Changing Diets

RURAL 21 The International Journal for Rural Development 3 | 2020 VOLUME 54

ISSN 1866-8011 D 20506 F

Changing times, changing diets

PROJECT PLANNING AGRICULTURE CLIMATE CHANGE Combining local best practices The myth of Africa’s A vital role for with state-of-the-art knowledge ageing farmers agroecology

rural21.com 2 EDITORIAL

Dear Reader,

Many of you will be familiar with the 2019 publication people, e.g. via income Food in the Anthropocene, in which the EAT-Lancet transfers, investments in Commission described the link between nutritional targets inclusive income growth, and environmental sustainability. In brief, the study argues increased productivity in ag- that diets and food production will need to change in riculture or nutrition-smart order to improve health and avoid damage to the plan- fiscal policies, this by no et, emphasising that people will have to eat more fruit, means implies that people vegetables, nuts and seeds, legumes and whole grains while will really integrate it in reducing the consumption of ruminant meat in particular. their daily meals. For this Setting out from this, the authors presented a proposition brings us straight back to the for a global reference diet. first issue, the human factor.

Whereas it is undisputed that the recommendations of the As their disposable income Lancet Commission point in the right direction, the ques- rises, more and more people in low- and middle-income tion remains how the world population can be urged to countries start favouring the so-called Western style diet – take precisely this course. For the recommendations raise a with high amounts of refined carbohydrates, saturated fats, number of tricky issues. First of all, there is the human fac- sugar and salt and a high share of processed foods. This in tor. People’s food choices are by no means dictated solely turn results in more and more countries being confronted by the aspect of health. What we eat depends crucially on with the double burden of malnutrition, a phenomenon the culture that we have grown up in, the traditions that characterised by the coexistence of undernutrition and mi- we maintain and what we believe in. How we prepare our cronutrient deficiencies on the one hand and overnutrition daily meals is determined by factors such as time, cost and and obesity on the other. availability of food. The latter in turn depends largely on supply chains, markets and trade. And then there are social So these are complex contexts which call for complex norms and the degree to which media and marketing answers. Our authors and interview partners show what professionals influence choice. So many emotions come to level of knowledge we are at and where there is a need for play, while rationality assumes a lesser role. further research. They give examples of how the negative effects of changing consumption patterns can be addressed This leads us to the second problematic issue, that of by multi-sectoral and multi-stakeholder action, but also of scientific evidence. While studies have revealed that the new opportunities that changing dietary habits offer the intake of the food recommended above is inversely farmers and agripreneurs. And they highlight how tradi- associated with the risk of developing hypertension, type tional but frequently underutilised and undervalued food 2 diabetes or cardio-vascular diseases, our knowledge of can contribute to tackling the nutritional problems of the precisely how diets are systematically linked to nutritional modern world. adequacy, human health and environmental health remains very limited. We also know little about which policy We wish you inspiring reading. interventions – be it on the supply or on the demand side – are really suited to govern globalised sustainable food On behalf of the editorial team, production and consumption systems.

Then there is issue number three: affordability. Even if we assume that the proposition for a global reference diet presented by the Lancet Commission is the right one for the health of the people and the planet as a whole, we still face the problem that nearly 1.6 billion people around the You can find the latest information on COVID-19 at world simply can’t afford such a diet. And even if we were www.rural21.com to succeed in making healthy food more affordable to all

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Imprint Rural 21 – CONTENTS The International Journal for Rural Development

Published by: DLG-Verlag GmbH FOCUS Frankfurt, Germany 04 Changing times, changing diets Advisory council: Dr Reinhard Grandke, DLG 08 Healthy diets – a privilege of the rich? Petra Jacobi, GIZ Martin Koppa, HELVETAS Ueli Mauderli, DEZA 10 Towards sustainable diets and planetary health – lessons from early research and knowledge gaps Editorial committee: Dr Michael Brüntrup, DIE 12 Tackling the double burden of malnutrition Dr Manfred Denich, ZEF How to counter the effects of the nutrition transition in Cambodia Dorothea Hohengarten, GIZ Karl-Martin Lüth, DLG Prof Dr Matin Qaim, University of Göttingen 15 “Reducing malnutrition levels calls for concerted efforts” Dr Detlef Virchow, Plan International An interview with Jane Wanjiru Wambugu, Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture

Editor in chief / Berlin office: 16 Civil society’s engagement for better nutrition – the case of Namibia Silvia Richter, [email protected] Editorial staff / Frankfurt office: 18 Helping ‘local favourites’ join the race for healthier diets Olive Bexten, [email protected] Tapping the potential of traditional vegetables Ines Lechner, [email protected] Angelika Wilcke, [email protected] 21 Insects for dinner? Editorial assistance: ProciNut project's results Mike Gardner 24 Small fish with a big potential Translated by: Christopher Hay, Tazir International Services 26 The trend towards healthy diets – an opportunity for farmers and Cover photo: agri-entrepreneurs Robert Haidinger/ laif

Design & Layout: 29 Nutrition and health: farming women in Kenya’s Murang’a speak out Andrea Trapani, DLG-Verlag

Editorial office, distribution, advertising: DLG-Verlag GmbH OPINION Eschborner Landstraße 122 60489 Frankfurt, Germany 32 Eat less meat – if only it were that simple

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Rural 21 is published four times a year. 34 Lifesavers from the air The subscription rate is EUR 33.– (Germany), EUR Drones delivering blood and medical supplies to remote areas in Rwanda 37.– (EU countries), EUR 51.– (non-EU countries) and EUR 8.30 per issue, plus postage. 36 Community-led climate change adaptation – insights from a project beyond All rights reserved. The contents may not be translated, reproduced in whole or in part, nor may the norm information be passed on to third parties without permission of the publisher. Please direct all correspondence to the editor in chief. SCIENTIFIC WORLD

The opinions expressed by the authors are not necessarily those of the publisher or the editor. The 39 The myth of Africa’s ageing farmers editor retains the right to make editorial changes. 42 The potential of agroecology to build climate-resilient livelihoods and food systems Photo: Jörg Böthling 4 FOCUS

Changing times, changing diets

Diets are the great equaliser. Depending on who you are, where you live and the amount of resources at your disposal, diets can either hinder or promote human and environmental health. Overall, diets are changing for various reasons, particularly in rapidly transitioning low- and middle-income countries. If trends in these countries follow those in high- income contexts and countries, fragile health systems could be overwhelmed and burdened with a new host of complex diseases. How can low- and middle-income countries leapfrog over the mistakes made in high-income countries and ensure that dietary changes are moving in a direction benefiting both human and planetary health?

By Jessica Fanzo and Isabella Sarria

hat people choose to eat and the way The importance of diets begins foundationally, diversity and safety. But people’s food choic- Wthey eat and interact with food looks for it is necessary for humans to survive, have es are not solely influenced by health. Where different depending on who someone is, where energy and perform everyday tasks. Overall individuals and their families originate from someone is or where they come from. Despite health and bodily functions that determine influences their culture, traditions and beliefs, these differences, food and diets are an essential overall well-being are highly dependent on which in turn bears on the way they choose, part of who we are as humans and individuals. the composition of diets and their adequacy, prepare and view food. Traditions and culture, RURAL 21 03/20 5

have a vast array of choices, while others have very few. From money to accessibility to values, people prioritise distinct things when de- ciding what to eat and the best way to interact with food. Part of understanding why people make certain diet choices therefore requires an understanding of the resources, constraints and aspirations that influence those choices, but also the immediate built and food environments where people live and purchase foods and their influence on food choice.

As people adapt to the environment they are surrounded by, they become limited to only certain food options for which the food supply bears. Ultimately, these choices will be a product of what is available and accessible to them. Accessibility, price, taste and convenience are all aspects of food that influence the diets different people consume. Brands, certifications, advertising and marketing also matter and can influence choice. Factors that influence diets are highly dependent on the incomes of households and the spectrum of development of countries. Rural diets can also be quite distinct and different from urban diets because the types of food vendors and food availability on hand change dramatically with geography. Countries with major cities have greater access to good food options, giving people a larger selection of dietary choices, but at the same time, more exposure to energy-dense foods with limited nutrients.

Customs and beliefs influence what people choose to eat as does knowledge of food and nutrition. Changing social norms and media can influence food purchases. These types of exposures show that people are not only a product of their own individual choice and beliefs in what they choose to eat but are im- pacted by society and cultural trends. Photo: Bilderbox.com

How are diets changing? in turn, also shape the types of diets that people surrounding environments play a role in the eat. A person’s daily relationship with food is kind of crops and animals grown and raised. In Over the last decades, diets in low- and mid- complex and depends on several factors, such turn, the functionality of supply chains, trade dle-income countries (LMICs) have been as cost, time and availability. Diets are there- and markets influences the types of foods indi- changing in both positive and negative ways. fore not only a solitary concept, but are instead viduals have access to, and for many countries, On the positive side, diets are more diverse connected to many parts of life, and under- this is a significant contributor to economic in the types of foods people consume that are standing those connections is the first step in growth. available in the food supply. Dietary variety is understanding dietary habits. associated with increased dietary quality because it broadens the sources of the vitamins, Diets also have an interconnected relationship Why do people make certain choices minerals and macronutrients that fuel and with the surrounding environment and societ- about the diets they consume? protect your body for optimal human health. ies. It is a two-way street: just as the environ- There are other positive trends. The intake of ment influences food and dietary choices, the Every individual makes different choices for trans fats, a type of industrialised fat that is dele- way societies produce, process, distribute and different reasons regarding food and diets, but terious for health, has declined in some regions manipulate food affects the environment and some people have more options and more of the world. One trend that has both positive natural resources. Landscapes, ecosystems and resources when making these choices. Some and negative implications is that over the last 6 FOCUS

two decades, in many middle-income coun- types of animal foods and products in demand years, with most countries increasing the ener- tries of Latin America for example, people are vary depending on the geography, the culture gy, protein, fat and food weight of their food eating away from home, in more restaurants. and religious beliefs, to name a few influenc- supply. Yet in this period, the compositions ing factors. Consumption of processed meat of countries’ food supplies have become more On the negative side, people are consuming (those types that are salted and cured) has also similar to one another and some of the more more highly-processed packaged foods, such increased in all regions of the world. While indigenous, local foods have since been ne- as cookies, chips, crackers and sweets, which animal-source foods are typically rich in es- glected and marginalised. tend to be high in added sugars, sodium and sential nutrients that promote good health and unhealthy fats and low in dietary fibre and nu- nutrition, some of these foods are associated Trade is and will continue to be important trient density. These types of foods now com- with increased risk of cardiovascular disease for the diversity of diets in that trade increas- prise a significant share of many diets around and cancer. In addition, production of some es the availability of different types of foods, the world because they are widely available, animal-source foods has detrimental impacts extends the number of days that food prod- cheap and intensely marketed. In many upon the environment when consumed and pro- ucts are available and influences the affordabil- per-middle- and lower-middle-income coun- duced at high levels. ity of foods. While trade has moved so many tries of Asia and Africa, there has been a sig- different types of foods around the world, it nificant growth in sales of packaged foods over sometimes does so at the expense of local pro- the last 20 years. In addition to foods, which Why are diets changing? ducers and traditional food systems. In addi- beverages are consumed is also a health con- tion, when food and beverage products such cern. While the number of kilocalories pur- With growing urbanisation, globalisation and as sugar-sweetened beverages and highly-pro- chased from sugar-sweetened beverages is trade liberalisation, food systems have become cessed foods become cheaper, the consequenc- highest in high-income countries (HICs), more interconnected, with longer and increases could be harmful to human health. many low- and low-middle income countries ingly complex food supply chains involving have had a significant increase in their sales many diverse actors who engage across many Globalisation shapes food environments – the over the last decade. These highly processed different links of the chain. Connected food physical, economic, political and socio-cultural foods and sugary beverages have been associ- systems offer consumers the possibility to ac- surroundings, opportunities and conditions that ated with adverse health outcomes including cess a basket of diverse foods all year long, create everyday prompts, shaping people’s di- overweight, obesity, type-2 diabetes and car- expanding their food choices and protecting etary preferences and choices – notably through diovascular diseases. them against seasonal shortages. Efficiency the expansion of supermarkets and hypermar- has been the motto for the global food sys- kets. The rapid spread of more supermarkets The demand for animal-source foods is also in- tem: the food supply has been increasing in as well as fast food restaurant chains to every creasing in many places in the world, but the terms of quantity and quality over the last 50 country in the world influences consumer be- RURAL 21 03/20 7

haviour and food consumption patterns. While Why are changing diets necessary? provide significant health and environmental the “supermarket revolution” offers consumers benefits. a wider range of products at a lower price than With diets now a top risk factor for morbidity traditional retailers, it also can spur significant and mortality globally, it is necessary to ensure Choices made by high-income countries in organisational changes across the whole food that the world’s population can access and af- how they produce food and what foods con- supply chain. Furthermore, the revolution is ford a healthy diet. Future dietary transitions sumers choose to eat will have more severe shifting the locus of power and decision-mak- are projected to negatively impact human impacts on those people living in low-income ing from farmers and producers to traders and health. This will be felt most in lower-middle countries who do not have the resources to retailers, and from governments to the private income countries, where diets are changing adapt quickly to the rapid onset of environ- sector and multi-national corporations. most rapidly. Increasing consumption of fruits, mental changes stemming from food systems. vegetables, nuts and seeds, legumes and whole They are also limited in their options to access Food prices dictate dietary shifts as well. Un- grains would improve human health in most of or afford healthy diets. In the next decade, we predictable changes in food prices have a the regions of the world. need all hands on deck for widespread, large- significant impact on the poor because they scale changes. Governments, business and civil spend a higher proportion – 50 to 80 per cent At the same time, diets will need to be more society all have a responsibility to ensure that – of their entire income on food. Poor popu- environmentally sustainable if we are to tack- everyone has access to healthy, equitable foods lations, particularly those living in deeply rural le climate change in a serious way. By 2050, that provide the greatest benefit for human areas, often only have access to mainly cere- global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from and planetary health. al-, root- and tuber-based diets, while costly food production are expected to increase by animal-sourced foods, fruits and vegetables 50 to 80 per cent as a result of increases in are hardly affordable for them. With income population size and dietary shifts. Land used Jessica Fanzo is a Bloomberg Distinguished growth, consumers are able to diversify and to grow food will need to expand to meet Professor at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore/ shift diets towards those less dominated by sta- those dietary shifts of a growing human pop- USA and serves as the Editor in Chief of the Global ples, to those that include more fruits, vege- ulation, which will result in additional GHG Food Security Journal. tables, animal-source foods and dairy as well emissions from deforestation and biodiver- Isabella Sarria is a student at Johns Hopkins as more oil and more processed and packaged sity loss, with potential additional stress in University majoring in Public Health Studies. foods. Consumer awareness can also generate sub-Saharan Africa. From the diet perspec- Contact: [email protected] demand for certain types of foods including tive, reducing consumption of ruminant red certain brands, food safety standards and even meat in particular in regions where con- higher quality foods that meet certain health sumption of said foods is above the nutrition- Photos (from left to right): and environmental criteria. al recommendations would most potentially 1-6 Jörg Böthling; 7-8 Bilderbox.com

Photo: Jörg Böthling 8 FOCUS

Nearly 1.6 billion people around the World cannot afford a diet meeting the standards of the EAT-Lancet reference diet.

Photo: Jamie Martin/ World Bank

Healthy diets – a privilege of the rich?

A healthy and diversified diet is the best antidote against hidden hunger. But by no means everyone can afford such a diet – quite apart from the fact that there is no uniform definition of it. Our author shows what affordability is like around the world and which approaches can lead to a world free of hidden hunger.

By Kalle Hirvonen

eficiencies in iron, zinc, vitamin A and countries and often equated a healthy diet diet that is reasonably flexible to accommodate Dother micronutrients can have serious with the one consumed in the Mediterranean most dietary traditions around the globe. The negative health consequences for both chil- region, motivated by the finding that average Table shows the Commission’s recommend- dren and adults. It is estimated that more than life-expectancies are higher in that region than ed ranges of intake for the major food groups two billion people world-wide suffer from elsewhere. Another branch of this work de- considered for an adult consuming 2,503 calo- micronutrient deficiencies – a condition also fined healthy diets using national food-based ries/day. Like most national dietary guidelines, known as hidden hunger because even mild dietary guidelines that provide recommended the Commission proposed consuming a di- or moderate deficiencies that do not show intakes from different food groups taking into verse range of fresh or lightly processed foods visible symptoms can be harmful. The risks of account local dietary habits and food availabil- while limiting the intake of red meats, sugary hidden hunger are elevated for young children ity. Unfortunately, neither of these approaches products, and saturated fats and oils. and pregnant women for whom micronutrient is well suited to study this question in many needs are relatively higher. The 2008 Lancet low- and middle-income countries, where the While many experts continue to debate the report estimated that more than one million bulk of the world's poor people reside. First, scientific merits of the EAT-Lancet diet, the children die every year because of micronutri- the Mediterranean diet does not align with the reference diet opened up new options for ex- ent deficiencies. The best antidote against hid- dietary habits and preferences in Africa, Asia ploring the affordability question. In a recent den hunger is a diverse diet rich in fruits, veg- or Latin America. Second, only a handful of study published in the Lancet Global Health, etables, pulses and animal-source foods (meat, countries in these regions have developed their we calculated the cheapest means of meeting poultry, fish, eggs and dairy). own national food-based dietary guidelines. the EAT-Lancet dietary intake recommendations in the reference diet in 159 countries, to- An important development in this regard was gether representing 95 per cent of the world’s What defines a healthy and diverse diet? the formulation of the planetary healthy diet population. Using standardised retail price data by the EAT-Lancet Commission in early 2019. collected under the International Comparison But can everyone afford a healthy and diverse The Commission was tasked to define a set of Program, we worked out that for the median diet? Studying this question is made difficult by diets that limit diet-related disease risks and country, the cost of the EAT-Lancet reference the fact that there is no universal agreement on minimise the environmental harm caused by diet was 2.89 international dollars based on 2011 what defines a healthy and diverse diet. Earlier our food choices. The outcome was a prop- purchasing power parity exchange rates. This research in this area focused on high-income osition for the world’s first global reference may not sound a lot, but it exceeds the dollar RURAL 21 03/20 9

