shape), without waiv- corresponding to its higher valence in geometry. In lar to a circle. Nevertheless, each of the small parts of the ing the orientation towards cardinal directions: just addition, the cosmic location is usually represented façade keeps its orientation such an option is achieved by staggering the corners in the maṇḍala by projections that are attached to to the cardinal points, a true of a square, which are then called rathas. Indian the square in the main axes (Fig. 11). This creates circular form being reserved only for the amalaka and Hindu temples usually have three, five or seven a similar form as is formed by the stepped corners kalasam, forming the highest rathas (triratha, pancaratha, saptaratha). Using of a triratha. point of the tower (Rajarani rathas, the basic shape of the square approaches a temple in Bhubaneswar / In- dia). (Source: (author, based circular outline but keeps its orientation to the car- Groundplans in the form of a maṇḍala can also on Volwahsen 1994) dinal points. In this respect, rathas are a prominent be created by projecting portal zones, which are feature of cult buildings, clearly differentiating them arranged double-symmetrically on all four sides. Fig. 9 In Khmer architecture, the from profane buildings. In addition, rathas achieve a Such approaches can be found by the application staggering of the corners of strong verticalization of the building, which in gen- of projecting niches, for example, at Dieng temples the temple tower generates eral is an important prestige feature in architecture, such as Candi Sembadra or Candi Gatotkaca, or imposing structures with a strongly verticalizing appear- as already mentioned. In North India, for example, in North Indian temples, where they are not fully ance (Phimai / Thailand). the high-ranking śikhara temple tower uses rathas developed because of the appendix of a vestibule (Photo: Lehner) to clearly differentiate it from the lower-ranking – such as, for example, at the Kandariya Fig. 10 maṇḍapa vestibule (Fig. 8), and in Khmer architec- temple in Khajuraho or the Sun Temple at Konârak. A number of large central ture, rathas generate imposing structures (Fig. 9). More perfect examples of this are Khmer temples Javanese candis are erected Similar to Khmer architecture, in Central Java, the such as or , and in Java, Candi on a square groundplan with staggered corners (triratha), number of rathas is limited to three (Fig. 10). Kalasan, Candi Śiva Prambanan, and, even more similar to examples in India and continental South East Asia which are mentioned elsewhere (Śiva temple in Prambanan). (Photo: Lehner)

Fig. 11 Maṇḍalas are spiritual sym- bols in both Buddhism and Hinduism, representing the universe. In their composition of central circle(s), surrounded by square(s), and protruding elements in the symmetry axes, they are comparable to temple towers with stag- gered square groundplan and protruding portals set in the cardinal directions, and the circular element on top of the central vertical axis. (Photo: Lehner)

Fig. 12 In some cases, the stagger- ing of the square leads to a pronounced cruciform-shaped groundplan, such as at Candi Sewu. (Source: author, based on Dumarçay 1986) Figure 11 Figure 12 JCCS-a 10/2017 25 Advanced survey of ancient Buddhist and Hindu temples in central Java for track- Lehner ing their position within the history of Southeast Asian architecture

pronounced, Candi Sewu (Fig. 12), whose promi- nent cruciform shape, however, comes from a later phase of construction [Dumarcay 1981 pp.23ff.].

2.2.2. Tripartite structure

The vertical zoning of cult buildings in South and Southeast Asia is usually marked by a tripar- tite structure [Chihara 1996 p.97; Atmadi 1994 pp.24ff.], the individual areas of which are clearly distinguished by different proportions. While the pedestal zone appears as a rather flat cuboid, the wall zone approaches a cube-like shape, and the roof zone is in the shape of a . The three areas are also characterized by a different structur- ing: While the pedestal zone is profiled horizontally by cornices, the wall zone is divided vertically by wall projections or pilasters, and the roof zone has both a horizontal outline through cornices, as well as a vertical accentuation by aspiring elements which are arranged on these cornices (Fig. 13).

