1 1.1. INTRODUCTION 1.1.1. Plant and Human Life “We Come on This

1.1. INTRODUCTION 1.1.1. Plant and human life “We come on this earth as guests of plants” is a monumental ancient aphorism. Since time immemorial, nature’s own supreme creation, man, has completely learnt to exploit plant resources and to make use of every bit of it as civilization developed. In fact from the start of the life to the last breath, almost every aspect of human life is deeply associated with plants for all his needs (Bown, 1995). The plants are valuable natural renewable resource, and the most important producers of natural products including food, fiber, wood, oil and important life saving drugs. 1.1.2. Herbal medicines Herbal medicines have been used since the dawn of civilization to maintain health and to treat diseases. The World Health Organization estimates that about three quarters of the world’s population currently use herbs and other forms of traditional medicines to treat their diseases. Even as we commence the new century with its exiting prospects of gene therapy herbal medicines remains as one of the common forms of therapy available to most of the world’s population (Kuruvilla, 2002). Even today, majority of the medicines are prepared from the plant and plant products. Major pharmaceutical industries depend on the plant products for the preparation of various medicines. In the present context, the plant based system of medicine is widely accepted and practiced not only in the Indian peninsula but also in the developing and developed countries of the world. Thus plant derived medicines have been the first line of defense in maintaining health and combating diseases world over (John, 1984; Veale, 1992). 1.1.3 Indian scenario India’s biodiversity is unmatched due to the presence of 16 different agro- climatic zones, 10 vegetation zones, 25 biotic provinces and 426 biomes (habitats of specific species). With only 2.4% of the land area, India already accounts for 7-8% of the recorded species of the world. Over 46,000 species of plants and 81,000 species of animals have been recorded in the country so far by the Botanical Survey of India, and the Zoological Survey of India, respectively. India is an acknowledged centre of crop diversity, and harbors many wild relatives and breeds of domesticated animals (NBA, 2005). 1 The Indian subcontinent is a vast repository of medicinal plants that are used in traditional medical treatments (Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2007). Many westerners have long regarded the Indian systems of medicine as a rich source of knowledge (Subhose, 2005). In India, around 25,000 medicinal plants have been recorded (Dev, 1997; Joy et al., 1998; FRLHT, 2009); however traditional communities are using only 7,000 - 7,500 plants for curing different diseases (Nayar, 1987; Samy, et. al., 1998; Samy and Ignacimuthu, 2000; Kamboj, 2000). The medicinal plants are listed in various indigenous systems such as Siddha (600), Ayurveda (700), Amchi (600) and Unani (700). The Allopathy utilizes (30) plant species for ailments (Rabe and Staden, 1997; FRLHT, 2009). 1.1.4. Market potential of herbal medicines Recent times have witnessed increased sale of herbal products in the international market. Herbal medicines continue to be a major market in U.S. pharmaceuticals and constitute a multi-billion dollar business. According to the WHO, present demand for medicinal plants annually, is about US $ 14 billion. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has made tremendous advances in terms of modern scientific research, and according to the latest studies it contributes 80 % of the annual turnover of the total herbal drug industry (FRLHT, 2009). Figure 1.1. Ayurvedic Product Market The current world market potential of herbal medicine is estimated to be over $ 60 billion per year; about $ 80-250 million in Europe and USA (El and Karakava, 2004). The turn over of the medicinal plant-related trade in India is about Rs. 2300 2 crores (US $ 551 million). Exports of Ayurvedic medicines from India have reached a value of 100 million dollars a year. About 60% of this is crude herbs and about 30% is finished product shipped abroad for direct sales to consumers (Fig. 1.1). The remaining 10% is partially prepared products to be finished in the foreign countries (Singh, 2008). Approximately 1500 botanicals are sold as dietary supplements, formulations which are not subjected to ‘Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) clinical toxicity test to assure their safety and efficacy. Improvement in modern herbal medicine and reflective of their growing demand for natural medicines, 73 % of the respondents to a consumer survey indicated that they would depend more on herbal medicine in the future (Bouldin et al., 1999) 1.1.5. Active herbal constituents The herbs contain ingredients known as active principles (phytochemicals) synthesized and stored by them. Some of the main active constituents found in the herbs are listed in Table 1.1. Table 1.1. Active principles found in the herbs (Bown, 1995) SL.NO TYPES PROPERTIES EFFECTS SOURCE 1. Acids Sour antiseptic, cleansing Citrus species bitter, alkaline addictives, affects Papaver 2. Alkaloids nitrogenous central nervous system, somniferun compounds toxic 3. Anthraquinones Bitter irritant, laxative Rheum palmatum appetizer and improves 4. Bitters Bitter Gentiana lutea digestion a smell of new- antibacterial, Melilotus 5. Coumarins mown hay anticoagulant officinalis often diuretic, antiseptic, Fagopyrum 6. Flavones bitter or sweet antispasmodic, and anti- esculentum inflammatory anti-spasmodic, Digitalis lanata, carcinogenic, sedative, 7. Glycosides bitter, acrid Prunus serotina; affecting heart rate and Allium sativum, respiration, antibiotic 8. Gums and bland, sticky or soothing and softening Althaea officinalis 3 Mucilage slimy acrid, Commiphora 9. Resins antiseptic, healing astringent, myrrha sweet, often anti-inflammatory Saponaria 10. Saponins stimulant, or diuretic; soapy in officinalis hormonal water checking bleeding and Potentilla erecta 11. Tannins often antiseptic discharges antiseptic, fungicidal, Thymus vulgaris 12. Volatile oils Aromatic irritant and stimulant 1.1.6. How herbal ingredients work Phytochemicals, the herbal ingredients, have a measurable effect on the body when given internally or applied externally. The herbal ingredients act right from the fundamental systems such as digestive, respiratory, circulatory etc., to the complex systems such as the endocrine and reproductive (Chaudhury, 1992; Zhang, 1998). They act as anti-diarrhoeals (Acacia arabica and A. catechu), laxatives (Aloe ferox, Cassia acatifolia), carminatives (Cinnamon zeylancium, Ocimum sanctum), spasmolytics (Datura spp.), anti-emetics (Mentha spp.) etc. The herbal products can cure almost all kinds of ailments. The stomach, liver, kidney, skin, lungs, heart, bone and blood disorders are the common ailments cured by medicinal plants since ancient times. But specific compositions are formulated and administered for acute ailments such as cancer and AIDS (Chaudhury, 1992). Herbal medicines differ greatly from the compounds synthesized within them and isolated from them. The whole plant (and extracts derived from it) contains many ingredients that work together and produce a quite different effect (synergistic effect) from that of an isolated constituent given on higher dosage. An example is meadowsweet containing healing ingredients (e.g. salicylates), and also buffering substances that protect the mucous membrane from the corrosive effects of salicylates. The complex chemistry of whole plant appears to lower the risk of side-effects, whereas isolated compounds may be surprisingly toxic. This is especially true of volatile oils derived from herbs (Bown, 1995). 4 1.1.7. Standards of curative principles Chemical principles from natural sources have become much simpler and have contributed significantly to the development of new drugs from medicinal plants (Cox, 1990 & 1994). In the last century, roughly 121 pharmaceutical products have been discovered from the plant source (Anesini, 1993). Majority of the pharmaceutical companies promoting herbal products have fixed standards (percentage of active principle). Since the efficacy of herbal product is based on percentage of active principle, it becomes mandatory that claimed percentage of active principle should be present in the finished product. Consumer laboratory in America issued several alerts addressing batch to batch variability of the active constituents in commercial preparations for herbal remedies like Hypericum perforatum, Ginkgo biloba and Silybum marianum (Singh, 2008). Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM) has developed agricultural techniques for prioritized Ayurvedic plants and commercialized the technology. Ayurveda recommends use of fresh herbs rather than stored herbs. Although it is not practically possible to have all herbs on store, one has to depend on the market for buying. Shelf-life and transportation are other factors responsible for variation of active principles in the herbs purchased from the market (Singh, 2008). Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) need to be standardized for enhancing quality of finished herbal products. With the introduction of organic farming and transgenic crops, it will be possible to get standardized raw material for therapeutically active finished products. 1.1.8. Environmental factors and plants All organisms must live in some sort of environment. Their physiological processes, which are essential for the maintenance of life, are dependant upon environmental conditions and substances. In an ecosystem

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