1.90 international poverty line set by the World (storage, transport, and processing). There is Content of the EAT-Lancet reference diet Bank by more than 50 per cent. The true cost also scope for designing nutrition-smart fiscal is likely to be higher because these estimates do Serving/day policies that favour healthy foods and tax un- Food group not include costs associated with acquiring and grams kcal healthy foods. preparing the food – household activities that Rice, wheat, corn, and other 232 811 often fall onto women. Comparing the esti- Potatoes and cassava 50 39 Finally, making healthy foods affordable is un- mated daily costs against available incomes, we Dark green vegetables 100 23 likely to be sufficient. Growing numbers of calculate that nearly 1.6 billion people around Red and orange vegetables 100 30 people in middle- and high-income countries the world cannot afford such a diet (see Figure). Other vegetables 100 25 consume excessive amounts of refined carbo- In sub-Saharan Africa and South-Asia, the two All fruits 200 126 hydrates, saturated fats, sugar and salt – ingre- regions hosting the most of the world’s poor Whole milk or equivalents 250 153 dients that elevate the risk of obesity, cardio- and malnourished people, the estimated cost Beef and lamb 7 15 vascular diseases and various types of cancer. exceeded the available incomes for 57 per cent Pork 7 15 Worryingly, we start to see similar unhealthy and 38 per cent of the population, respectively. Chicken and other poultry 29 62 dietary patterns emerging among affluent con- Eggs 13 19 sumers residing in low-income countries. This Fish 28 40 calls for more investments in nutrition edu- Making healthy food affordable is not Dry beans, lentils, and peas 50 172 cation and more stringent regulation in food enough Soy foods 25 112 marketing so as to make consumers more Peanuts 25 142 aware of the health implications of their di- Our research suggests that the world’s poor Tree nuts 25 149 etary choices. cannot afford a healthy and diverse diet – a Palm oil 6.8 60 finding that has been confirmed by a number Unsaturated oils 40 354 A world free of hidden hunger can be achieved, of recent country-specific studies from Africa Dairy fats 0 0 but it requires global commitment – and a lot and Asia. So what can be done? First, the large Lard or tallow 5 36 of work. observed disparities in affordability are mostly All sweeteners 31 120 driven by the highly unequal global distribu- Total n/a 2,503 Source: Willett et al. (2019) tion of income. Thus, raising the incomes of Kalle Hirvonen is a Senior Research Fellow at the poor is a necessary condition for improving the International Food Policy Research Institute diets. Targeted income transfers in the form of Second, there is also scope to reduce the prices (IFPRI), based in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. This article cash, food or vouchers can improve diets in re- of nutrition-rich foods. Fresh fruits, many veg- was based on research done together with Yan Bai source-poor settings if coupled with effective etables and healthy animal-sourced foods like (Tufts University/USA), Derek Headey (IFPRI) and nutrition communication strategies that nudge milk, eggs and fish are often very expensive, William A. Masters (Tufts University). households to allocate more of their food bud- especially when compared to calorie-rich but Contact: [email protected] get on nutrition-rich food items. A longer-run micronutrient-poor grains and tubers. In poor strategy involves investments in sectors of the countries, the high cost of these nutrition-rich economy that promote job creation and inclu- food stems from low farm-level productivity as References: www.rural21.com sive income growth. well as inefficiencies in the post-harvest stage

Affordability of the EAT-Lancet reference diet across the globe

Source: Hirvonen et al. (2020) 10 FOCUS

Towards sustainable diets and planetary health: lessons from early research and knowledge gaps

In 2019, the EAT-Lancet commission launched a thought-provoking report proposing the “planetary health diet”. The idea was to formulate a diet that is both healthy and environmentally benign in terms of limiting societies’ environmental footprints. So far, however, we know far too little about how governments and other stakeholders can cost-effectively govern globalised sustainable food production and consumption systems. Our authors summarise recent research on measuring health and environmental impacts of such systems as well as related policy interventions and propose ingredients of a future research agenda.

By Jan Börner and Ute Nöthlings

uman diets and the corresponding food Hsystems have a strong environmental impact and play an elementary role in meeting the planetary boundaries of greenhouse-gas emissions, cropland use, water use, nitrogen application, phosphorus application and biodiversity losses. Without change in dietary patterns and bio-based feedstock demand across the globe, the environmental footprint of human consumption will permanently exceed planetary boundaries and thus undermine the capacity of ecosystems to support human societies. At the same time, dietary intake is strongly associated with human health in that it has to be nutritionally adequate and limit the risks of common non-communicable diseases, i.e. diseases that are not transmissible directly among people, such as heart diseases, many types of cancer, and diabetes. Photo: Bilderbox.com

The concept of sustainable diets integrates pose elements of a research agenda that sup- Only few studies have so far explored indi- across these human and environmental health ports evidence-based decision-making towards vidual dietary intakes regarding indicators of dimensions of dietary patterns by defining as sustainable food and biomass production and environmental health, which would allow to sustainable “… those diets with low environ- consumption systems. directly link environmental footprints of indi- mental impacts which contribute to food and vidual diets with health outcomes. A number nutrition security and to healthy life for present of tools are being developed, nonetheless, to and future generations. Sustainable diets are Diets, health and the environment trace the footprints of aggregate consumption protective and respectful of biodiversity and data back to its origins, e.g. TRASE, which ecosystems, culturally acceptable, accessible, Suboptimal dietary intake increases mortal- stands for “Transparent supply chains for sus- economically fair and affordable; nutritionally ity and reduces disability-adjusted life years tainable economies”. TRASE enables analysts adequate, safe and healthy; while optimizing world-wide, with high sodium intake, low in- to calculate detailed spatially explicit emission natural and human resources.” (FAO, 2010) take of whole grains and low intake of fruits footprints for agricultural production across being the leading dietary risk factors. For ex- a whole value chain from a supply side per- In 2019, a planetary health diet (also called the ample, meta-analyses of epidemiological stud- spective. The SHARP database (Sustainable, EAT-Lancet reference diet) was proposed as a ies show that intake of whole grain, vegetables, Healthy, Affordable, Reliable and Preferable), general dietary pattern to optimally align di- fruit, nuts and fish are inversely associated with on the other hand, adopts a demand-side per- etary health effects and environmental impacts risk of type 2 diabetes, hypertension, cardio- spective to inform consumers in the Euro- considering global food system linkages. De- vascular diseases or early disease risk markers, pean Union about environmental impacts of spite the attention raised by the EAT-Lancet as well as with disability-adjusted life years or their dietary patterns in terms of greenhouse proposal, a number of critical reactions from mortality. Intake of red meat, processed meat gas emission and land use. Still, many envi- academia and civil society pointed to consid- and sugar-sweetened beverages is positively as- ronmental impacts of diets across the world erable knowledge gaps in the way of designing sociated with such negative health outcomes. cannot be assessed due to data gaps. As a re- food systems, or more broadly, bio-based pro- However, our knowledge remains limited sult, researchers studying the impact of dietary duction and consumption systems that holisti- with regard to how diets are systematically behaviour on environmental health often rely cally address planetary health outcomes. Here linked to environmental health, nutritional ad- on highly aggregated data and modelling ap- we summarise key knowledge gaps and pro- equacy and human health. proaches. RURAL 21 03/20 11

Importantly, studies linking self-selected diets biomass systems. Two separate factors may The way forward and nutritional quality suggest that an envi- be at play. First, technological innovation in ronmentally friendly diet is not necessarily food and biomass production has to some ex- The scientific evidence on the current mis- healthy. Clearly, dietary energy and meat in- tent enabled land users to comply with effec- match between health requirements, dominant take are paramount to mitigate diet-related tive environmental regulations, while keeping diets and planetary boundaries is overwhelm- environmental impacts. But, net outcomes food prices low. Second, especially in parts of ing. And yet, our knowledge about what con- are determined by the choice of meat replace- the world currently witnessing the lion’s share stitutes globally accessible dietary options that ments and potential spill-over effects towards of agricultural expansion into natural ecosys- minimise the environmental and social impacts non-food consumption. Still, adherence to the tems, land use and conservation policies were of production is limited. Even less evidence planetary health reference diet was found to shown to exhibit comparatively low levels of exists on how globalised food and biomass sys- be inversely associated with chronic disease effectiveness. As a result, supply-side interven- tems can be governed towards providing such risk, and some country specific adaptions have tions have so far arguably done rather little to diets. A research agenda to overcome these already been developed. In fact, food-based change consumer behaviour. knowledge gaps should address the following dietary guidelines (FBDG) are usually coun- non-exclusive lists of challenges: try-specific recommendations of wholesome Instead, a growing body of academic literature diets for populations or population groups. As deals with the impact of consumption on pro- Improve the data base linking dietary such, they include general rules advising food duction, resource use and land use patterns. choices including non-food biomass choice taking a range of aspects into account. Bruckner et al., for example, demonstrate how consumption to local and global im- Although sustainability criteria are increasingly changing non-food biomass consumption pat- pacts in key planetary health outcome considered, not all FBDG have included such terns in the EU have resulted in an increasing dimensions, i.e. human and environ- aspects yet, and there is evidence that adop- land footprint of EU consumption outside EU mental health as well as socio-cultural tion of FBDG with specific public health tar- boundaries. Popular initiatives to influence impacts. gets does not necessarily support environmen- consumption choices via increased transparen- Improve system understanding focus- tal health. Clearly, regional and target group cy in food and biomass value chains have since ing on nexus relationships between specificity of sustainable diets need to be more been promoted by both civil society and private health and environmental impacts of widely addressed by future research. sector organisations. However, there are lim- food and biomass production and con- its to what can be achieved through voluntary sumption. behavioural changes informed by value chain Build a systematic evidence base on Effective policies lacking so far transparency. The still small number of studies the effectiveness of governance mea- evaluating sustainability certification schemes sures in affecting food and biomass Knowledge gaps about health and environ- point to highly context-specific impacts. consumption and production deci- mental impacts notwithstanding, governments, sions. civil society and the private sector around the Some countries have instead experimented Expand analytical system boundaries to world are implementing policies and pro- with demand-side policies, such as taxes on study the role of non-food economic grammes to govern food and biomass system unhealthy food components with ambiguous and policy factors in driving food and dynamics. Equally important in affecting these results. The Danish fat tax, for example, was biomass system outcomes. system dynamics are policies and socio-eco- abandoned after two years in 2013 for diverse, Improve regional and sectoral aggre- nomic drivers that emerge in other sectors, including political, reasons. It was found to gation of modelling and simulation such as the non-food industry, infrastructure have had a positive, but minor, effect on pub- tools and the empirical basis for their and finance. Often, the resulting and frequent- lic health. parameterisation in order to inform ly incoherent policy and incentive mix driving decision-makers with policy-relevant the behaviour of actors along all food and bio- So far, the academic debate on dietary health scenario analyses. mass value chains does not result in the desired impacts synthesised above takes place largely Mainstream the planetary health per- behavioural outcomes. detached from research on the effectiveness of spective in the developing context and supply- and demand-side interventions to in- stakeholder-specific policy recommen- Commonly, a distinction is made between ternalise social and environmental externalities dations and dietary guidelines. governance of the demand versus the supply of food and biomass systems. An exception is side of food and biomass systems. Tradition- the growing empirical literature on consumer ally, economists have argued that negative so- choice architecture, which points to a series of Jan Börner is a Professor at the Institute for cial and environmental externalities from these promising and low-cost intervention options Food and Resource Economics & Center for systems be ideally addressed by supply-side to nudge customers towards both healthier and Development Research at the University of Bonn, policies, such as regulations, taxes or subsidies environmentally more sustainable consump- Germany. imposed by governments. This intervention tion choices. This includes, for example, traf- Contact: [email protected] logic assumes that once food prices reflect the fic light labels on food packaging that indicate Ute Böthlings is a Professor at the Department actual social and environmental costs of pro- health and environmental risks to induce more of Nutrition and Food Science at the University of duction, end-consumers will automatically ad- sustainable consumption decisions. Bonn. just their behaviour towards more sustainable, Contact: [email protected] though not necessarily healthier, consumption Below we highlight key ingredients of a future patterns. It may surprise, at first glance, that research agenda that addresses gaps and missing there is little empirical evidence confirming links between the research fields summarised References: www.rural21.com this conjecture in the context of food and here. 12 FOCUS

In the MUSEFO Project, women in care groups learn about topics like mother, infant and young child nutrition.

Photo: Dominique Uwira

Tackling the double burden of malnutrition

Many low- and middle-income countries are confronted with the phenomenon of nutrition transition. Using developments in Cambodia as an example, our authors demonstrate the consequences this has for people’s health and the attempts being made to address the issue.

By Dominique Uwira and Nicole Claasen

he pace of change in demographics and be observed in Cambodia. At the same time, resulted in increased consumption of these Tpublic health has quickened in recent activity patterns shift towards a more sedentary products, often also driven by aggressive food years. Among other factors, urbanisation, eco- lifestyle, leading to a higher energy intake and marketing adapted to the local context. nomic growth and technological inventions a lower energy expenditure in general. have brought about changes in populations’ Against this background, two simultaneous health and nutrition status which are described mechanisms within the context of globali- by the US American nutrition and obesity re- How globalisation and the nutrition sation have an effect on dietary choices and searcher Barry Michael Popkin with five broad transition interrelate consumption habits: dietary convergence (ho- nutrition patterns, ranging from collecting mogenisation of diets with high consumption food (1), through famine (2), receding famine The phenomenon of the nutrition transition is of animal-source foods, edible oil, sugar, salt (3), nutrition-related non-communicable dis- the result of a number of demographic, eco- and low intake of a variety of staples and fibre; eases (NR-NCD) (4) and, lastly, to behaviour nomic, social and behaviour changes that affect mainly driven by price) and dietary adaption change (5). The shift between the patterns 3 to daily life in Cambodian society. Globalisation (increased consumption of brand-name pro- 5 is synonymous, for many, with the term nu- and the implementation of market-oriented cessed foods and meals eaten outside the home trition transition, and its associations between agricultural policies during the last decades together with changes in household’s eating nutrition and health are shown in the Figure. have led to a more liberal global agricultural behaviour; mainly driven by time constraints, marketplace, which enabled food trade, higher advertising and availability). The change in The rapid shift between the end of famine foreign direct investments and the expansion Cambodia is being brought about by the trend and overeating along with the emergence of of transnational food companies. Thus, global- that fewer and fewer traditional healthy dishes NR-NCD can be found in many low- and isation affects the availability of and access to are being self-prepared as more food is pur- middle-income countries, including Cam- food by changing the way it is produced, pro- chased from outside the home, where it is bodia. This pattern shift comes along with a cessed, procured, distributed and promoted. difficult to control ingredients and cooking dietary shift from traditional, starchy, low va- This has led to major changes in the country’s procedures. Ultra-processed convenience food riety, low fat and high-fibre diets towards di- food culture, with significant shifts in dietary has become readily available even in the most ets with increased low-quality fat, sugar and patterns and individual nutritional status. High remote areas, where it relieves busy mothers refined carbohydrates, and processed foods foreign direct investments in processed foods increasingly entering the workforce of their – the so-called Western diet, which can also made them available on local markets, which already heavy burden at home. RURAL 21 03/20 13

Apart from globalisation, other factors such same year. Six of the top ten causes of disabili- ince found prevalence of impaired glucose tol- as modernisation, urbanisation, and contin- ty-adjusted life years (a measure of overall dis- erance (preliminary stage of diabetes), diabetes ued economic growth paired with increased ease burden, expressed as the number of years and hypertension of 10 %, 5 %, 12 % (SR) and household income and wealth have ampli- lost due to ill-health, disability or early death) 15 %, 11 %, 25 % (KC) respectively. These fied these dynamic shifts in everyday lifestyle, in Cambodia in 2017 were NCDs, with re- findings were unexpected to this degree as dietary intake and physical activity patterns markable increases in the burden of strokes and Cambodian society, in particular in those two amongst the Cambodian population. The shift diabetes over the last decade. areas, is relatively poor and the lifestyle is fairly from traditional diets to Western-style diets traditional. Two-thirds of the study partici- has been a key contributor to increased obesity In terms of consumption patterns during the pants with diabetes as well as half of the par- rates in this Southeast Asian country. As in- complementary feeding period, a study con- ticipants with hypertension were unaware of come continues to rise, individuals can afford ducted by Pries et al. (2017) showed that a their condition – an alarming result given the an abundance of high-calorie convenience considerable proportion of the children aged negative long-term effects of these conditions foods whilst at the same time becoming less six to 23 months in Cambodia’s capital Phnom left untreated. As obesity prevalence in Cam- active, leading to increases in obesity and obe- Penh were fed with infant formula and pow- bodia is quite low, genetic susceptibility to di- sity-related chronic illnesses such as diabetes dered milk. Drinks containing high amounts of abetes and metabolic adaptions to early nutri- and heart disease. sugar (soft drinks, fruit drinks, chocolate-based tional deprivations during the Khmer Rouge or malt-based drinks) were consumed by up time were considered as possible explanations to 20 per cent of the children aged 12-23 for the study’s findings. The double burden of malnutrition – months. Within the same age group, com- a particular challenge for Cambodia mercially produced snack foods were the third most commonly consumed food group, with Addressing all forms of malnutrition The new dynamics and the altered nutrition a preference for savoury snack foods, such as with a multisectoral and multi-level situation have led to an emerging twofold chal- chips or crisps. In the study sample, snack foods approach lenge called the double burden of malnutrition, were more commonly consumed than micro- meaning that undernutrition - described by nutrient-rich fruits and vegetables. The results In order to address the problem, the Deutsche wasting, stunting and micro-nutrient deficien- indicate that regular consumption of commer- Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenar- cies - and overweight or obesity coexist within cially produced snack foods is very common beit (GIZ) launched the Multisectoral Food the same generation and household, and even in children under the age of two years in the and Nutrition Security (MUSEFO) Project in among the same individuals throughout their urban setting of Phnom Penh. Mothers said the two provinces Kampong Thom and Kam- lifetime. In the specific case of Cambodia, the the main reasons for feeding this type of food pot in 2016. Activities are carried out in the double burden of malnutrition is characterised to their children were that the child liked the health, nutrition, WASH (water, sanitation by high prevalence of child stunting (32.4 %, snack food and demanded or cried for it. 21.5 and hygiene) and agriculture sectors at house- 2017) and anaemia in women of reproductive per cent of them also believed these snacks hold, village, provincial and national levels. age (46.8 %, 2016), whilst NCD rates were si- were healthy for their child. multaneously estimated to account for 64 per With policy advice at national level, the proj- cent of all deaths in 2016, and communicable, A study conducted in a rural community in ect supports the integration of food security maternal, peri-natal and nutrition conditions Siem Reap (SR) province and in a semi-urban and nutrition aspects in national policies and accounted for 24 per cent of all deaths in the community in Kampong Cham (KC) prov- guidelines. This has resulted in the country’s 2nd National Strategy for Food Security and Nutrition (NSFSN, 2019–2023) acknowledg- Patterns 3 to 5, illustrating the nutrition transition ing the double burden of malnutrition within the Cambodian context and declaring the pro- Urbanisation, economic growth, technological changes for work, leisure, motion of healthy diets and nutrition-sensitive food processing, mass media growth food value chains as priority actions, among Pattern 3 Pattern 4 Pattern 5 others. Food policy changes are seen as a major Receding Famine Degenerative Disease Behavioural Change option for improving nutrition, but they will not be adequate without shifting the culture of eating. Therefore, the project has created care • starchy, low variety, low • increased fat, sugar, • reduced fat, increased fat, high fibre processed foods fruit, veg. CHO, fibre groups at local level that provide a platform for • labour-intensive work/ • shift in technology of work • replace sedentarianism women to meet on a regular basis and learn leisure and leisure with purposeful changes about mother, infant and young child nutri- in recreation, other activity tion, childcare and hygiene practices, focusing on interpersonal behaviour change communi- MCH deficiencies, obesity emerges, reduced body cation. The leaders of the care groups, who weaning disease, bone density problems fatness, are community-based health volunteers, meet stunting improved bone health regularly with project staff for training and su- pervision. They are responsible for continuous Slow mortality decline Accelerated life expectancy, Extended health ageing, training and coaching of the care group mem- shift to increased NR-NCD, reduced NR-NCD bers in care group sessions and during home increased disability period visits. In the sessions, the group leaders share MCH = Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin; CHO = carbon, hydrogen, oxigen Source: Popkin, 2002 insights on nutrition and health and encour- 14 FOCUS

