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PERCEPTIONS OF TRADITIONAL HEALERS REGARDING ETHNOBOTANICAL IMPORTANCE AND CONSERVATION STATUS OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THULAMELA, LIMPOPO by KHAMUSI VICTOR NEFHERE Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE In the subject ORNAMENTAL HORTICULTURE at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES SUPERVISOR: PROF. WAJ NEL CO-SUPERVISOR: PROF. RM HENDRICK March 2019 DECLARATION I, Khamusi Victor Nefhere, hereby declare that the dissertation which I hereby submit for the degree of Master of Science in ornamental horticulture, at the University of South Africa, is my own work, and has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other institution. I declare that the dissertation does not contain any written work presented by other persons whether written, pictures, graphs or data or any other information, without acknowledging the source. I declare that where words from a written source have been used, the words have been paraphrased and referenced, and, where exact words from a source have been used, the words have been placed inside quotation marks and referenced. I declare that during my study I adhered to the research ethics policy of the University of South Africa. I received ethics approval for the duration of my study, prior to the commencement of data gathering, and have not acted outside the approval conditions. I declare that the content of my thesis has been submitted through an electronic plagiarism detection program before the final submission for examination. Student signature: _____________________ date ____________________ Khamusi Victor Nefhere ii DEDICATION This project is dedicated to my late father (Nkhelebeni Wilson), mother (Tshinakaho) and brother, Phalanndwa Nefhere. “Edelani nga mulalo dzi Ndou” (Rest in peace). iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the following individuals and organisations for their assistance and support towards the study: Firstly, I would like to thank my Father God for giving me the opportunity to further my studies, and then giving me the strength and determination to complete it. My wife Joyce, without your encouragement and love, I could not have finished this dissertation. Thank you for increasing your own burden, in order to lighten mine. Prof. Willem Nel, my supervisor, Prof. Jimmy Hendrick, my co-supervisor, for their inspiration, valuable advice and encouragement, dedication, time and patience. Thank you for believing in me. Unisa masters and doctoral support bursary, for funding my studies. Prof. Milingoni Peter Tshisikhawe for your assistance and guidance during my studies; your assistance was just a phone call away. Thanks very much for your support. Ms. Henrietta Samuels for your encouragement and support during my studies. Thanks very much for assistance. Mr. Erick Netshiungani and his staff members, for granting me permission to access Thohoyandou Botanical Gardens, as well as providing information and assistance with medicinal plant identification. Many thanks to headman Thithomelwi George Mphaphuli for granting me permission to conduct research in his area. Special thanks go to all the traditional healers who took part in the study; without you this project would have been impossible. Marlette van der Merwe, for editing this dissertation. iv ABSTRACT Medicinal plants of Thulamela municipality are experiencing challenges due to human activities, resulting in some of the medicinal plants becoming difficult to find, declining, endangered or even extinct. Unsustainable harvesting is threatening the survival of certain medicinal plant species used as a source of primary healthcare in the area. This study investigates aspects related to traditional healers' perceptions with regard to collection, ethnobotanical importance and conservation status of indigenous medicinal plants used by traditional healers around Thulamela municipality. Information on medicinal plants was gathered by means of semi-structured interviews, field walks, personal observation and a literature review. A total of 90 medicinal plant species, which belong to 47 families, from a total of 82 genera commonly used by traditional healers to treat different ailments, were recorded. About 87% of traditional healers indicated that some medicinal plants are difficult to find; only 13% of healers did not experience difficulties in finding some medicinal plants. KEYWORDS: conservation, declining, ethnobotany, indigenous medicinal plants, medicinal plants cultivation, primary healthcare, traditional healers, traditional healing, traditional medicine, unsustainable harvesting. v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION …………………………………………………………………………......ii DEDICATION………………………………………………………………………………..iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………....