Thus, the proportioning of the building elements of these three zones, ranging from a squat pedestal to a high-rising roof zone; as well as their structuring, Figure 13 whose complexity increases from the base zone to the roof zone, clearly express a hierarchic order altar, a cella, a temple, or an entire temple complex that increases from the bottom to the top. is veneration of the object. The ritual is normally performed in a clockwise direction, as indicated Such an increase in importance also demonstrates by the original term pradakṣiṇa (“to the the symbolic assignment of the three components. right”), where the right (the “good”) side of the The association of the pedestal zone with the under- worshipper is turned towards the venerated object world, the wall zone with the earthly world and the [Lochtefeld 2002 p.517]. In contrast, counter- roof zone with the supernatural world of the gods, clockwise rotation (prasavya) usually has negative as well as the references to the symbolic mountain associations and is practiced in exceptional cases, Meru, the mythical center of the cosmos, are re- as part of funeral rituals – although it seems that peatedly stressed in the literature [Bernet-Kempers it was also practiced at some Javanese candis 1976; Nagaoka 2016 pp.1f.; Levenda 2011 p.113; [Degroot 2009 pp.211ff]. criticism by Miksic 2004 p.151; Dumarçay 1986 pp.38ff]. The ritual of circumambulation requires specific spatial concepts which vary according to different The volumetric proportion of these three zones building cultures. So, in the huge temple complex- is somewhat unbalanced: especially the pedestal es of South India, such as, for example, Madurai, zones appear often to be rather inferior compared circumambulation is extended to include the con- to the wall and roof zones, as is sometimes the case centric streets of the city, the center of which is in South Indian temples, or exaggeratedly high, as formed by the main sanctuary [Parker 2008 p.155]. in the case of some Khmer temples. In this connec- In North India, pradakṣiṇa can be performed around tion, many central Javanese candis developed far the temple, sometimes on a platform, and some- better-balanced proportions of the tripartite struc- times along a corridor encircling the cella, like at ture, starting in the earliest structures at Dieng, the Kandariya Mahadeva temple in Khajuraho. In and culminating in Candi Śiva Prambanan. a number of Burmese temples, for example, at the Ānanda at Bagan, the center of the building is circumambulated in concentrically arranged tunnel- 2.2.3. Circumambulation (pradakṣiṇa) shaped galleries. And large Khmer temples have one or more circumferential galleries, surrounding Circumambulation is one of the most important the central , the most impressive example rituals performed in Hindu and Buddhist cult com- being . plexes. The circumambulation of a cult symbol, an Fig. 13 The external appearance of candis is characterized by their tripartite structure: a broad, horizontally-profiled pedestal, a slimmer, vertically-profiled middle zone, and a pyramidal upper zone (Prambanan, Śiva temple). (Photo: Lehner)

Fig. 14 Hindu liṅgam- und Bud- dhist stūpa elements merged in a bell-shaped form on the Hindu temple Candi Śiva Pram- banan. (Photo: Lehner)

Fig. 15 Hindu liṅgam-yoni und Bud- dhist stūpa elements, arranged side by side on the roof zone of the Buddhist structure Plaosan Lor. (Photo: Lehner) Figure 14 Figure 15 26 JCCS-a 10/2017 Advanced survey of ancient Buddhist and Hindu temples in central Java for track- ing their position within the history of Southeast Asian architecture Lehner