age participants to put their newly acquired THE MANY FORMS OF MALNUTRITION knowledge into practice at household level and within their community. Training and Malnutrition occurs in different forms – it is a collective term that includes undernutrition (underweight, empowering people, in particular pregnant stunting, wasting), micronutrient deficiencies and overweight and obesity, often leading to nutrition-re- and breast-feeding women, and supporting lated non-communicable diseases (NR-NCD), disproportionately affecting the poorest, minorities and efforts of citizens working together to change people most vulnerable to food insecurity. Wasting, defined as low weight-for-height, indicates a recent and severe weight loss due to acute undernutrition, while stunting is defined as low height-for-age and their communities and regain food sovereignty results from chronic undernutrition which is usually associated with poor socio-economic status, poor is key. In addition, nutrition-sensitive agricul- health and inappropriate child feeding early in life. A child suffering from underweight, measured as low tural activities are implemented using seasonal weight-for-age, might be wasted, stunted or both. Overweight and obesity on the other hand are defined calendars combining agricultural practices with as an excessive fat accumulation. Persons affected by this condition are too heavy for their height. nutrition and health information and practical cooking recipes for young children. The seasonal calendars are supporting farmers to iden- Response Plan. The CNCDA has just been are some key interventions that can be consid- tify the right timing and techniques for culti- awarded its first grant by the Solidarity Fund ered for most of those countries. Overnutrition, vation and harvest. on NCDs and COVID-19, which was officially and especially obesity, have been largely ignored launched mid-July 2020 by the NCD Alliance. in national nutrition and health strategies with- The MUSEFO Project looked into possibil- Activities in the 2020 Action Plan include: in those countries that are still characterised by ities to promote healthy snacking options. It high prevalence of undernutrition. Keeping in worked together with food vendors from the Identify and recruit champions to raise mind the tremendous long-term public health target areas to develop recipes for healthy awareness of key messages and advo- and economic consequences that come along snacks such as brown rice waffles with morin- cate for greater attention to NCDs. with the double burden of malnutrition, rapid ga, purple sweet potato smoothies or ice cream Produce evidence-based policy briefs policy and programme shifts are needed to ad- with pink dragon fruit and unsweetened co- to provide information to deci- dress all forms of malnutrition. It is well-known conut milk. The recipes were tested with the sion-makers who support key advoca- from high-income countries that the treatment target group and are currently compiled in a cy priorities. and management of NR-NCDs is extremely recipe booklet for the wider population. Produce written content and dissem- expensive. Low- and middle-income countries inate key messages via social media are particularly challenged regarding allocating channels and other communication funds within their health budgets for treatment Forming of an alliance to fight NCDs platforms. options as they are already struggling to pro- Produce fact sheets on NCD risk fac- vide for primary preventive undernutrition Beyond the activities of the MUSEFO Proj- tors and main diseases in Cambodia. care. Currently, prevention efforts are the only ect, GIZ has established the Cambodian NCD Identify ways to increase the involve- feasible approach to address the upcoming ep- Alliance (CNCDA). The CNCDA was offi- ment of people living with NCDs and idemic of NR-NCDs in countries affected by cially launched in March 2019 to call for great- document lived experiences of NCDs. the double burden of malnutrition. Progressive er action to tackle the rising burden of NCDs, Expand and diversify CNCDA mem- changes in government policies at national and and build a new platform for collaborative ac- bership by establishing connections alignment with subnational levels, law regulation. The mission of CNCDA is to put NCDs with key stakeholders across multiple tion and enforcement, alongside shifts in local firmly on the political agenda, by joining forc- sectors. food systems, from production to marketing, es with those working on NCDs and their risk purchasing and consumption as well as individ- factors to build a platform for collaborative ual behaviour changes are of the essence when advocacy and a common agenda to acceler- Policies and food systems must change it comes to improving the way people grow ate action and mobilise resources necessary to food, work, eat, move and enjoy life. prevent and control NCDs among the Cam- Many low- and middle-income countries have bodian population. The CNCDA is currently seen substantial economic growth in the last an informal alliance, with its secretariat based decades, with rising income and therefore in- Dominique Uwira is Advisor for Deutsche in Phnom Penh. So far, the CNCDA has 22 creased purchasing power of the consumers Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit members consisting of civil society, bilateral along with changing lifestyles, making them (GIZ) in the Multisectoral Food and Nutrition and multilateral agencies, academia, research- particularly susceptible to the nutrition tran- Security (MUESEFO) Project in Cambodia. Her ers, relevant ministries and government agen- sition. The food industry plays a major role in focus lies on the SUN Donor Network Co-ordination cies, patient groups and people living with the structural flaws that affect the most vul- and Social Behaviour Change Communication. NCDs who share its mission and vision. nerable groups the hardest. With new glob- Nicole Claasen is Policy Advisor with Deutsche al actors such as transnational agri- and food Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit The CNCDA has developed its first annual businesses, including global and local food and (GIZ), working for the Cambodian Council Action Plan to provide a framework for NCD beverage producers and food service compa- for Agricultural and Rural Development. The prevention and control activities. The focus was nies, but also local food retailers increasingly scope of her work encompasses multi-sectoral initially on accelerated action on the prevention influencing food production and subsequent coordination, subnational integration and advocacy of NCD risk factors and sustainable financing food purchases, the challenges posed for obesi- work for food security and nutrition in Cambodia. for NCDs. However, the impact of the re- ty and NR-NCD prevention are great. Contact: [email protected]. cent COVID-19 pandemic has shifted it with the CNCDA now calling for the inclusion of While the manifestation of the nutrition tran- References: www.rural21.com NCDs in the national COVID-19 Preparedness sition differs across countries and regions, there RURAL 21 03/20 15

Reducing malnutrition levels calls for concerted efforts

A multicausal problem like malnutrition cannot non-communicable diseases risk factors – has be sustainably solved by a one-sector approach. shown that there is not so much of a variance This is why the Ministries of Agriculture and in terms of rural and urban. Sometimes, the Health agreed to join forces in Kenya. Rural 21 urban population even consumes better than talked to Jane Wambugu Wanjiru, Head of the the rural households, the reason being that dif- Agri-Nutrition Unit at the Kenyan Ministry of ferent types of food are available. What pre- Agriculture. vents them from being consumed more is their cost, their affordability. In the rural settings, in Ms Wanjiru, in Kenya, the Ministry of some regions, people consume more beef than Health and the Ministry of Agriculture any other food because that is what happens have been cooperating closely since 2017. to be available and what they themselves pro- Why? duce. But when people produce for the mar- Jane Wanjiru Wambugu: In Kenya, the ket, for example French beans or cauliflowers, level of malnutrition is high, both in terms of these products often do not end up in the rural stunting and wasting, and in terms of over- households because they are not affordable in weight and obesity. The Ministry of Health, the rural settings. However, production for which has the mandate for nutrition policy, Jane Wanjiru Wambugu is Head of the Agri- income doesn’t translate into better nutrition, and the Ministry of Agriculture, which is re- Nutrition Unit at the Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture, because the income gained through crop sales sponsible for food policies, saw the need for Livestock, Fisheries and Cooperatives. doesn’t translate into buying nutritious foods. concerted efforts to tackle this problem. Contact: [email protected], This has been noted in cash crop sectors like [email protected] coffee and tea, where we still find high levels How did you develop this cooperation? of malnutrition at household level. In 2017, the food and nutrition security policy implementation framework was developed, – with a variety of seedlings to plant fruits and How is the Agri-Nutrition Strategy de- co-ordinatinng policies at both National and vegetables. Moreover, all the programmes in veloping? county government level. For the devolution agriculture have a nutrition component. Every In implementing our Agri-Nutrition Strategy, of agricultural extension, to mention an exam- proposal made that is related to agriculture and we want to achieve more engagement and co- ple, is the mandate of the county government. has a nutrition goal is provided with support operation between the national and the county The same applies to health extension. At the na- via a grant. Furthermore, there is the School governments, between the private sector and tional policy level, we have the Kenya Nation- Meals Strategy 2017–2022. Here, the role of civil society, and between all stakeholders. al Nutrition Action Plan (KNAP) 2018–2022. agriculture is to stimulate home-grown school One example here is the flour-blending initia- In the context of this action plan, we created meals. The school committees are strength- tive for household food and nutrition security, a food and nutrition linkages technical work- ened through the capacity to procure safe nu- income and employment creation. With this ing group that plans for nutrition-related in- tritious foods within the local communities, initiative, we are trying to improve the nutri- terventions which are based in agriculture. In stimulating production and consumption of tion content of our maize meal by blending accordance with KNAP, key department areas diverse food at school level. maize with more nutritious flours like millet were identified at each ministry which com- and sorghum. Here, the role of the private pile the respective documents, for example the What are the biggest obstacles on the sector is critical because it is the millers who Agri-Nutrition Strategy 2020-2025. The aim way to better nutrition? process the blended flours. At the same time, is to further link the policies in food to the Maize flour is a staple food in Kenya. Nor- the farmers need to produce the blending policies in nutrition and health, thus delivering mally, it is over-processed. But because it is crops which currently are under-produced due on the mandate to reduce malnutrition levels easy to cook and is also easily available, almost to climatic conditions. So there is a need for in Kenya. 90 per cent of households in Kenya consume more engagement between the national and maize meal. Here, the Ministry of Health has county governments as well as with the private Has this already resulted in concrete ini- launched an initiative to fortify the maize flour sector to produce and process blended flours. tiatives? in order to make it more nutritious. But this Any programme designed, whether in crops, In 2017, we ran the first National Agri-Nu- is not enough. A study done in 2015 shows livestock, or fisheries, is now required to have trition Conference. Both the counties and na- that the consumption of fruit and vegetables a nutrition objective to attract any funding. tional governments were involved. Since then, is very low in Kenya. Changing this so that The need to understand nutrition indicators in we have held such a conference each year. It the households consume at least five servings agriculture is a capacity-building agenda both is a forum in which we bring together all the of fruit and vegetables a day, as recommended for national and county government, because, stakeholders who are doing nutrition work in by the World Health Organization, calls for for a long time in Kenya, nutrition was seen as agriculture. Responding to COVID-19, the behaviour change and campaigns addressing a health issue. Retraining the extension work- national government has installed the One the issue. ers on nutrition matters in agriculture value Million Kitchen Gardens campaign. The aim is chains is our next initiative. to mainstream nutrition in the agriculture val- Is there a difference between dietary pat- ue chain. With this we are supporting house- terns in rural and urban areas? Full interview: www.rural21.com holds – especially the vulnerable households The same study – the STEPwise survey for 16 FOCUS

Civil society’s engagement for better nutrition – the case of Namibia

Just like in many other countries, the COVID-19 pandemic has revealed the weaknesses of the food system in Namibia. And it has shown that the multifaceted causes of malnutrition can only be tackled by coordinated multi-stakeholder action. Our author describes how existing structures can be revitalised for this purpose and the role that the newly founded Nutrition and Food Security Alliance of Namibia is playing in this context.

By Ben Schernick

amibia, the second most unequal society (QJOLVK Nin the world according to World Bank MAY 2020 data, is particularly challenged when it comes Nutrition and Food Safety to hunger and malnutrition. In 2018, an on- during Covid-19 outbreak going economic recession escalated into a de- pression, while at the same time Namibia was experiencing one of the worst droughts in its Healthy diety helps prevent disease Eating when Eat 3 meals a day you are sick history, with provisional crop harvests almost 50 Eat a variety of foods Eat vegetables and fruit every day 'XULQJLOOQHVVFRQVXPHPRUH per cent below the 20-year average production. Eat beans or meat regularly food and water to get better (DWPRUH¿VK $IWHULOOQHVVEDELHVDQG 8VHZKROHJUDLQSURGXFWV PDKDQJXPDL]HRDWVDQGEURZQEUHDG FKLOGUHQQHHGDQH[WUDPHDO DQGIRRGVWKDWKDYHYLWDPLQVDQGPLQHUDOVDGGHG HYHU\GD\WRKHOSUHJDLQ Poverty levels among Namibia’s population of $KHDOWK\GLHWKHOSVSUHYHQWGLVHDVHDQGVXSSRUWV\RXUPHQWDOKHDOWK ZHLJKW ± 2.5 million remain disproportionately high and over a third of the population are unemployed. The Namibia Labour Force Survey from 2018 found that this particularly affects Drinking Breastfeeding Food safety the youth, with 46.1 per cent under 35 years &RYLGLVQRWWUDQVPLWWHGWKURXJKEUHDVW and security Drink water regularly milk Follow good food safety and 59.9 per cent under 25 years without em- Avoid drinking sugary drinks 0RWKHUVVKRXOGFRQWLQXHEUHDVWIHHGLQJ SUDFWLFHVOLNHZDVKLQJ\RXU DVORQJDVWKH\FDQLGHDOO\\HDUVDQG $YRLGGULQNLQJDOFRKRO KDQGVZLWKZDWHUDQGVRDS beyond ployment. In addition, Namibia carries the KHOSVSURWHFW\RXIURP before eating GLVHDVH 0RWKHUVZKRKDYH&RYLGVKRXOG &DUHIRUWKRVHZKRGRQRW heavy double burden of malnutrition, with a FRQWLQXHWREUHDVWIHHGDQGWDNH KDYHHQRXJKIRRGDQG SUHYHQWLRQPHDVXUHV ZHDUDPDVN VXSSRUWWKHP quarter of children (± 24%) stunted, chron- DQGZDVKKDQGV ically undernourished and at risk of insufficient brain development. Such stunting then again contributes to GDP losses of up to 16.5 per cent, hereby generating a vicious circle. At the The poster with Key messages on Nutrition and Food Safety during COVID-19 is available in twelve local same time, Namibia – a meat-loving country languages. with high sugar and fat consumption, where healthy diets are not yet all too popular – has adult obesity rates of almost 20 per cent. in rural areas is similarly dire, and sometimes A national coordination structure for even worse. food and nutrition security All of the above was already the reality prior to COVID-19 and had serious implications At the same time, however, countless private Already since 2017, the Namibian government for people’s health and lives, and these were initiatives from companies and committed in- had actually engaged multiple stakeholders to the very painful symptoms of huge societal dividuals – such as Co-Feed Namibia – across revive its multi-sectoral and multi-stakehold- inequalities, as well as a clear lack of proper the country started collecting and distributing er Food and Nutrition Security Coordination nutrition education and awareness. When the food to those in need, resulting in an unex- Structures alongside an updated Food and Nu- pandemic reached Namibia in March 2020, pected wave of solidarity and support among trition Security Policy and an accompanying the country went into lockdown, hereby de- Namibians from all walks of life. This also led Implementation Action Plan. All of these are laying the first wave, which is about to hit the to a growing awareness of the already existing expected to be finalised, approved and active country very soon, with an expected peak in huge inequalities, as people realised that many before the end of 2020. cases around September. These measures sent had to “stay at home” for weeks, with their the country’s economy – with tourism as a whole family in a one-room shack, with only The new national coordination structure will critical sector – into steep decline and have an outside toilet, and with no source of in- receive high level support from Cabinet and caused many people to lose their jobs. This come and no food supplies. In this regard, the the Prime Minister’s Office, with the Minis- particularly hurt those who were already not Namibian government and international part- try of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform earning much and had no savings at all. They ners also put a variety of measures in place to fulfilling critical function as the National Sec- are among the 25 per cent of the population reduce the heavy impact of Covid-19 on peo- retariat, which is to collaborate closely with who can only afford to live in shacks in one of ple’s lives and livelihoods, hereby also realising sub-national secretaries. Attention was paid to the urban informal settlements. The situation Namibia’s high dependency on food imports. not unnecessarily create costly new structures, RURAL 21 03/20 17