…….iv ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………..v TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………………….vi LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………………xiv LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………….xvii GLOSSARY OF TERMS…………………………………………………………………xviii ACRONYMS……………………………………………………………………………….xxi APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………….....xxii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1. Introduction and background…................................................................................1 1.1. Study area.....………………………………………………………………………...…4 1.1.1. Topography………………………………………………………………………...…6 1.1.2. Geology and soil type…………………………………………………....................6 1.1.3. Climate……………………………………………………………………………......6 1.1.4. Vegetation………………………………………………………………………….....7 1.2. Problem statement and rationale……………………………………………………...8 1.3. Research questions……………………………………………………….................10 1.4. Aim and objectives…………………………………………………………………….10 1.4.1. Research aim……………………………………………………………….............10 1.4.2. Research objectives……………………………………………………………......10 1.5. Hypotheses………………………………………………………………………........11 vi 1.6. Motivation for the study……………………………………………..........................12 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Ethnobotany……………………………………………………………………..........13 2.2. Traditional healing system……………………………………………….................14 2.3. Traditional medicine….……………………………………………………………….14 2.3.1. Knowledge acquisition………………………………………………….................15 2.3.2. Knowledge transfer…………………………………………………………………15 2.3.3. Species utilisation…………………………………………………........................16 2.3.4. Sources of traditional medicine……………………………….............................16 2.3.5. Demand and availability…………………………………………………………….17 2.3.6. Harvesting procedures……………………………………………………………..17 2.3.7. Harvested plant parts……………………………………………….......................18 2.3.8. Preparation and administration…………………………………………………....18 2.3.9. Packaging and storage…………………………………………………………......19 2.4. Medicinal plants conservation…………………………………………………….....19 2.4.1. Threats to medicinal plant conservation…………………..................................21 2.4.1.1. Population growth…………………………………………………………………21 2.4.1.2. Unsustainable harvesting……………………………………………………......22 2.4.1.3. Commercialisation……………………………………………………………......23 2.4.1.4. Unemployment…………………………………………………………………… 24 2.4.1.5. Urbanisation……………………………………………………………………….24 2.5. Approaches to medicinal plant conservation………………………………...…….25 2.6. Legislation……………………………………………………………………………. .26 2.6.1. Constitution……………………………………………………………………….....26 vii 2.6.2. National Environmental Management Act (NEMA)………………………………26 2.7. Medicinal plant propagation.................................................................................27 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 3.1. Methodology and design……………………………………………………………..28 3.2. Data collection………………………………………………………………………...30 3.2.1. Semi-structured interviews………………………………………………………...30 3.2.2. Observation and field walks……………………………………………………….31 3.2.3. Literature review…………………………………………………………………….32 3.3. Sampling method……………………………………………………………………..32 3.4. Data analysis…………………………………………………………………………..33 3.4.1. Data coding………………………………………………………………………….34 3.4.2. Validity and reliability……………………………………………………………….34 3.5. Consent………………………………………………………………………………...35 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1. Demographics……………………………………………………………..................36 4.1.1. Age group of respondents………………………………………………………….36 4.1.2. Gender……………………………………………………………………………….37 4.1.3. Age by gender of respondents…………………………………………………….37 4.1.4. Cultural group………………………………………………………………………..37 4.1.5. Residence…………………………………………………………………………... 37 4.1.6. Level of education…………………………………………………………………..38 4.2. Medicinal plant species used…………………………………………………………38 4.2.1. Sources of traditional medicine…………………………………..........................56 viii 4.2.2. Demand and availability…………………………………………………………….57 4.2.3. Harvesting procedure……………………………………………………………....60 4.2.4. Harvesting process………………………………………………………………….61 4.2.5. Harvested plant parts………………………………………………………............65 4.2.6. Methods of preparation and administration………………………………………66 4.2.7. Medicinal plant storage and packaging………………………………………......68 4.3. Medicinal plants conservation…………………………………………………….....71 4.3.1. Threats to medicinal plant conservation…………………..................................72 4.3.2. Population growth and urbanisation………………………………………………72 4.3.3. Unemployment…………………………………………………………………...… 74 4.3.4. Poaching…………………………………………………………………………..... 75 4.3.5. Unsustainable harvesting……………………………………………………….....78 4.3.6. Commercialisation……………………………………………………………….....79 4.3.7. Firewood collection………………………………………………………………....80 4.4. Approaches