Central Javanese candis have varying concepts for fertility [Moore 1977 p.115; Mugambi 1990 pp.71f.; circumambulation: at the candis on the Dieng pla- Blurton 1993 p.163], and the Buddhist stūpa is a teau, the oldest Javanese temples, there is no space symbol of a sepulchre! provided for circumambulation; at the Gedong Songo temples, the cella can be circumambulated An even stranger situation occurs where Hindu on a narrow platform; at Candi Śiva Prambanan and Buddhist symbols share equal ranking on the and Candi Sewu, the cella can be circumambulat- same cult building, such as in the case of Candi ed on a gallery; and at Candi Borobudur, multiple Śiva Prambanan and Candi Plaosan Lor, where both galleries were designed for circumambulation. Do liṅgam-yoni and stūpas are arranged side by side, the increasing opportunities for circumambulation prominently placed in the roof zone (Fig. 15). reflect a chronological development? Indeed, the chronological sequence Dieng - Gedong Songo - Syncretism has always played an important role Prambanan would be right, but Borobudur does in Java, where the population is mainly Muslim. not fit into this chronological scheme. Rather, the This can be observed in dance and music, and es- various spatial concepts for circumambulation are pecially in the , where the recurring theme related to the dimensions of the building, a situa- of and reveals its Hindu tion which also corresponds generally to those in [comp. e.g. Brandon 1974 p.50,90]. In other other building cultures mentioned before. arts, in the fine arts such as painting, relief, and sculpture, there are depictions of human beings, which is actually prohibited in Islam. Hindu motifs 2.2.4. Syncretism are applied to the palace of the Islamic Sultan of Yogyakarta, and Hindu symbols appear even in the Syncretism has always been one of the crucial fac- complex of the old of . Actually, tors forming society, culture, and religion in Javanese the Javanese are proud of their Hindu and Buddhist culture [e.g. Raillon 2011 pp.103ff.; Falvey 2015]. monuments of pre-Islamic periods. It is obvious that local people like to visit the religious sites of As far back as the time of the Mataram empire in their ancient ancestors. Moreover, it is a fact that the last centuries of the first millennium CE, there public organizations spare no effort to restore and were two main religions peacefully coexisting in reconstruct Hindu and Buddhist cult buildings. Java: Buddhism and Hinduism (comp. e.g. Miksic Erich Lehner 2010 pp.2ff.), and there were also two ruling dynas- Finally, in this connection, here is a typical epi- Ao.Univ.Prof. Dipl.-Ing. ties, the Buddhist Śailendra and the Hindu Sanjaya, sode. As already mentioned, it was at the Islamic Dr.techn. Erich Lehner is born alternately competing, and unifying through mar- University of Yogyakarta that a Hindu temple was in Austria in 1955, studied riage. Surprisingly, this situation led to convergent found buried in the ground during excavation work architecture at the Vienna University of Technology, and solutions rather than divergent designs in terms to prepare the foundations for a new building. holds a Master degree (Dipl.- of the architecture of cult buildings [Chihara 1996 This temple, called Candi UII (Universitas Islam Ing.) in architecture and a pp.93ff.]. Such convergences are particularly evi- Indonesia), Candi Kimpulan, or Candi Pustakasala, Ph.D. degree (Dr.techn.) in technical sciences, got habili- dent in architectural details, most noticeably in the has been restored in an exemplary manner, is tated and received the venia liṅgam-yoni or ratna elements as Hindu symbols, prominently surrounded by a circulating ramp, docendi for Architecture of and the stūpa element as a symbol of Buddhism. and a museum has been set up at the Islamic Non-Western traditions. His field of activity comprises the These main symbols of the two religions were both University, showing religious Hindu exhibits: a truly architecture of Asia, Ameri- prominently arranged in the most important zone of impressive example of the cultural awareness and ca, Africa and Oceania, with the cult buildings – the roof zone. Thus, in the roof religious tolerance that has formed the mentality a focus on relationships of function, form, structure and zone of Hindu temples, such as in Gedong Songo, of the Javanese for many centuries. symbolism in architecture we findli ṅgam-yoni or ratna elements, while in the and principles of architec- roof zone of Buddhist temples, such as Candi Sewu, Hence there is no doubt that Hindu and Buddhist tural development within the environment of technology, are stūpas – in each of these examples in multiple cult buildings are still an essential factor in the society and art. He worked as arrangements. And it is particularly interesting identity of the region and in Javanese society. university assistant and assis- that in some cases these two symbolic elements Therefore, in this context, further research on the tant professor, was head of the Institute for History of Archi- merge into a new form (Fig. 14), which seems pre- of Java is an important is- tecture, Buildings Survey and particularly strange considering the origin of these sue for the continuity of the self-understanding of Theory of Architecture at the elements: the Hindu liṅgam-yoni is a symbol of and society. Vienna University of Technol- ogy, and holds the position of associate professor at the In- stitute of , Build- REFERENCES ing Archaeology and Restora- tion at the Vienna University Acri, A. & Creese, H. & Griffiths, A. (eds.) (2011).From Laṅkā Bloembergen, M. (2006). Colonial Spectacles: The Netherlands of Technology. 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