but to build on existing ones, while focus- to combining permaculture gardening with ing on improved communication, especially practical nutrition in poverty-stricken infor- with the Ministry of Health and Social Ser- mal settlements, in collaboration with already vices and other Government offices, ministries established and experienced member organ- and agencies, as well as with non-government isations who are known for their innovative stakeholders and partner organisations. Such a approaches. complete overhaul of the system was necessary because Namibia’s very first multi-stakeholder Overall, reaching and working with commu- platform, the Namibian Alliance for Improved nities in urban and rural areas across the coun- Nutrition (NAFIN) through which the country through its member organisations is there- try joined the Global Scaling Up Nutrition fore one of the Alliance’s major focal areas. (SUN) Movement in 2011, had become dor- At the same time, information sharing, edu- mant in recent years. cation, communication (IEC) and advocacy at national level are also crucial. Some IEC ma- It was against this background that in late terials have already been developed, and Miss 2018, the SUN Movement Pooled Funds of- Namibia 2019 and the musician Kalux have fered support to Namibian civil society, aca- A local fruit vendor reading the flyer onNutrition already come on board as national nutrition demia and private sector in coming together and Food Safety during COVID-19. Photo: Ben Schernick champions/influencers. In this regard, one and strengthening civil society’s involvement upcoming project is going to shed more light in nutrition-related matters. A 1.5 year-long on Namibia’s nutritional landscape, some of its participatory process led to the establishment local and international civil society organisa- key role-players and their areas of work. It will of the Nutrition and Food Security Alliance of tions, academic institutions and UN agencies be a series of short regular mini-Zoominars, Namibia (NAFSAN) in late 2019. NAFSAN are supporting the distribution of these mate- scheduled for September and October, where- will be a key partner within the national co- rials into the various regions and communities. by all recordings are to be made available on ordination system at national and sub-national NAFSAN’s proposal for initial funding towards NAFSAN’s website afterwards. level and has contributed to the development of organisational development and sustainabili- the future structure, policy and action plan. To- ty was approved by GIZ in June, so that op- Until recently, Namibia was one of only nine gether with its future members, NAFSAN will erations for the first year until June 2021 are African nations classified as upper-middle-in- also play a key role in implementation, moni- now approved. Simultaneously, NAFSAN has come countries, which significantly reduced toring, reporting, educating and advocating for also officially become an active member of the Namibia’s access to ‘soft loans’ and has led to better nutrition and sustainable food security. SUN Civil Society Networks at a global and a massive withdrawal of minor and major in- regional South and Eastern Africa level. ternational donors and development partners, At this point, the private sector is not much especially affecting the most vulnerable of Na- involved in areas of nutrition and food secu- mibia’s population. However, now that Na- rity. Only the companies Namibia Dairies and From permaculture gardening to mini- mibia has been re-classified as a middle-income Namib Mills have actively participated, for Zoominars country since mid-2020, its odds of receiving instance in food fortification. Hence, for the the support needed to address the humungous time being, the private sector has been includ- With such strong institutional support and fi- tasks ahead of successfully addressing severe ed in NAFSAN as a civil society alliance, un- nancial security, NAFSAN is now able to fo- hunger, malnutrition and major inequalities til there are a sufficient number of committed cus on solidifying its internal good governance are starting to look much better again. This is private sector organisations to establish an in- structures and tackling the tasks it has set itself: something that is possible with transparent and dependent yet interdependent nutrition busi- supporting the establishment of the national collaborative efforts from within the country ness network. coordination structure, policy and action plan, and with support from international partners reaching out to future members at national and and friends. Overall, NAFSAN was only officially estab- sub-national levels, continuing to inform and lished in March 2020. It is therefore still in its educate the public through media appearances infancy stages and needs to grow its member- and a variety of educational information mate- Ben Schernick is a social worker and mediator by ship base. Yet, in early April, prompted by the rials, and involving national and international profession who is based in Windhoek, Namibia. first COVID-19 cases in Namibia, NAFSAN high-level nutrition champions and influenc- He has worked with civil society and international collaborated with UNICEF and the Ministry of ers. Furthermore, it can now develop practical development organisations, as well as academic Health and Social Services in adapting existing and participatory nutrition training especially and government institutions in training, curriculum national nutrition guidelines within the con- for young people from marginalised commu- development, consulting, facilitating dialogue text of the new pandemic. Posters and flyers on nities, seek additional funding for practical processes and project management. As from Nutrition and Food Safety during COVID-19 projects that will be implemented by its mem- October 2018 he has facilitated the process were developed, and thanks to the fast and ber organisations, as well as secure funding for leading up to the establishment of NAFSAN, unbureaucratic financial support from various sustainably establishing itself at national and and is currently serving as acting Director of its Namibia projects of Deutsche Gesellschaft für sub-national levels. Secretariat. Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) they Contact: [email protected]; www.nafsan.org could be translated and printed in twelve local One of NAFSAN’s first practical projects cur- languages. Since April, and also now that the rently in the pipeline is the development of References: www.rural21.com incidence of COVID-19 is on the rise, various a holistic, sustainable and scalable approach 18 FOCUS

Helping ‘local favourites’ join the race for healthier diets

‘Traditional’ vegetables are crops that are grown in their region of origin or were introduced many generations ago. They are generally sturdier and more nutritious than vegetables traded globally, but tend to be under-utilised. Our authors show how the rapidly eroding diversity of these vegetables can be countered and how they can be integrated in today’s food systems.

By Marco C.S. Wopereis and C. George Kuo

bout one in every three people suffer from Amalnutrition, be it hunger, micronutrient deficiencies, or overweight/obesity. This is caused by a combination of dietary and health factors. Increased consumption of healthy, nutrient-dense foods, such as vegetables, and reduced intake of unhealthy and processed foods will improve nutrition. Vegetables are among the most affordable sources of vitamins, minerals and plant-based proteins, which are essential for good health. However, vegetable intake world-wide is far below the recommended World Health Organization (WHO) minimum of 240 grams and the EAT-Lancet Commission recommendation of 300 grams per person per day, with the exception of East Asia.

The special case of ‘traditional’ vegetables

‘Global vegetables’ such as tomato, peppers, onion, brassicas, eggplant, carrot and beans are ubiquitously produced, commercialised and consumed. However, there are hundreds of traditional vegetables that are locally produced and socially and culturally accepted as local foods, such as leafy amaranth in East Africa, Malabar spinach in India and slippery Vegetable diversity in Yogjakarta market, Indonesia. cabbage in the Pacific Islands. These ‘tradi- Photo: World Vegetable Center tional vegetables’ are either endemic crops that were domesticated and cultivated in the same place they originated from, or crops that have current markets and diets. Consumers may opportunities to adapt to local growth con- been introduced into a country and are now not recognise their nutritional value and may ditions, adding colour, taste, nutrition and recognised as traditional vegetables. The huge even consider them as ‘old fashioned’ and health qualities to people’s diets. Conserving diversity of traditional vegetables is more than ‘poor man’s food’. Some traditional vegetables vegetable diversity is crucial as different land a local peculiarity – they could potentially play are associated with long preparation time and races and wild relatives may have very im- a much greater role in ensuring adequate levels not fit to be integrated into ‘modern’ recipes. portant still-to-be discovered nutrition and of nutrition in particular in low-income coun- However, there is evidence that these vegeta- health qualities and agronomic traits, such as tries. Traditional vegetables have a much high- bles are making a comeback, e.g. in East Af- resistance to pests and diseases or tolerance to er nutritional value than their global counter- rica, with traditional vegetables like amaranth, drought. There is considerable evidence that parts, such as cabbage and tomato, and offer an jute mallow, spider plant and African night- traditional vegetables are hardier, i.e. better important source of vitamins and minerals (see shade being sold in restaurants, local markets adapted to marginal soil and climate conditions Table on page 20). They also contribute to cli- and supermarkets. and pest and disease pressure than their global mate resilience by diversifying farming systems counterparts. These traits may be very useful and create important income generation and in future breeding programmes. job opportunities both on- and off-farm. Global trends putting a tradition at risk The use of traditional vegetable diversi- But traditional vegetables tend to be underuti- The tremendous diversity of traditional veg- ty in farming systems around the world is lised, undervalued and poorly integrated in etables is a great asset, since it provides many in decline because of diet homogenisation, RURAL 21 03/20 19

food production homogenisation and urban migration. To maintain this diversity, it is necessary to conserve and document vegetable landraces, their wild relatives and traditional knowledge of these vegetables before they are lost. This is particularly important for Africa. A recent study focusing on 126 traditional African vegetables showed that only a few (e.g. common bean) were con- served well in genebanks in Africa. About one-third of these vegetables were repre- sented by less than ten accessions, or even no accessions at all. To secure these genetic resources for humanity, it will be necessary to organise collection missions for ex-situ conservation, upgrade seed banks in Africa to keep the seed safe, and support national conservation programmes to improve the A farmer in Tsenanomby, Madagascar, showing her Ethiopian mustard and amaranth plots. in-situ conservation of these vegetables and Photo: World Vegetable Center their wild relatives.

‘Grow your own’ initiatives spaces using sack gardens and vertical gardens Finding ‘local favourites’ and boosting deserve much greater attention. More research supply Vegetables may be unavailable or unafford- is needed to understand how these seed kits able to consumers in low-income countries help to strengthen local seed systems, and how The main bottleneck to integration of tra- for at least part of the year. In such cases, it they can help households in evaluating a range ditional vegetables into food systems is the makes sense to promote production of vege- of traditional vegetables for climate-smart ag- availability of quality seed. Most traditional tables for home consumption. WorldVeg has riculture and for new ways of farming such as vegetables have not been the object of rigor- reached close to 100,000 households, work- urban agriculture. ous selection for local growth and market con- ing mostly with women, in Africa and Asia ditions or consumer preferences and dietary with home garden interventions over the last Natural disasters disrupt food production and needs, let alone breeding work to improve decade. Such interventions combine hands-on distribution systems. Fast-growing traditional productivity and marketability, with high training in vegetable gardening with nutrition vegetables can help restore local food supplies once-over yield and uniform quality produce, behaviour change communication. In East Af- and provide nutrition to victims. WorldVeg whilst maintaining their nutrition and health rica alone, WorldVeg and partners distribut- seed kits with diverse and nutrient-rich vege- qualities. There is a need to find ‘local favou- ed over 42,000 seed kits containing 183,000 tables are currently helping people cope with rites’ among the vast diversity found in a par- vegetable seed samples to households in Tan- the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in the ticular country or region that fit best in local zania, Kenya and Uganda. The seed kits con- Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand. WorldVeg agro-ecosystems and diets. This may indirect- tained traditional African vegetables, tomato, and partners have also assisted victims of the ly benefit conservation efforts as policy- and pepper and soybean. Participating households tsunami in Indonesia and Sri Lanka, a typhoon decision-makers start to become aware of the in Cambodia increased vegetable production in Taiwan, an earthquake in Haiti and floods value of traditional vegetables through their by 43 per cent and extended the production in India, Thailand and Fiji. increased use. period by four months. They also adopted a range of new production methods, including The World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg) mini seed packs. Three years after a home gar- School garden and school meal works with formal and informal seed systems den intervention in Bangladesh, the former programmes to promote traditional vegetables. Seed com- participants are producing, on average, 43 kg panies are important partners because they of vegetables per household per year, provid- Healthy eating preferences and habits are best can potentially reach large numbers of farming an important micronutrient supply of iron, learned early. Starting in 2014, WorldVeg and ers. Beyond quality seed, and just like with zinc, folate and vitamin A. This is encouraging partners conducted school garden programmes global vegetables, attention needs to be paid evidence of a long-lasting effect. Results from in Burkina Faso, Bhutan, Nepal, Indonesia to enhance productivity, marketability, and Africa were generally less conclusive, pointing, and the Philippines. Through a hands-on ex- food safety and off-season production by pro- among others, to the need to pay greater atten- perience with gardening and nutritional ed- moting good agricultural practices, integrated tion to water constraints and better adaptation ucation, children learned how to grow and pest management, and adapted and afford- to local needs. appreciate healthy foods such as fruit and veg- able protected cultivation methods. Post- etables. They generally became more aware harvest losses can be cut back and nutrition and Given the large number of poor people liv- and knowledgeable about vegetables and liked health qualities maintained by improvements ing in and near urban centres in low-income to consume them, but a positive effect on veg- in transportation infrastructure, processing and countries, ‘grow your own’ initiatives focusing etable consumption was found only in Bhu- cold storage, and by synchronising production on nutrition-rich vegetables, such as Malabar tan. School gardens are too small to produce and marketing. spinach, jute mallow and spider plant in small sufficient quantities of vegetables for school 20 FOCUS

lunches. Therefore, these school garden pro- markets, or in a restaurant. Consumers from diets are currently moving in the wrong direc- grammes were successful in working on the all wealth classes need to be able to access tion. East Asia’s example shows that it is possi- ‘demand side’, but not on the ‘supply side’. and afford traditional vegetables and trust that ble to include traditional vegetables in people’s they are safe to consume. Vegetables need to diets, and can provide lessons learned for other A follow-up study in Nepal combined the be appealing and easy to prepare and fit into regions. Information campaigns are needed to school garden programme with an integrat- local recipes. WorldVeg has been involved in raise interest in traditional vegetables – these ed home garden programme for parents. This promotional and demand creation activities for should emphasise taste, cultural value and ease time, vegetable consumption of children in- African vegetables in East Africa. This included of preparation, and should not only advocate creased by 15 to 26 per cent (depending on the road shows, cooking shows, nutritional sensi- nutritional, health and environmental bene- season). Nudging children towards healthier tisation and awareness programme campaigns fits. They could include promotion campaigns food choices clearly requires targeting caregiv- in hospitals, schools, markets and villages to with chefs and consumer champions to cel- ers as well. Another way of solving the supply enhance consumption and create demand and ebrate nutrition, taste and cultural values of issue is to stimulate greater involvement of par- market incentives for producers. these vegetables. ents and local farmers in the school meal programme and source vegetables locally. Chil- The private sector takes care of many issues Farmers will need support in terms of seed sup- dren benefiting from this approach in Nepal related to losses and food safety when products ply and good agricultural practices to guaran- had a significantly higher provision of midday are sold in supermarkets. However, the ma- tee food safety, raise productivity and extend school meals (+19 %) and a higher school meal jority of rural and urban consumers in low-in- growing seasons. Establishment of trust and quality in terms of dietary diversity (+44 %) come countries will purchase their food in traceability relationships and short connection and nutritional content (e.g. a 21 % higher informal, wet markets. This calls for reducing lines between producers and consumers will consumption of vitamin A-rich fruit and vege- post-harvest losses and increasing hygiene and address food safety concerns, enhance produc- tables). Maintaining the observed gains would food safety. One of the key factors for success tion and consumption and reduce post-har- require a 20 to 33 per cent increase in the cur- is to establish durable linkages between pro- vest losses. Investments in food environments, rent budget per school meal in addition to the ducers and markets or direct linkages between in particular in wet markets in low-income cost of capacity strengthening. producers and consumers (e.g. through mobile countries, are needed to improve food safety, phone applications) creating trust, traceability hygiene and reduce waste. and reducing uncertainty. Nudging people towards purchasing Care must be taken to conserve the diversity of traditional vegetables traditional vegetables world-wide whilst start- What has to be done ing up activities to promote their production Many people, rural and urban consumers alike, and consumption. To secure the diversity of in low-income countries will buy vegetables The nutritional and health potential of tradi- traditional vegetables, it will be necessary to along the roadside, in wet markets and super- tional vegetables is tremendous, but people’s organise collection missions for ex situ conservation, upgrade seed banks to keep the seed safe and support national conservation pro- Percentage of recommended nutrition intake (RNI) supplied by 100 g of selected grammes to improve the conservation of these commodities, including global (cabbage, tomato) and traditional vegetables for vegetables and their wild relatives in their nat- pregnant women* ural habitats.

Protein Vitamin A Iron Folate Zink Calcium Vitamin E Last but not least, promotion of traditional (g) (µg RE) (mg) (µg) (mg) (mg) (mg α-TE) vegetables must fit within local, national and RNI for pregnant regional initiatives to reduce malnutrition and women 60 800 30 600 11 1000 7,5 to get crucial buy-in from policy- and deci- st (1 trimester) sion-makers. It will help to emphasise that Percentage (%) of RNI besides the nutritional potential of traditional Rice 12 0 1 2 4 0 0 vegetables, there is also tremendous econom- Cassava (root) 2 0 1 5 3 2 0 ic potential, through income generation and Millet 6 0 2 14 8 0 0 job creation along the value chain from seed Meat (chicken) 37 0 3 1 14 2 3 to retail, with clear opportunities for women Mungbean 40 2 22 104 24 13 7 and youth. Vegetable soybean 18 2 13 28 13 4 78 Cabbage 3 1 1 10 2 4 2 Tomato 2 18 1 3 2 1 7 Marco C.S. Wopereis is Director General of the Slippery cabbage 6 106 5 30-177 11 18 58 World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg), which is based Moringa leaves 7 146 11 49 5 10 65 Amaranth leaves 9 160 6 31 6 32 17 in Tainan, Taiwan. Jute mallow 10 188 12 21 0 36 36 C. George Kuo works for the World Vegetable Nightshade 8 101 13 10 9 21 28 Center as a consultant. Vegetable cowpea Contact: [email protected] 8 198 6 27 3 54 101 leaves *red numbers indicate high levels of nutrients; RE = Retinol Equivalent; α-TE = α-Tocopherol Source: RNI – FAO/WHO 2004; nutrient data – USDA Nutrient Database, WorldVeg. References: www.rural21.com RURAL 21 03/20 21

Women selling giant crickets at a market in Mandalay, Myanmar.

Photo: Sarah Nischalke

Insects for dinner?

Insects are an important source of protein for many people in the Global South. From an environmental perspective, too, they are increasingly being viewed as an alternative to conventional livestock rearing. However, the potential of insects to improve both nutrition and livelihoods is still far from being fully utilised. The ProciNut project seeks to change that.

By Sarah Nischalke

ince the EU’s Novel Food Regulation en- essential amino acids but also with a range The ProciNut project (Production and pro- Stered into force in 2018, insects as a nov- of micronutrients and vitamins. Their energy cessing of edible insects for improved nutri- el food have become a talking point both in value is comparable to that of the meat of tion; see Box on page 22) is seeking to dissem- Europe and elsewhere. At least, many people mammals and birds, with a protein content of inate knowledge of the benefits and techniques in the Global North have probably tried in- 30 to 60 per cent. of insect production and processing in East sect pasta or protein bars so that they can join Africa and South-East Asia, with a focus on in the conversation. However, insects have yet Madagascar and Myanmar. Until now, almost to feature regularly on our everyday menus. Tapping the potential all the insects eaten in these countries have In many countries of the Global South, on either been collected in the wild or – in the the other hand, insects have traditionally The consumption of insects has been doc- case of Myanmar – imported from Thailand made an important contribution to people’s umented in 118 countries, with the number and China. The project wants to train interest- diets and are a normal part of the food cul- of insect species that are used as food total- ed small-scale producers in insect production, ture. For many small-scale farmers – especial- ling around 2,100. Most of these species are establish the first marketing pathways and also ly women – they are also an important source beetles, hymenoptera (bees, wasps and ants), use insects to make local snacks. Caca pigeon, of income. People living in rural areas often grasshoppers and butterflies. In terms of envi- for example, is a very tasty salty cracker from eat little meat: although almost all smallhold- ronmental impact, too, insects potentially have Madagascar that could be made from cricket ers keep animals, they usually sell them, need major advantages over conventional livestock flour. In Myanmar, shrimp powder (Pa-Zon them as a form of social security, or slaugh- because they have a very efficient feed conver- Chauk Mhont) is traditionally sprinkled on ter them only for special occasions. Insects sion rate, produce few greenhouse gases (es- food by almost everyone, and insect flours are therefore a welcome source of additional pecially at the warm temperatures which form could be used in the same way. The project’s high-quality protein. And they supply fami- their preferred living conditions) and need lit- long-term goal is to improve the access of local lies not only with protein that contains all the tle space and little water. communities to sources of protein and open 22 FOCUS

up an additional income option for these com- other religious groups, this attitude is less pro- munities. An essential element of the project is nounced and does not present an obstacle. awareness-raising at political level, among the The project’s first training programmes and advisory services and at the key universities to trials therefore focus on this region of Myan- alert these bodies to the potential of insects in mar (Shan and Kayin states). In other parts of nutrition and as a source of income. This work the continent, such as South Asia, insects are is conducted mainly via training sessions and generally regarded as an unclean food, and eat- policy dialogue meetings. ing them is widely seen as a backward practice; insects tend to be eaten only by marginalised But what are the details of insect consumption ethnic groups such as the Adivasi or only in globally? With the exception of Thailand and particular areas, including large parts of the China and, recently, the Global North, most Indian north-east. Followers of Hinduism and of the insects that are eaten are collected in Islam refuse to eat insects. Religious affiliation the wild or caught by professional insect col- A helping of bamboo borer at the Crokmai Thai Lao thus plays a significant role. lectors using light traps and similar technolo- Restaurant, Bangkok. gy. In rural areas, collecting usually involves Photo: Ingo Wagler the whole family and is often combined with Why insect rearing instead of other activities, such as gathering firewood collection? or harvesting wild plants. At times of insect up with edible insects and associate them with plagues, the creatures are also collected from positive childhood memories, while members There are good reasons to prefer insect rearing the fields and then prepared and eaten or dried of the young urban generation, if they accept over collection in the wild. In some cases, it and fed to animals. But it would be inappro- insects at all, want them on their plate only is the females of the insect species (such as gi- priate to class insects as a rural food or a poor in processed form. By contrast, interview part- ant crickets and water beetles) that carry eggs person’s meal. Insects are sold in the markets, ners across all age groups in Myanmar and in their abdomen that are a particular delica- where they command higher prices than fruit Thailand stated that it was precisely the crisply cy and fetch very high prices. But the rise in and vegetables and are often more expensive roasted insects’ bodies that made them appeal- urban consumption and professional capture than some meat and fish, and they are served ing to eat and that the sensory experience was is putting insect populations under growing in restaurants in a wide range of price brackets. lacking when insect flours were used. pressure. Another problem in relation to the For example, at the market in Myanmar a por- consumption of insects gathered in the wild is tion of giant crickets (50 insects) costs 7,500 kyats (equivalent to 4.40 euros), while in the Culture and religion play a significant “Insects in the Backyard” restaurant in Bang- role THE PROCINUT PROJECT kok, a main course such as cricket pasta with pesto and silkworms sells for between 10 and Eating insects is not the preserve of specific The ProciNut project (Production and 15 euros. social classes, but it often has an ethnic di- processing of edible insects for improved mension and cultural and religious aspects also nutrition) at the Center for Development come into play. In the Global North, there Research (ZEF) at the University of Bonn, Linking tradition and modernity is no tradition of eating insects, while in the Germany, is researching the edible insect Global South it is often certain ethnic groups – sector in Madagascar, Myanmar and The term “traditional” could lead one to sup- and not necessarily marginalised or poor ones Thailand. The project runs from mid-2018 pose that insects are eaten mainly by the older – that generally eat insects or eat a particularly to mid-2021. It is financed by the German generation but here, too, practices vary widely wide range of them. In Myanmar, for example, Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture between regions. When our interview part- an especially diverse range of insects is eaten (BMEL) and implemented in cooperation ners in Myanmar were asked whether children in the region bordering Thailand and China, with local universities. and the younger generation rejected eating in- where culturally, too, the practice is associat- The first trials of the production of local sects as old-fashioned, they stated that children ed with certain ethnic groups. Farmed insects insect species were successful. For never refused insects when offered them and are also widely accepted there, and people are example, feeding experiments were that for many they were one of their favour- aware that production is actually possible and conducted at the local universities with ite foods. In urban areas – especially in central can be lucrative. The largest ethnic group in wild silkworms, grasshoppers and giant Myanmar, where eating insects is less com- Myanmar, the Barmar, who live mainly in the crickets. In all three countries, policy mon, and in Thailand – there are signs that centre of the country, do not traditionally eat events and initial training sessions for young people who have not grown up with insects and the interview partners state that, in smallholders have been held. Interest in edible insects are returning to the old food tra- line with the current trend, they eat “only gi- insects as a livelihood option has been ditions. They sit in a bar in the evenings and ant crickets”. shown not only at the political level but enjoy crisply roasted giant crickets with their also by development organisations such as beer or order home delivery of a portion of As a result of the Buddhist belief that killing Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale silkworms dressed with garlic or herbs. animals is associated with bad karma, follow- Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) and the Danish In- ers of Buddhism are particularly likely to have ternational Development Agency (Danida). In the urban areas of Madagascar, on the other reservations about insect production and reject The local universities have initiated other hand, there is a noticeable divide between the the “mass killing” of insects. In the region bor- insect projects on their own, too. generations. The older generation have grown dering Thailand, where Buddhists live among RURAL 21 03/20 23

by women or mainly by men. Edible insects tend to be regarded as a job for women (with the exception mentioned above). However, in small-scale farming in the Global South, it is also frequently noticeable that as soon as an innovation that involves women reaches a certain level of profitability and exceeds the household’s own requirements, it is taken over by men and scaled up.

A great potential, but still a lot to do

One of the project’s most important realisa- tions is the fact that people who eat and collect insects are not automatically interested in producing them. There is a widely held view that insects gathered in the wild are of better quality, and many people are unaware that farming insects is even possible. In both project regions, production is still at a very early stage, Smallholders getting cricket training in Kengtung, Myanmar. and a great deal of educational work is need-

Photo: Jochen Dürr ed to make people aware of the advantages of including insects – which they are already eating – in their diet and to raise awareness of the that they may be contaminated by the accu- in people’s diets and widespread poverty make opportunities and potentials of insect produc- mulation of chemicals used in agriculture. Madagascar the most needy project region. As tion. Extensive research is also needed into the a solution, attempts are now being made to get suitability and cost-effectiveness of local species For this reason, as well as on economic microfinance institutions on board. and the best production conditions for them. grounds, the Thai government was prompted some time ago to start providing significant While the specific findings on local species support to the insect sector as a branch of the The gender aspect are only to a limited extent transferable, les- economy. Training centres were set up and sons learnt with regard to the establishment of consumer awareness was raised through tast- The ProciNut project is also trying to kick- the insect sector are also of great interest for ing opportunities. The aim was to popularise start research into gender aspects in the in- other countries. A basic requirement for the insects that are particularly suitable for farming novative milieu of edible insect production. successful development of the sector is the but not yet a preferred food – in other words, Rearing insects requires only a small invest- cultural acceptance of eating insects. Conven- to align people’s tastes with production. In ment, because they need little space and little tional animal husbandry is based on centuries Thailand in the 1990s, giant crickets were fa- food and water. Simple plastic boxes, nets or of experience, while scientific knowledge of voured as a food. The smaller cricket species cement constructions in the backyard are often insect use is still in its infancy. The opening up (house crickets, field crickets, etc.) are now sufficient. Because the insects can be reared at of the Global North to edible insects (keep- much more commonly eaten, because their the back of the house, women are often par- ing in mind that the potential for feed insects short life cycle and simpler rearing require- ticularly happy to take up insect production, in meat production is significantly higher) and ments make them more lucrative, and in taste which combines well with their domestic ac- the emerging trends in the Global South could and consistency, they are a delicious alternative tivities. Whereas the collection of most insect provide considerable impetus for the further to their larger relatives. species can be done by all household mem- development of the insect sector. bers, harvesting some species may be a stren- In Madagascar, too, there is significant political uous physical task and is mostly done by men. support. The Ministry of Agriculture is very Chopping up bamboo canes to collect bamboo Sarah Marie Nischalke is an enthusiastic social interested in insects as a source of both food worms and setting up light traps to attract gi- scientist whose work as a Senior Researcher at and feed; as a result, insects are even included ant crickets in Myanmar, for example, are tasks the Centre for Development Research (ZEF) at in the National Nutrition Plan and promot- performed entirely by men. the University of Bonn, Germany draws on her ed both nationally and regionally by the Of- fascination for food, other cultures and nature. For fice National de Nutrition (ONN), which has It is not only small-scale production that is fre- twelve years she has been conducting research into therefore become an important project part- quently dominated by women. The marketing farming and food systems as social entities as well ner. At implementation level, though, small- and processing of edible insects also tends to as into food culture and eating habits, always with scale farmers lack the help they need on every be their preserve. This is a reflection of the special consideration of women and gender issues. front. They have neither the time nor the fi- fact that in the Global South, it is usual for Contact: [email protected] nancial capacity to make even the smallest in- certain types of production – such as grow- vestment or try out new agricultural activities. ing fruit, vegetables and field crops or tend- References: www.rural21.com At the same time, significant protein deficits ing livestock – to be performed either mainly 24 FOCUS

Small fish with a big potential

African inland fisheries are increasingly reliant on the capture of small fish species that are sundried and traded to reach consumers often at large distances away from where they were produced. Largely unrecorded, the “hidden catches” go a long way in alleviating “hidden hunger”: as they are consumed whole, small fish are an important source of micronutrients for many Africans. Only that, unfortunately, politicians haven’t yet realised this.

By Paul van Zwieten

apture fisheries are an important eco- For many women, selling small fish Cnomic subsistence activity all over Africa, is an important source of income. supporting 200 million Africans directly or in- Photo: Anne Regtien directly through food and income. While con- spicuously absent in global debates about food security, small indigenous fish species have always played an important but unrecorded role in African food systems. Along the shores of rivers, swamps, lakes and ponds, fishers, mostly women, can be seen fishing with baskets or small lift nets lined with mosquito-netting, catching a host of small fish species “for the pot”. Of the 3,500 African freshwater fish species, 60 to 70 per cent do not grow larger than 15 cm, but most have small populations. Around four decades ago, many African lake fisheries saw a shift from targeting larger cat- fishes, carp, and tilapia to include large catches of open water species such as small freshwater herrings, carps and characins that do attain large population sizes. In dried form, these fish find their way to the markets of any African city. Kapenta caught in Lake Kariba, Zambia, provide 25 grams of dried fish once a week to the beaches and lake shores or on nets. Rainy is traded in Johannesburg, Dagaa from Lake all 144 million inhabitants of Kenya, Uganda seasons, overheating and mixing with sand and Victoria is found in Juba, South Sudan, and and Tanzania. Yet, fishing pressure is still low, soil cause high quality losses. Fish is re-dried the pygmy herring from Lake Volta, of only and the potential sustainable catch of Dagaa is after rainfall, but then becomes unfit for hu- 3 cm maximum length, is hawked in small estimated to be around 2 million tonnes. In a man consumption and enters the animal feed plastic bags as “one-man-thousand” on the survey of eight large African lakes with more value chain. For example, 60–70 per cent of streets of Tamale in northern Ghana. Sold in detailed information on ecosystem properties the Dagaa caught in Lake Victoria is used as small quantities and eaten whole, small fish are and fisheries, the total potential yield of small animal feed. Simple raised racks or more so- accessible to many households and are thus an fish was estimated at around 5 million tonnes phisticated solar-dryers would greatly increase indispensable source of animal protein and mi- per year, of which only 15 per cent is utilised the quality of dried produce but are rarely used cronutrients in many African societies. today. This unparalleled level of production, in any of the small fish fisheries. Recent work simple capture methods and reduced availabil- in Kenya and Uganda showed that first-stage ity of bigger species due to heavy exploitation processing, mostly carried out by women, on Fisheries and species are the main reasons for the recent consider- average hardly adds value due to the low prices able increase in fishing effort and catch. for low quality fish, thus limiting their capac- The recent boom in small fish fisheries targets ity to invest. In general, women involved in species that all are highly productive and can the small-fish processing sector are constrained sustain very large catches. With high turnover Processing and trade: women’s task by bad working conditions, poor market and rates, annual biological production of small fish transportation infrastructure and limited fi- can reach up to six times their average biomass In all cases, small species are sundried after nancial and business services. Strengthening (see Table), meaning that they sustain large landing. Sun-drying is the most environmen- women’s capacity to invest would lead to both catches and can hardly be overexploited with tally friendly and energy-efficient processing improvements in nutrition and health for their current fishing methods. For example, the larg- technology available, requiring limited in- families and to improved value chains. est freshwater fishery in the world is on Lake vestments to obtain potentially high-quality Victoria’s Dagaa. Carried out at night through products. Nevertheless, the main bottleneck Once dried, small fish is packed in large bags light attraction, catches reach around 450–550 in utilising the full potential of small fish fish- and transported by any means possible: bicy- thousand tonnes annually. To give a sense of eries is precisely in this first stage of process- cles, motorcycles, vans, mini-buses and trucks. magnitude, hypothetically, this catch could ing, as drying usually takes place directly on The advantages of small fish become especially RURAL 21 03/20 25

Examples of small, open water fish species in selected lakes indicating their maximum size, current catch, turnover rate (production [P, ton/year] per unit biomass [B, ton]), and extent of regional trade Lakes Species name (local, Latin) Maximum size Yield Turnover rate Traded within/to (cm) (x 1,000 tonnes) (P/B) Victoria Dagaa, Omena, Mukene 9 510 4 Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, South Sudan, Rwanda, DR Congo, (R. argentea) Central African Republic, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa Malawi Usipa (E. sardella) 13 54.8 3 Malawi, Mozambique, DR Congo, Zambia Tanganyika Kapenta 17 111.9 5 DR Congo, Burundi, Zambia, Tanzania, Rwanda, Namibia, (S. tanganicae, L. miodon) South Africa Mweru Chisense (M. moeruensis) 4 50 5 DR Congo, Zambia, Angola Kivu Sardine (L. miodon) 16 6 Rwanda, DR Congo, South Sudan, ? Kariba, Kapenta (L. miodon) 10 30 6 Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, DR Congo, Namibia, South Cahora Bassa 16 Africa Kainji Guimean sprat (P. leonensis), 9 14 10 Nigeria, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, ? Pygmy herring (S. leonensis) 3 ? ? Volta Guimean sprat (P. leonensis), 13 102 ? Ghana, ? Pygmy herring (S. leonensis), Fangtooth sardine (O. mento) clear in this stage of the value chain as they can whole, including bones and intestines, which provide. Moreover, the unique nutrient con- be packed in large quantities and stored with makes it particularly nutritious as it is rich in tent of fish plays a significant role in combat- a shelf life of over six months. Local and re- numerous micronutrients such as iodine, vita- ing the triple burden of hunger, micronutrient gional traders buy directly from the shore and mins B12, D and A, long-chain fatty acids in- deficiencies and non-communicable diseases. transport to rural, roadside and urban markets cluding omega−3, and calcium, iron and zinc. The huge underutilised production potential at destinations often far from the origin of the All play a critical role in cerebral development, of small fish could be realised with proper pol- fish (see Table). Specialised wholesale markets immune defence and general health. icy attention as well as public and private in- exist, as for instance the large Kirumba market vestments. There is room for diversification of in Mwanza, Tanzania, or the large fish-mar- production systems and improved value chains kets in Kumasi, Ghana, from where fish is So … through investments in commercial, techno- transported to all major towns and again to logically advanced and professionally managed surrounding rural areas. Low-quality dried fish Small fish always have been part of subsistence chains focused on scale, next to and including is re-processed into fishmeal, which is mainly fisheries in African water bodies, but they are a shift to nutrition-sensitive fisheries policies used in poultry feed. The emerging aquacul- conventionally regarded as of “low economic aimed at improving the existing, thriving, Af- ture industry shuns the low-quality meal and value” and consequently have low priority in rican small fish chains. still relies on imports from marine sources. policies. Current fisheries policy, also in Afri- Most of our knowledge here is from the Dagaa ca, has a narrow focus on productivity gains value chain. Very little is known about the and economic output, concentrating on in- Paul A.M. van Zwieten is Assistant Professor proportions of small fish of other freshwaters ternational trade and markets. This is reflected of Fisheries Management at the Aquaculture going into human consumption and animal in the global food security discourse that does and Fisheries Group, Wageningen University, feed value chains. not recognise the nutritional qualities of fish. Netherlands, with long-term experience in working Sustainable development goals do not men- in small-scale freshwater and marine fisheries in tion fish in strategies to combat nutrient de- tropical regions in Africa and South-East Asia. His Consumption and nutrition ficiencies (SDG 2), while nutrition and food main research interest is in data and information security are not the primary focus of SDG 14, requirements to evaluate fisheries resource use Product diversification is in its infancy. Occa- life below water, which, incidentally, also does in data poor situations, spatial use of fisheries sionally packaged salted-dried or deep-fried fish not mention the freshwater resources that play resources (fishing effort allocation) and fishing is offered as a snack, while fish-powder is used in such a dominant role in African fisheries. patterns (balanced harvesting). baby food or as fortification of porridge served Contact: [email protected] in hospitals. But the heaps of sun-dried small Fish represent by far our biggest source of fish that are sold in small quantities to consum- harvestable protein. Of all food production Acknowledgements ers continue to dominate trade and are found in systems, capture fisheries are the most energy This article builds on research funded through the all African fish markets. A recent short online efficient and have the lowest environmen- EU LEAP-AGRI-funded programme Small fish for survey in Kenya, focused on urban consumers, tal impact in terms of greenhouse gases and Food and the Dutch Research Council (NWO) funded found that, despite its slightly bitter taste, more use of freshwater, fertilisers or pesticides. Af- Fish-4-Food project. It furthermore draws upon than 50 per cent consumed Dagaa, 80 per cent rica relies quite heavily on fish, which forms material presented in the report ‘Freshwater small of those daily to at least once a month, while 18–20 per cent of the animal protein intake pelagic fish and their fisheries in major African over 70 per cent bought it at a local market. per capita overall, including several landlocked lakes and reservoirs in relation to food security and Like the dried sardine species, which have a countries. Catching small pelagic fish, sundried nutrition’ by Kolding, J., van Zwieten, P., Marttin, F., sweeter taste, Dagaa usually is cooked as part with a long shelf life, sold in small quantities Funge-Smith, S. and Poulain, F. (2019). of a stew that goes with the various staple foods and consumed whole, is the most high-yield- known to African cuisine. While important ing, eco-friendly and nourishing way of util- References: www.rural21.com as an animal protein source, small fish is eaten ising the natural food that aquatic ecosystems 26 FOCUS

The trend towards healthy diets – an opportunity for farmers and agri-entrepreneurs

Urbanisation and burgeoning middle classes in many countries are also resulting in new demands on food and nutrition. While some look forward to the availability of imported processed food, others are seeking healthy alternatives provided locally. This opens up new alternatives for small agri-enterprises, as examples of passionate agripreneurs from Togo and Zimbabwe, Indonesia and the Philippines demonstrate.

By Bettina Meier

he food manufacturing sector in many products, from the local middle class, from ex- tested, the porridge didn’t sell on the market. Tcountries has great potential in terms of pats in Zimbabwe and from overseas. It is a “Our business is a walk on the tightrope”, says providing jobs and income for smallholder niche market with strong potential. Austin Munyavhi. “I started my business be- farmers. Changing household dietary patterns cause I believe in the strengths of indigenous provide new opportunities for local agro-food A win-win situation African food, and I know the refined maize industries. In Africa alone, demand for pro- Munyavhi employs six permanent staff and and other processed foods make us sick. But I cessed food has been growing 1.5 times fast- dozens of casual labour. Not only does Utsanzi soon came to realise that I can only sell what er than the global average between 2005 and provide jobs, it also contributes to household people are prepared to buy. Therefore, con- 2015. In many Asian countries, burgeoning ur- income of small-scale producers and collectors. sumer education is very important.” ban middle classes prefer healthy, natural food, “We source our products directly from farmers and locally grown, fresh vegetables, fruits and whom we train in good hygiene and manu- Given the moribund state of Zimbabwe’s grains. This opens up new avenues for local facturing practices. They benefit, because they economy, it seems a miracle that Utsanzi keeps entrepreneurs driven by a vision of sustainable have a secure market, and we benefit, because going. The company’s savings have dwin- agriculture and economy. dled because of hyperinflation, and frequent power cuts mean that they mostly produce at night-time. To make things worse, Utsanzi’s Wholesome and traditional foods in suppliers have been badly affected by severe Zimbabwe drought. Also, Munyavhi says, government policy favours maize over small grains. “The Zimbabwean entrepreneur Austin Munyavhi gazetted maize price is consistently higher than started his company “Utsanzi” 20 years ago. that for small grains, so there is little incentive Utsanzi manufactures wholesome foods, cos- for farmers to shift from maize to millet.” metics and medicines made from indigenous plants and herbs, such as grains, oils, butters, Nevertheless, Munyavhi has effectively steered teas, dried leafy vegetables, insects and medic- his business to success. “It was a long way, but inal herbs. We meet Munyavhi in his grocery with a lot of perseverance and a strong vision shop in an upmarket Harare shopping mall we have made it into the mainstream market”, in March 2020. “The market for traditional he notes. “Today, we run our own grocery products and herbs is growing”, Munyavhi shop, and our products are sold in supermar- says. “We Zimbabweans eat too much maize kets nationwide.” and unhealthy foods. In Zimbabwe, there are so many ill people suffering from HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes and high blood pressure. Con- A bakery family business in Togo sumption of indigenous herbs and plants can help to maintain good health and prevent ill- Similar to Zimbabwe, the economic frame- nesses.” work in the West African country of Togo is not favourable to small-scale agri-food Caroline Jacquet is a project manager at Bio-In- industry. The bakery Valk Vivi, a fami- Austin Munyavhi speaking at a workshop. novation Zimbabwe, a specialised research or- ly business, is located in the Kégué quarter ganisation that promotes underutilised plant of Togo’s capital Lomé. We visit the com- species and links private companies to produc- pany in May 2019 and speak to co-owner ers. “There is a wealth of traditional plants and we control the quality of our product”, ex- Stanislas Kouegah-Chouchouda. “Since my herbs in our country. Collecting and growing plains Munyavhi. In 2016, Utsanzi won the great-grandmother Victoria Akouavi Logo those plants and herbs creates new livelihood Global Food Industry Award (issued by the In- Kouegah started the bakery 60 years ago, it options and can bring people out of poverty, ternational Union of Food Science and Tech- went from generation to generation. We have besides conserving biodiversity and benefiting nology) for its innovative product Zviyo and ten different products. Our bestsellers are co- health”, Jacquet agrees with Munyavhi. She is Nyemba porridge, a mix of finger millet with conut balls, ginger cookies, and biscuits based adamant that there is a demand for indigenous cow peas. While its nutritious value is uncon- on soya, maize and manioc. All products are RURAL 21 03/20 27

Consistency and a good reputation have kept says Untung. “The soil in Java is badly de- the company going, although it has not been graded due to chemical inputs and pesticides. growing much. Costs for certification and tax- Agriculture is not attractive to young people, es are a heavy financial burden. The company it does not pay. When we started TOM, we cannot access commercial loans, and it is too wanted to change this. In addition, we were big for micro-finance. So it does not have the concerned with the bad eating habits of our financial means to buy machinery that would co-citizens. There are many illnesses because enable scaling-up of the production and making of bad diets. A friend of mine died at age 27 it more environment-friendly. Still, the mere from a stroke – we attributed it to his diet. So fact that Valk Vivi have survived over the years I decided to quit my job and start something and has provided a steady income to its owners meaningful that would at the same time pro- and employees is an outstanding achievement vide a good living for my family and the farm- given the context in which they operate. ers in our community.”

A bumpy start Organic vegetable production in Untung und Sugi are idealists. “We didn’t start Indonesia TOM with the intention of making a lot of money. We wanted to contribute to nature Let’s move to Asia. Here, in many countries, conservation, and to help the unemployed Stanislas Kouegah-Chouchouda in his bakery. a health-conscious urban middle class pro- youth”, they say. In the first year, they made vides a growing market for organic food that is a deficit of 60 to 70 per cent. “It was diffi- perceived to be more safe and nutritious than cult to find costumers; we had no referenc- certified, and we have a solid customer base. conventionally-grown products. Organic veg- es”, says Untung. But soon the business kicked I am also very proud that the whole family etables, fruits and grains are generally available off. In 2017, TOM has its own two-hectare works in the business.” in supermarkets and specialised shops. Direct farm, a processing centre that employs six per- marketing via Facebook and What’s App as manent staff for sorting and packaging and an They produce delicacies and biscuits made well as basket selling are also quite common. educational facility. In addition to the vege- from different locally available flours as well as tables grown on their own farm, TOM has from coconut, plantain and ginger. Valk Vivi Yogyakarta is a buzzing city in Indonesia’s a fixed contract with 115 local farmers that employ 15 staff, most on a permanent basis. densely populated main island of Java. In 2006, supply the vegetables. The company guaran- They operate from the family home, using a then-journalist Untung and his friend Sugihar- tees the purchase and provides seeds as well traditional clay oven. Their most valuable as- to founded the social enterprise Tani Organic as organic fertiliser and pesticides to the farm- sets are the minivan used to buy supplies and Merapi (TOM). “Untung means luck and Sugi ers. Given the hot climate and the all-present for deliveries and the electric heat sealer for the means money; this deemed to be a good com- threat by pests and diseases, as well as the short packaging. Recipes are kept strictly confiden- bination”, Untung told me smilingly when I shelf-life of vegetables, maintaining the qual- tial. The mixtures are prepared in a sealed sep- met him in October 2017. “My parents were ity of the product is a continuous challenge. arate room where only family members have farmers, so I know what I am talking about”, The requirements of the Indonesian Organic access. Valk Vivi had some bad experiences with employees turning into competitors.

Consistent quality enhances a good relationship with costumers Similar to the Zimbabwean company Utsanzi, Valk Vivi have successfully entered the local mainstream market. They sell to wholesalers who even come from neighbouring Benin, Ghana and Burkina Faso. They also get orders for marriages and funerals, and they sell to local vendors. “Each morning, we set off to the central market with our small truck, and distribute the biscuits to the vendors”, explains Kuegah-Chouchouda. Valk Vivi products are also found on supermarket shelves in Lomé, although their customers tend to prefer imported biscuits. “There is a preference for wheat-based biscuits; products made from locally produced manioc don’t sell as well. Al- though the government runs a scheme to promote locally grown manioc, consumers do not follow suit. There is more advocacy needed to Speaking to producers in the TOM farm. The enterprise has a fixed contract with 115 local farmers that promote the local crop.” supply the vegetables. 28 FOCUS

Standard have to be fulfilled, as certification is a prerequisite for retail selling. “How do you maintain the standard?” I ask. “We hold regular meetings with our partner farmers”, Untung explains. “A good relationship with the farmers is very important. Our business requires commitment and consistency of the organic farmers. The quality of the packaging is also important.”

Changing the market through consumer education As Austin Munyavhi in Zimbabwe, Untung has a strong educational mission. “The mind- set of the people must be changed”, he says. In the education centre at TOM’s farm and processing plant, students, school pupils and tourists are taught about healthy diets. “Edu- cation is a means to change the market”, insists Visitors taking part in a guided tour on Peñalosa farm, Untung. “Farmers’ practice will only change if which is both a commercial venture and an educational facility. Photos: Bettina Meier more customers are asking for healthy, natural products.” And what about the business? “The organic market is growing every year. We are an educational facility. On just one hectare of as they only think about production, and not currently offering thirty-five different vegeta- land, Peñalosa Farms is home to three hun- about the market, they will remain dependent, bles”, Untung states. “There is a tremendous dred crop species, livestock, poultry and fish. and prone to exploitation.” demand for fresh vegetables, and often we have Ornamental plants and medicinal herbs thrive to turn down requests. For example, there is a in hanging gardens, mushrooms grow in con- Strong family values, as with the Valk Vivi high demand for oregano at the moment that tainers; a fresh breeze smoothens the oppres- family in Togo, are a key ingredient of the we cannot meet.” sive heat in the open tree house that hosts the Peñalosa’s success. All five grown-up children learning centre. of the family work in the business. They are Farmers have doubled or tripled their income driven by their conviction that food produc- since they started supplying TOM, they tell us. tion and food industries must be changed for With the organic certification, they achieve a the sake of people’s health, for the benefit of much better price than with conventional- nature conservation and for the benefit of the ly grown vegetables. They also keep some of local economy. “We must go the Filipino way, their harvest for their families, with benefits No Filipino should go hungry doing our own integrated organic agriculture to their own health. TOM has contracts with in his own native country! with our own indigenous resources.” In this several supermarkets and hospitals. The super- regard, they very much echo Austin Munay- markets place their orders on a day-to-day ba- vhi’s mission to better use and celebrate Afri- sis. Planning the production and anticipating ca’s unique natural resources and ingredients. the demand is a fastidious task. But Untung A strong value base and Sugi are satisfied with their achievements. Ramon Peñalosa started the farm when he un- All enterprises featured in this article share The success of their business strongly supports expectedly inherited the small plot of land in their vision of strong food systems based on their advocacy work, and that is what counts his home town. “At the time, it was used as a indigenous resources and production that is for them at the end of the day. parking space for buses”, he recounts. A de- geared towards the local demand. They show vout Christian with a strong concern for the that changed dietary patterns really do provide environment and a deep social conscience, he business opportunities for entrepreneurs and Urban organic farming in the and his wife decided to convert the land into farmers. They all use a business approach to Philippines an organic farm. Youth in the Philippines are achieve an ulterior goal while creating em- increasingly turning their backs on subsistence ployment and sustaining incomes for small- Similar to TOM’s owners, the founders of agriculture. At the same time, there are lots holder farmers. And, most importantly, they Peñalosa Farms in the Philippine island Negros of people who want to buy healthy, home- are passionate about their endeavours. Occidental are strongly driven by a mission: grown food, not the stuff that is imported from to show that integrated, organic farming can Vietnam or Thailand. So the Peñalosas em- be done on small plots and generate sustain- barked on their mission: No Filipino should Bettina Meier is an economic empowerment able incomes. We visit the farm in November go hungry in his own native country! “Our consultant for Brot für die Welt, based in Berlin, 2017. “Welcome to Peñalosa Farms – where country is very rich in natural resources”, Germany. mother nature and father business can rock and Peñalosa insists. “But our farmers are poor. Contact: [email protected] roll”, says a poster at the entrance. The farm, Why is that so? There is money in the coun- located in Victorias City, near the island’s cap- tryside! Farmers in the Philippines must start to References: www.rural21.com ital Bacolod, is both a commercial venture and conceive themselves as agripreneurs. As long RURAL 21 03/20 29

Nutrition and health: farming women in Kenya’s Murang’a speak out

As a rule, women play a major role in determining household dietary practices and nutrition. In agricultural rural areas, they are actively involved in food production as well, and thus also play a crucial role in terms of food availability. But what are the factors determining the dietary practices which women opt for? And is it important whether they engage in organic or conventional farming?

By Irene Kadzere, Anne W. Muriuki, Christian Schader, Marlene Heeb and Isabelle Herter-Aeberli

enya is among the triple burden global Khotspots for malnutrition given its high levels of childhood stunting, anaemia and the growing problem of overweight in adult women (Global Nutrition Report, 2018). While women are a vulnerable group nutritionally, they are long known to play a major role in determining family/household dietary practices and nutrition in both rural and urban settings of Kenya. In agricultural rural areas, they are directly involved in family food production and in making choices and decisions on food procurement and preparation for their families. Organic agriculture has been gaining importance among women and men farmers in Kenya, but there is scarce information on the role that organic farming plays regarding transformative sustainable nutritional practices, Some of the women farmers from Murang’a County who participated in the Focus Group Discussions, decisions, and fulfilment of healthier and safer together with the discussion facilitators and the Nutrition Officer from Kigumo Sub-County. diets among smallholder farming families in Photo: Irene Kadzere Kenya. A project on dietary diversity and nutrition (see Box on page 31) takes a look at these aspects. duction related reasons”, “status quo and traditional ones such as amaranthus, pumpkin knowledge of alternative farming practices”, leaves and African nightshades), tubers (e.g. ar- In the course of the project, we held Focus “environmental protection” and “marketing rowroots, sweet potatoes, yams, cassava), fruits Group Discussions (FGDs) in December 2019 prospects”. They are given in the Table on (e.g. cooking and dessert bananas, avocadoes, with farming women ‘perceived’ as practising page 30. apples, oranges) and cereals (e.g. unrefined organic farming though not being certified maize flour and mixed flours porridge). Al- (herein referred to as organic) and conven- Food production and purchase. As to though among the most purchased, meat (and tional farming women (3 groups with 12-15 the important types of household food crops other animal products) was, surprisingly, not farmers each for each category) from Murang’a (excluding tea) and livestock spontaneously frequently mentioned spontaneously. The or- County in Kenya. Subsequently, individual mentioned in their top ten lists, there were ganic and conventional farmers used more or interviews were conducted with a selection of no striking differences between the organic less similar terms to define human nutrition, farmers from the county. The objective was to and conventional farmers. Maize was the most except that organic farmers also mentioned understand the prevailing situation regarding important cereal food crop followed by cab- ‘foods that do not contain chemicals’. The household nutrition (food types and sourc- bage, common beans, and kales (other than term ‘balanced diet’, with or without a spec- es, roles of women and some decision-mak- cabbage). The top three types of livestock ification of nutrients such as carbohydrates, ing processes), perceptions on nutrition – the reared for food and income were cattle, chick- proteins, vitamins, etc., was mentioned by all health/food safety – agriculture nexus, and in- ens and goats/sheep. The top ten foods most the groups. Other terms used referred to en- formation needs related to nutrition and health. purchased by both organic and conventional ergy-giving food, health and/or disease resis- farmers could be categorised into legumes, tance, consumption habits, food utilisation and vegetables, tubers, fruits, cereals, oils, sweeten- good body growth. Overview of findings in relation to ers, condiments, beverages and meats. human nutrition and health Priority to food consumption in the Most nutritious foods and terms men- household. All the organic and conventional Organic or conventional. The women tioned to define human nutrition. Foods groups indicated that women had the prima- farmers were first of all asked why they prac- perceived spontaneously as the most nutri- ry responsibility to prepare and share food in tised organic or conventional farming. Clear tious for women were from the following a household. In cases where the women were differences emerged regarding the reasons, food groups: legumes (e.g. black beans, pigeon sick, the men could prepare the food. On the which we clustered as “health risks”, “pro- peas, groundnuts), vegetables (including some other hand, women had the lowest priority 30 FOCUS

Reasons given by the women farmers for using conventional or organic farming Clustered category Organic farmers Conventional farmers Health risk reasons Conventional farming inputs (synthetic chemicals) have brought about some diseases besieging humans – organic production is good for their health and that of their families since it reduces potential exposure and intake as well as accumulation of agrochemicals in their bodies. Production-related reasons Crop growth • Crops in organic farming grow slowly, e.g. a maize crop with manure only does not grow well. The conventional inputs help crops to grow faster and better, and boost yields. • Organic farming demands more labour for, e.g., cutting grass, making fertilisers (compost/manure) and manual weeding. • With chemical fertilisers, one just buys and applies them in the field – it is easier. Controlling of pests and diseases • Ability to control pests and diseases such as the Fall Armyworm in maize and blight in potatoes and tomatoes. • Crops like cabbage suffer from many pests and need good pest control. Status quo and knowledge • Some farmers adopted the farming practices that they found when of alternative farming they got married, and no one has informed them of alternatives. practices • Other farmers have not tried using organic farming practices, and small land areas cultivated with food crops restrict organic farming requirements. Environmental protection • Protect the environment by not using harmful chemicals in • To keep the land fertile, one has to use manure and combine this farming. with chemical fertilisers to be able to attain higher yields. • Eliminate all chemical residues in the soil. • Manure improves soil structure. • Organic management revives/restores and maintains the fertility of soils. • Revive biodiversity – e.g. many worms, black ants and different types of weeds (diverse) are found in organic plots/ fields. Marketing prospects • Organic products are more marketable, but not all farmers sell their crops. Profits are still not very attractive, but once customers know about the organic farms and products such as arrowroots or vegetables, they come directly to purchase such organic products. when it came to serving food, giving their hus- that was properly stored, such as maize grain varying the foods to ensure a variety bands and children, respectively, higher prior- kept in dry conditions, was also considered of nutrients and avoiding monotony; ity except when guests were present, in which safer, as this prevented biological contamina- time taken to prepare foods, and avail- case they would be served before the husbands tion, e.g. from aflatoxins. For purchased foods, able time – whole grains take longer and children. This practice has potential impli- some farmers often checked for expiry dates as and require more energy to cook and cations for nutrition adequacy for the women a safety precaution. When it came to the safety are hence not favoured when time during periods of hunger, when families do not of foods produced by other farmers, all groups and/or energy are constraints; have enough to serve and/or consume. clearly raised concerns regarding the safety of affordability – cost/price of purchased such foods. Primarily, they all did not trust, i) foods; Perceptions on food safety, and concerns. what (and when) had been applied to the food family needs/preferences (including The women’s perceptions of a safe food showed during production or storage – whether the demands from children); some similarities and differences regarding the food was agro-chemical free or contaminated, health restrictions – e.g. for diabetics; organic and conventional farmers. Both cate- ii) the hygiene and handling of the food, iii) choose what is pleasing to cook; gories considered own-produced food (or food storage practices, and iv) the risk of undesirable follow a certain menu plan; from organic farming neighbours in the case ingredients having been used. Even the con- freshly cooked food versus leftovers. of the organic category) as the safest, as they ventional farmers were also wary of the poten- could ‘guarantee’ the production, preparation, tial risk of other producers failing to observe Perceptions on potential nutrition and ingredients/additives, and hygiene practices. the safe intervals for harvest after spraying. health impacts of agriculture. From However, it is noteworthy that even some among a provided list of human diseases, conventional farmers perceived foods grown Factors affecting the choice of food to mostly non-communicable, cancer was the without chemicals to be safer. On the other prepare a family meal. Both organic and most feared in general by both farmer cate- hand, the conventional farmers also pointed conventional farmers mentioned quite similar gories during the subsequent individual inter- out that the food which they produced using factors influencing the choice of foods to pre- views. Food production practices which were synthetic inputs was safe, too, because they said pare for meals. The first spontaneous response perceived to lead to cancer were avoided by that after pesticide application, they refrained from both groups was ‘prepare what is avail- organic farmers – indeed, conversion from from harvesting the crops until the required able’. Other factors taken into consideration conventional to organic was motivated largely pre-harvest interval period had elapsed. Food related to: by human health concerns. This finding is in RURAL 21 03/20 31

Perceptions on potential nutrition and health impacts of agriculture

Organic farmers Mentioned by both categories of farmers Conventional farmers • No risks related to agrochemical use and • Back pains, joint and leg pains due to too • Agro-chemical risks included: breathing exposure. much work and prolonged bending and/or difficulties, chest pains, sneezing, asth- • Peace of mind: people growing their own standing. ma, headaches, skin conditions, stom- food do not stress about where to get • Accidental physical harm from tools. ach upsets, vision impairment, fertility food from. • Arthritis from cold environments, e.g. pro- (reproductive) impairments. • Physical exercising through activities longed standing in tea plantations. • Kales grown with synthetic fertilisers can such as manual weeding, hence one can • Allergies – pollen from maize plants and cause acid when consumed. also keep fit. napier grass. line with the increasing incidences of various how to promote healthy eating among and environmental health considerations, food types of cancers in Kenya, some of which are the younger generations – reducing safety (chemical-free food) and market pros- diet-related, according to Maiyoh and Tuei consumption of junk food. pects appeared to be key motivating factors for (2019). Some responses were specific to either organic farming, those among conventional farmer category; see the left and right boxes Organic farmers specifically mentioned the farmers included the need to boost crop yields above. Organic farmers mentioned some pos- need to detoxify chemicals which they believed through use of agrochemicals and synthetic itive links, while conventional farmers sponta- accumulated in their bodies over the years fertilisers while reducing labour inputs into neously referred to negative attributes. In the when they consumed conventionally grown farming. Cancer was the disease most feared by middle box, the responses that were common food. Some conventional farmers also wanted both organic and conventional farming wom- among both categories are highlighted, and to know how to convert to organic farming. en, and the link between food production relate to the strenuous nature of smallholder It is not surprising that both farmer categories practices and health spanned the chain from farming, possible accidents and allergies. brought up weight control-related information production to consumption. Furthermore, it needs. In Kenya, overweight and obesity are in- was revealed that the women are keen to learn creasing, and are driven to a large extent by the and receive information and training on a wide A strong need for information transitions and shifts in nutrition from tradition- range of nutrition and health-related topics. al diet patterns high in fibre and micronutrients The focus group discussions and interviews to westernised diet patterns high in salt, fat (en- revealed that information on nutrition and ergy dense) and refined carbohydrates, but low Irene Kadzere and Christian Schader are senior health was in high demand among the wom- in fibre and vital micronutrients. scientists at the Swiss Research Institute of en farmers. Their questions and information Organic Agriculture (FiBL). needs can be clustered as follows: Anne W. Muriuki is a senior scientist in the Kenya To sum it up Agricultural & Livestock Research Organization how to eat well (balanced diet) and re- (KALRO). main healthy and slow down ageing; The interviews revealed that organic and con- Marlene Heeb is a Programme Officer in the appropriate nutrition for various ventional farming women from Murang’a, Global Programme Health of the Swiss Agency for age groups and diseases conditions Kenya, produce largely similar crops and live- Development and Cooperation (SDC). (e.g. cancer, diabetes) including dis- stock types and purchase more or less similar Isabelle Herter-Aeberli is a senior scientist in ease-preventing foods; types of foods. However, it also became clear Human Nutrition at the ETH Zurich Department of reduction of agrochemical accumula- that different aspects come to bear in their Health Sciences and Technology. tion in the body and environment; choice of production modes. Whereas human Contact: [email protected]. maintaining or attaining good body weight and boosting immunity; In Murang’a County, the Swiss Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) and partners good food preparation methods – in Kenya such as the Kenya Agricultural & Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), the maintaining/preserving nutrients, food International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe) and the Organic Agriculture compatibility, etc.; Centre of Kenya (OACK) have been conducting comparative research on productivity, profit- knowing what and how foods contrib- ability and sustainability of organic and conventional smallholder farming systems through ute to nutrition and how to combine the Farming Systems Comparison in the Tropics, ProEcoAfrica and Organic Food Systems them for a meal; Africa (OFSA) projects. special diets, e.g. for diabetics; More information: https://systems-comparison.fibl.org; www.proecoafrica.net capacity development – eagerness and keenness to hear about the outcomes Acknowledgements of the FGDs and to receive future in- The authors of this article would like to thank the Focus Group Discussions participants, the enumer- formation and training on nutrition/ ators, Marian Kamau and Paul Kiuru – senior scientists from KALRO, David Gathuka Karanja – Pro- health topics; gramme Manager from OACK, James Karanja and Chrysantus M. Tanga – senior scientists from icipe, appropriate eating schedules and meal Douglas I. Mwangi – a Nutritionist Officer at Kigumo Sub-County of Muranga, Peter O. Mokaya – a Public Health Physician and Development Practitioner from the Organic Consumer Alliance (OCA) in Kenya, and portion sizes; Noah Adamtey – a senior scientist from FiBL for their invaluable contributions to the study. Funding from how to check one’s nutrition status the Ekhagastiftelsen to undertake the nutrition studies as part of the ongoing SysCom, ProEcoAfrica and and recommend a meal plan; OFSA projects is also acknowledged. 32 OPINION

Eat less meat: if only it were that simple

“Eat less meat” is seen by many as a way of improving the health of the planet and its people. But the issue isn’t quite so simple – at least where the nutrition security and livelihoods of millions of people in the Global South are concerned. A call for a holistic view.

By Lawrence Haddad

It is not surprising that there is so much con- Most national food-based dietary guidelines troversy swirling around the consumption of recommend moderating the consumption of animal-sourced foods. First, different types of red meat in particular, and the vast majority animal-sourced foods have different impacts of guidelines advocate decreasing the con- Lawrence Haddad is Executive Director on different types of nutrition outcome. Sec- sumption of processed meats as they have been of the Global Alliance for Improved ond, different types of production of different identified as a risk factor for some diet related Nutrition (GAIN), which is based in types of animals have a differential impact on non-communicable diseases. Those who eat Geneva, Switzerland. He holds a PhD in Food Research from Stanford University, greenhouse gas emissions and the use of natu- high levels of animal-sourced foods tend to be California, USA. In 2018, together with ral resources. Third, animal production is an relatively well off because such foods tend to David Nabarro, Lawrence was awarded important livelihood strategy for many of the be more expensive and aspirational than plant- the World Food Prize. poorest individuals in the poorest countries. based foods. For those with low incomes, Fourth, there are important zoonosis spillovers and especially infants and young children, the from the clearance of land that wildlife depend recommendations are to consume more ani- on as well as food safety concerns from the im- mal-sourced foods since they are good sources proper handling of animal-source foods. Final- of vitamins and minerals and are highly bio- ly, animal welfare is a key issue in its own right, available and usable by the body’s metabolic and different production systems have different processes. The consumption of these types of impacts on animal wellbeing. Animal-sourced foods has been shown to be significantly asso- food production sits right at the heart of these ciated with reductions in under-five stunting, overlapping issues, which often entail signifi- and in its 2020 State of the World’s Children, cant technical and political trade-offs between UNICEF laments the low consumption of different goals and different groups of people. these foods for under-five children with poor diet diversity scores. In terms of nutrition outcomes, those who eat high levels of animal-sourced foods would The high rate of greenhouse gas emission be well-advised to temper their consumption. from the production of some types of ani-

Health, environmental and livelihood dimensions of animal-source foods production and consumption Animal-Source Foods Dairy Eggs Fish and Seafood Meat Unprocessed red Processed red White Iron-deficiency/ anaemia Neutral Slightly reduces Slightly reduces Strongly reduces ?? Slightly reduces Micronutrient Reduces Reduces Reduces Reduces ?? Reduces deficiencies Health outcomes Stunting Reduces Reduces Reduces Reduces ?? Reduces Diabetes, cancer, heart Likely reduces or neu- Likely reduces or neu- Likely increases, but Reduces Increases Likely neutral disease tral, but contested tral, but contested contested High, High, Moderate (with wide GHG emissions Moderate Moderate but highly variant by but highly variant by Moderate range) Environmental setting/system setting/system outcomes High, High, Other environmental Moderate to high Moderate ?? (highly variant) but highly variant by but highly variant by Moderate to high factors setting/system setting/system Important but Poverty reduction, eco- Less important (produc- Less important (produc- Livelihoods Important geographically Important ?? nomic development tion more industrialised) tion more industrialised) concentrated Source: GAIN discussion paper series 5 RURAL 21 03/20 33

mal-sourced foods has led to many in the me- food safety, the reduction of zoonotic risks and dia to call for a plant-based revolution in diets. animal health – are tightly connected. Much as “Eat less meat” is seen as a way of improving different types of human rights are viewed as the health of the planet and its people. How- indivisible, we need to begin thinking and act- ever, eating less meat would harm the health ing as if these different goals were indivisible. of some individuals in low-income contexts, This is not to say that there are not trade-offs especially children under five and low-income within and between countries when it comes populations with a higher nutrient require- to achieving them. ment, such as women of reproductive age and female adolescents. It is the higher income Decisions about food production and food households – in all contexts – who would consumption need to be informed by these do well to reduce their consumption of ani- trade-offs as well as the synergies. This points

mal-sourced foods for the sake of greenhouse to a need for a significant increase in research gas reduction. “Eating less meat” would also that explores the attainment of these goals EATING LESS MEAT harm the livelihoods of many low-income simultaneously, particularly for middle- and would harm the populations who depend on livestock, poultry low-income countries because most of the and fishing. Rather, reductions in greenhouse limited evidence is from Europe and North livelihoods of many gas from animal-source production could be America. The trade-offs and synergies are low-income populations achieved by more efficient production systems not only technical issues, they are also polit- who depend on livestock, in low-income contexts, where animal wast- ical. Different constituencies have different poultry and fishing. age is highest. interests and different power. The technical and political economy issues also have to be The challenge, then, for high-income coun- identified, analysed and navigated within a tries is to reduce the consumption of ani- multi-goal framework if food systems are to mal-source foods (for their own health), and be transformed for people, animals and the the challenge in lower-income countries is to planet. This is the challenge for the UN Food improve the efficiency of animal source pro- Systems Summit of 2021, and it is the chal- duction (for the sake of the planet’s health). lenge for all of us before – and after – the For middle-income countries, the challenge is Summit. to improve on both dimensions.

The food system community is coming to the realisation that these goals – and others such as Contact: [email protected]

For further reading, please see: https://www.gainhealth.org/resources/reports-and-publications/gain-discussion- paper-series-5-role-animal-source-foods-healthy-sustainable-equitable-food-systems

Zipline staff member Michael doing a final check of all data before putting the consignment of blood conserves into the drone’s cargo hold.

Photos: Jörg Böthling

Lifesavers from the air

The prompt arrival of blood and medical supplies can mean the difference between life and death. In regions with difficult access, drones can rapidly cover distances that normally take hours or days. An example from Rwanda.

By Barbara Brustlein

he signal has just come from the radio a start-up from California, as a minor miracle. inserts the battery containing the GPS module Ttower: the sky is clear. No helicopters, no “It used to take hours or days for the blood to that determines the drone’s destination. One planes. So, no possibility of a collision. Michel reach the place where it is used,” says Michel. last glance at the monitor. The drone is ready takes a last look at the monitor, then counts “Now it’s only a matter of minutes.” to take off. down the seconds. Then, with a whirring sound, the drone lifts off skywards. In oth- An order from another clinic is just being About 30 kilometres away, in the waiting er countries, such as Afghanistan and Yemen, loaded. At Nyamabuye airfield in a suburb room of Gikonko Health Centre, old men drones are weapons of war. Here, in Rwanda of Muhanga, the second largest city in the with walking sticks who have walked several in East Africa, they bring life rather than death: country, 45 kilometres by road south-west of kilometres to get here sit next to young men each of the small aircraft carries two batches the capital Kigali, Michel goes into the little playing with their phones. The centre, run of blood over the mountains. “The furthest storeroom where his colleagues store blood by the German-based Institut St. Bonifatius, health centre that we can reach from here is and medicines in floor-to-ceiling fridges. He was founded in 1974. After the genocide in a 45-minute flight away,” says Michel, who checks the contents of the package again, loads Rwanda the surgeon and director Uta Dull re- has just launched the drone. This young man, it into the drone’s belly and places the drone built the centre, which had been completely in his late twenties, studied pharmacy. He re- on the ramp. A colleague brings the wings, destroyed. She sees about 200 patients per day gards what has been possible to do in his home checks that they are working properly using from a catchment area of 15 kilometres: that country since 2016, with the aid of Zipline, a mobile phone app and QR code, and then is 15 kilometres over hills and mountainous RURAL 21 03/20 35

circles, then drops the package, which drifts Zipline, a medical product delivery com- down to earth on a small parachute. The boy pany based in San Francisco, California, races off, picks it up and carries it proudly on has been operating in Rwanda since 2016. his shoulder to the centre’s director. Besides the Muhanga site in Southern Province, it has had a base in Kayonza in The package that he is carrying will save the the east of the country since 2018. Since life of a new-born baby. At the health centre April 2019 the drone service has also had a Dr Dull has specialised in procedures that are distribution centre in Ghana, and there are only performed in a few hospitals in Rwanda: plans for sites in India and the Philippines. for hydrocephalus, also known as water in the The start-up’s unmanned aircraft deliver brain. Up to 100 of the complex operations blood supplies, vaccines and medicines to are carried out each year at the small clinic. remote regions at speeds of 110 kilome- The doctor can only cover the 1,000-euro cost The laboratory where the blood conserves are tres per hour, and have a maximum range of each operation because a medical technol- stored. of around 130 kilometres. The health ogy company from Potsdam in Germany pro- centres send in their orders by text, the vides her with the costly aids (called shunts) messaging service WhatsApp, or online. free of charge. In Rwanda up to three out of The drone is launched by an electric every thousand children are born with the catapult and lands by catching an arrest- life-threatening condition. ing gear. Information from a 3D satellite map and manual ground surveys is used The chances of a child leading a largely nor- to calculate and programme the flight mal life, even after a successful operation, are routes. According to the company, the hard to predict. Uta Dull knows that the fam- cost of delivery via drone is comparable to ilies themselves already suffer enormous hard- conventional means by road, especially in ship. That is inasmuch as one can talk about the case of emergencies. families at all: “Only a third of the expectant mothers who come here are married, while Zipline has been approved by the US Fed- another third are at least in a halfway stable eral Aviation Administration for delivery of relationship,” she says. Twenty-two-year- The package drifts down to the ground on a small medical supplies and productive equip- old Aldine is in the third group, that is, those parachute. ment in the US state of North Carolina young women who come to Gikonko alone during the COVID-19 pandemic. to give birth. She cradles her baby son, whom she has named Umuhoza, meaning “comfort- er”. In a few days, he will undergo an op- terrain, meaning an arduous journey for most eration for hydrocephalus. “His chances are people here. good,” the doctor says, meaning of getting through the operation. The rest remains to For the country, which lost around a million be seen. people in the genocide, leaving its past behind and finding a way to move forward has been In the next bed is a young woman called Al- a tour de force. “Unlike other African coun- bertine, holding her first child, a little girl, in tries, Rwanda is a country with vision,” says her arms. The baby has come through the pro- Uta Dull, “but not everyone can keep up with cedure successfully, and the two of them can the pace.” Many advances have been made, go home in a few days. There is no father to Children love fetching the newly arrived parcels. the surgeon explains, with things that are still share responsibility for the child in Albertine’s woefully inadequate elsewhere: electricity case either. In the foyer of the health centre supplies, the will to make schooling accessible blankets are spread out on the floor, with ev- to the entire population, the “mutuelle”, i.e. ery inch occupied by mothers with babies and universal health insurance. However, the vi- toddlers. There are also one or two older chil- sion is not being realised everywhere. dren, aged between four and six. Their mothers have sent them from the villages, know- “The drone will be here in 30 minutes,” says ing that milk is distributed at Gikonko Health Dr Dull, glancing at her phone; Zipline has Centre for the youngest children. There is confirmed her request via WhatsApp. The bound to be some left over for the older ones, arrival of the drone is a popular sight among as no child is likely to be sent away hungry the children who play in the health centre from the centre. grounds. Today Uta Dull gives a ten-year- old boy the job of fetching the package from where it lands. At exactly the time specified Barbara Brustlein is Editor-in-chief of missio Dr Ute Düll together with Albertine and her there is a whirring sound above, and the little magazine, based in Munich, Germany. daughter, who she is going to operate in a few days’ aircraft comes into view. It slows down and Contact: [email protected] time. 36 INTERNATIONAL PLATFORM

Community-led climate change adaptation – insights from a project beyond the norm

In a project to strengthen resilience to climate change of a rural community in Malawi, Plan International has taken an unusual course. Instead of planning the project from beginning to end, best practices from its first phase are to serve as a basis for the second phase. And in the course of this, it has become clear that simple approaches developed together with the community can have a big impact.

By Kirsten Ehrich and Lena Hinzke

n the community of Kakungu, Central Ma- “contaminated” comparison community even- other Plan offices, the evaluation team and Ilawi, most of the 448 households live from tually turned out to be a well-suited yet ambi- the private donor family funding this project farming and growing maize and tobacco. tious benchmark (see Box). (and who would like to remain anonymous) With heavy rains and extreme droughts tak- and its preceding project. To prepare for the ing turns in Kakungu, plants suffer leaving talk, the project team asked the communi- little for the families to harvest. In 2014, Plan Participatory approach in planning and ty to answer the following questions: What International launched a development project implementation went especially well? Whom would you like in the community to strengthen resilience to to show this? How do you want to continue climate change through developing sustainable During the set-up of the project, a participa- and how would you keep yourself informed? livelihoods. This was to be achieved via opti- tory approach inspired by the NGO-IDEAs The community let Plan visit several commu- mised agricultural and post-harvest practices, toolbox was used (see upper Box on page 38). nity groups and demonstrated what they had improving nutrition practices to prevent acute The community was split into groups who learned from the project and how they further malnutrition, better seeds and the provision of were asked what they wanted to achieve for developed the practices with their knowledge livestock as well as a solar-powered irrigation their community and their own lives in the fu- and ideas. Talking with the community mostly system. ture. This yielded a set of community-owned confirmed the findings of the mid-term evalu- indicators – such as the number of households ation and provided much more depth and rea- The follow-up project has moved away from owning iron sheets or cement floors, which soning why the practices were successful. the usual course taken. While the first phase the community regarded as a sign of increased (from June 2017 to April 2019) was devoted to household wealth – that found their way into It was now clear which practices should be the implementation of the planned activities in the project Logical Framework. The project spread in the second phase and with whom the standard fashion, the second phase, lasting un- team also established a community monitoring farmers wanted to share their knowledge: with til 2021, proved quite unusual. “Sharing and committee, trained it and relied on its mea- other farmers in neighbouring villages. Here distribution of best practices identified during suring specific community indicators, which too, a participatory approach will bring to the first project phase,” the project documents increased community ownership. bear, directly involving farmers from Kakungu stated, implying that if any of the above activi- in the production of radio programmes, which ties from phase one turned out to have worked For the second phase of the project, Plan In- will be broadcast regionally or nationwide, de- for Kakungu, Plan International would inform ternational organised a review and planning pending on the radio station. Kakungu itself other communities, NGOs and the govern- workshop to discuss the results of the mid- will have “radio listener clubs” holding meet- ment to benefit them from that knowledge. term evaluation, to share results with other ings to listen to and discuss the programmes stakeholders and to plan the second phase on together. Through a “lead committee”, com- Not only did this approach mean difficulty in that base. The project team in Malawi invit- munity members from Kakungu will support estimating a budget for the second phase, it ed key climate and evaluation specialists from the establishment of new farmer field schools also made the project team highly reliant on a high-quality mid-term evaluation to learn which of the project activities actually worked. MIDTERM REVIEW – RESULTS IN A NUTSHELL The evaluation, carried out by a Malawi-based consultancy firm, took place between May and • Households in Kakungu eat more and earn more than their counterparts in the comparison June 2019. For this purpose, 202 households community. in Kakungu and 206 households from the • Income levels are generally higher in Kakungu than in the comparison community, with comparison community were surveyed. The Kakungu averaging at 99,182 Malawian kwacha (MK) compared to 85,220 MK in the com- latter shows socioeconomic, soil and weather parison community. patterns close to those in Kakungu; in addi- • About 40 per cent of households have food security in both Kakungu and the comparison tion, it was already benefiting from a govern- community during harvest season, though Kakungu scores significantly higher during lean ment-supported project called the “Sustainable seasons, with 25 per cent of the population having food security compared to 6.67 per cent Agriculture Productivity Program” (SAPP), in the comparison community. through which livestock and cash have been • 66.7 per cent of female-headed households in Kakungu provide at least three meals a day distributed, and improved crop varieties and to their children under 5 compared to 51.5 per cent of male-headed households and 47.6 irrigation supported. As the results show, the per cent female-headed households in the comparison community. RURAL 21 03/20 37

Each farmer field school has 39 lead farmers who share their knowledge with Health and nutrition trainings are an important component of the project. Two their colleagues. thirds of the women in Kakungu provide at least three meals a day to their children.

Photo: Alf Berg Photo: Alf Berg and organise open days in neighbouring com- Farmer Field Schools: An estimated 86 per riculture has begun introducing blended ma- munities to demonstrate new methods to a cent of the households in Kakungu were us- nure in other communities. However, in Ka- broad audience. Neighbouring communities ing at least one of the improved agricultural kungu, blended organic manure making was will also make educational visits to Kakungu practices that the project team showcased. This started by the project in collaboration with the to see the practical application and learn from is about 20 percentage points higher than the Agricultural Extension Development Officer. experiences. baseline’s 65 per cent. Improved agricultural While so far practised by only about 11 per practices include, for example, the usage of cent of the households, qualitative data re- manure, hybrid seeds, crop rotation, no-till vealed a profound and growing community Success factors farming and pit-farming. The mid-term evalu- appreciation of manure making. Since manure ation showed that Kakungu farmers’ increased and other ingredients are available in the com- The mid-term evaluation identified some adoption of improved agricultural technologies munity, the farmers can easily produce blend- good practices the project team could build could strongly be associated with the Farm- ed manure themselves, with no additional cost. upon in the second phase: er Field School approach. The project estab- Some households were given livestock such as lished two farmer field schools with demon- pigs, goats and chicken. When the animals re- Involvement of community structures: stration plots and 39 lead farmers per farmer produced, their young were passed on to other The project progress can be highly associated field school. The lead farmers were trained families in order to provide more households with community buy-in via the cooperation in improved agricultural practices and have with livestock and its benefits, like fresh milk, with and training of government frontline transmitted their knowledge with the help of eggs and meat, but also dung which can be staff and community structures. Frontline gov- the demonstration plots to 173 other farmers turned into blended organic manure via add- ernment workers in Kakungu are responsible (108 women and 65 men) so far. The three ing ash, plant remains, yeast, water and some for providing extension services like capacity different demonstration plots, one with con- other locally available ingredients. building and advisory services to farmers and ventional chemical fertiliser, one with blended community members but often have limited organic manure and one plot with no fertiliser Village Savings and Loans Associations: resources. The project helped them bridge the at all, were located on a road frequently used Before the start of the project, five Village gap for farmers to access extension services. In by farmers. Thus farmers regularly witnessed Savings and Loans Associations (VSLAs) ex- addition, pre-existing community structures how the plants and soil were developing. The isted in Kakungu. In coordination with the like community chiefs, the Village Develop- uptake of the improved agricultural practices community they have been increased to 28, ment Committee, the Village Natural Resourc- was lagged, taking just as long as the plants with 181 active members, 41 of them men and es Management Committee and the Village from the blended organic manure demonstra- 140 women, in midline. The mid-term evalu- Health Committee were also involved right tion plot did to carry yield – as good as the ation found the VSLAs to have contributed to from the start. Furthermore, the project intro- chemically fertilised and much better than the the heightened income security in Kakungu, duced a Community Monitoring Committee. unfertilised plants. hence building resilience among many farming The community structures as well as govern- households, importantly so among women. ment frontline staff were involved in the design Blended organic manure making and Average loan amounts have constantly been process, the actual implementation, monitoring utilisation: Blended organic manure provides on the rise, with women borrowing almost and review meetings. This has evidently helped an alternative source of fertiliser for increased twice the amount of men. The VSLAs benefit- build up communities’ self-confidence of ca- yields that is cheaper than chemical fertiliser. ed from the project via a five-day training on pacity for increasing and resilient production. The Malawian government department of ag- business management and income-generating 38 INTERNATIONAL PLATFORM

NGO IDEAS which the team could share with the commu- while contract farming made sure buyer firms nity in Kakungu. would purchase the yield. Nutrition trainings NGO IDEAs stands for “NGO Impact on were complemented by trainings on how to Development, Empowerment and Actions”. Plan gave these two and some more recom- start a backyard garden and by the provision The concept was first implemented in mendations for improvement back to the of livestock for improved availability of pro- 2004 and optimised in the following years. community to vote using Participatory Rural tein-rich food and vitamin-rich vegetables, It provides several tools to enable and Appraisal (PRA) methods (in this case: do a and were combined with trainings on how improve participatory monitoring of out- ranking with the community while avoiding to preserve and process food to be better able come and impact of development projects. writing to include illiterate community mem- to store it while being able to achieve higher Self-assessment and goal-setting by the bers) on which ones they find most important prices when selling surplus on the market. The beneficiaries themselves are key aspects to improve the organisation’s intervention in VSLAs' trainings were tailored to include in- of the concept and tools. Kakungu. The other part of the budget will come-generating activities diversifying income be used to spread the best practices and lessons in areas not so affected by climate change. More information: www.ngo-ideas.net learnt with others. What has also been revealed is the need for activities and follow-up of the trainings during project teams to not only consist of technicians monitoring sessions aimed at diversifying No need for high-tech solutions but also and especially community facilitators member income. The members were trained who have experience in participatory project to improve household incomes negatively af- To conclude, the project team can highly rec- planning and management, the skill to identify fected through reduced crop productivity as ommend using the first phase of a project to and combine local best practices with state-of- a result of climate change. While improved gather best practices and the second phase to the-art knowledge and the ability to mediate agricultural practices, better seeds and the in- implement them together with the most ex- between both. troduction of backyard gardens helped gener- perienced experts: the target group. It would ate better and more diverse yields, the VSLAs appear that there is not always a need for improved members’ negotiating skills and fi- high-tech, innovative approaches, since sim- Kirsten Ehrich is a Monitoring & Evaluation nancial literacy. In addition, contract farming ple, reliable and low-risk ones can be easily Specialist at Plan International in Hamburg, negotiated by the project together with the adjusted to fit climate change adaptation and Germany. farmers ensured guaranteed purchase of the ag- prove just as effective if they are well-embed- Contact: [email protected] ricultural produce by buyers. As VSLAs are led ded in the community. For example, seeds for Lena Hinzke is Programme Specialist Eastern and and managed by community members them- drought-resistant crops and the solar-pow- Southern Africa at Plan International Germany. selves, prospects for sustainability are good. ered irrigation system made sure crops would Contact: [email protected] grow even during dry spells. Trainings on improved agricultural practices in the context of Some lessons learnt climate change also helped boost yield in the References: www.rural21.com climate-affected areas of income generation Based on insights from the mid-term review, some measures were adjusted. One of them concerned the tree-planting intervention, the COMPLEMENTING INTERVENTIONS FOR CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION only measure not entirely developed together with the community but suggested by Plan In- The agriculture, nutrition and income interventions were all developed together with the ternational and the private donor family to ef- community and all complement each other, hence closing potential gaps that could be creat- fectively prevent erosion. The mid-term eval- ed if a single intervention were implemented. Measures consisted of: uation revealed that fewer high growing trees were planted than planned, and in some cases, • access to seeds for drought-resistant plants (e.g. sweet potato and cassava); these trees did not survive. People planted the • foundation of a seedbank and introduction to seed multiplication and a seed pass-on scheme; trees on private property, and the communi- • trainings on sustainable agriculture and land management (e.g. no-till farming and using ty woodlot originally designated for big trees blended organic manure) via the farmer field school approach; was only scarcely vegetated with a fast-grow- • trainings on post-harvest techniques; ing type of tree resembling a bush and pro- • VSLAs' trainings on savings, income-generating measures and business management; viding much-needed firewood for cooking. In • introduction of contract farming on high value crops; the review and planning workshop, the team • provision and production of livestock and the establishment of a pass-on scheme; decided to adjust the tree-planting activity to • introduction of Community Animal Health Workers; also use long-lasting indigenous trees and fruit • trainings on backyard gardening; trees, fruits being an incentive for people to • food processing and preservation; wait for trees to be fully grown. The choice for • health and nutrition trainings; fruit-growing trees was complemented by an • trainings on how to build energy-saving stoves with local material; attempt at building energy-saving stoves that • provision of solar-powered irrigation; require far less firewood than conventional • tree-planting. fireplaces. The climate specialist shared a clay recipe used by Plan Zambia for building more Some of these measures started during the preceding project from 2014 to 2017 and are heat-resistant while heat-insulating ovens, being continued during this follow-up project. RURAL 21 03/20 39

The myth of Africa’s ageing farmers

Africa’s farming population is widely held to be ageing. However, our authors present statistics suggesting that maintaining a sufficiently dynamic and youthful workforce in farming is not among the many agricultural challenges that the sub-Saharan region faces.

By F. Kwame Yeboah and T. S. Jayne

mong all regions of the world, sub-Saha- Aran Africa has registered the highest rate of agricultural production growth since 2000. Be- cause of agriculture’s strong forward and backward linkages with the rest of the economies, agricultural growth has contributed to Africa’s rapid expansion of off-farm employment. In- deed, African countries achieving the highest rates of agricultural productivity growth over the past decade generally experienced the fast- est growth in off-farm employment and non- farm labour productivity (Yeboah and Jayne, 2018). These patterns, which mirror East Asia’s transformation experience, suggest the performance of agriculture will influence the pace of economic development and diversification in Africa too. However, it is widely believed that Africa’s agricultural-led growth trajectory could be jeopardised by an ageing farm population arising from youth disinterest in agriculture (Jöhr, 2012; BBC, 2019). These concerns are succinctly expressed by the Food and Agri- culture Organization: Many young Africans continue to work in agriculture – although often on a part-time basis.

The average age of farmers in the United Photo: Stephan Bachenheimer States and other developed countries borders on 60. In Africa, the average age of farmers is also about 60, despite the fact that 60 per be required if Africa’s youth were streaming cating the analysis for different age distribu- cent of Africa’s population is under 24 years out of farming so rapidly as to dramatically tions, e.g. including vs. excluding youth in of age. So, as farmers are getting older – and raise the age of the region’s farming popula- the 15–24-year-old category (because their as many of them are women with less access tion. We therefore utilised available national- employment patterns often reflect the dic- to productive resources, especially in devel- ly representative survey data from six African tates of their parents rather than long-term oping countries – this raises questions about countries to examine trends in the age distri- employment aspirations) and extending the future prospects for increasing farm pro- bution of the labour force in farm and off-farm workforce beyond the standard upper bound ductivity. Rural youth are looking for a better employment since 2000. of 64 years of age. livelihood in the cities. Can this pattern fit a sustainable future? (FAO 2014, p. 2) For each country, we examine the trends in average age of the workforce in farming and Most African adults in farming below Despite much conjecture about an ageing the off-farm sector, disaggregated by gender 40 years of age farming population, and resulting efforts to and intensity of engagement, as measured by encourage greater youth engagement in agri- individual’s stated primary source of employ- The average age of working-aged individuals culture, we are unaware of any empirical ev- ment and the relative share of their total work primarily engaged in farming ranges from about idence to support these claims in sub-Saharan time devoted to employment in the sector. 32 to 39 years – far less than the widely re- Africa. For a region with an average age of 19 Because many Africans in the labour force ported 60 years. Trends over the past decade years and where, according to the Internation- have more than one job in a given year, we in the mean age of working-aged adults has in al Labour Organization, more than half of the also compute full-time equivalents (FTEs; see most countries either increased by one or two labour force is engaged in agriculture, it seems Box on page 40) for each individual contained years or remained constant. These findings are implausible for the mean age of the farming in these nationally representative surveys and reported in the upper Table on page 41, based population to be around 60 years. However, it report the mean ages according to their shares on all individuals between 15–64 years of age, is important to examine this issue empirically of time in farming and off-farm activities. We and in the lower Table, which restricts the anal- as we would agree that urgent attention would test the robustness of our findings by repli- ysis to all individuals aged 25 years to 64 years. 40 SCIENTIFIC WORLD

Background Conclusions The sources used were the Living Standards Measurement Study – Integrated Surveys of Agriculture (LSMS-ISA) for Nigeria, Tanzania, Rwanda, Uganda, and Labor Force Surveys for It has become conventional wisdom that Afri- Ghana and Zambia. These surveys are conducted by the national statistical services in each can youth's disinterest in farming has induced country with support from the World Bank. Country selection was based on regional repre- a large-scale exit of young people from Afri- sentation across sub-Saharan Africa and the availability of comparable data over two or more can agriculture, leaving behind an ageing farm periods separated by at least three years. These six countries in the analysis constitute about population poorly equipped to sustain the re- 34 per cent of the total population of sub-Saharan Africa. gion’s food needs. However, nationally rep- The full-time equivalent (FTE) estimates the share of individuals’ work time over the sur- resentative household survey data from every vey period devoted to a particular job. A FTE of 40 hours a week, 4 weeks per month for a one of the six African countries in which two 12-month year period was assumed as one FTE. The FTE of any one job is thus computed as or more Living Standards Monitoring Surveys the actual number of hours worked as a share of this benchmark 1,920-hour work year. with Integrated Agricultural Surveys were conducted show a decidedly more optimistic picture. We highlight three main conclusions. To provide some illustrations, the most re- several countries recorded no change in mean First, contrary to widespread perceptions that cently available surveys reveal that the mean age and none of them experienced more than most African farmers are elderly, the average of working-age individuals (15–64 years) a 2-year rise in mean age. Although a large age age of the agricultural workforce ranges engaged primarily in farming was 32 years in number of rural youth are leaving farming as from about 32 years to 39 years. Even when Tanzania and 39 years in Nigeria. Among in- off-farm opportunities continue to expand, not counting young adults in the 15–24 year dividuals devoting at least 50 per cent of their the majority of the economically active youth old range, the average age of the agricultural total work time to farming, the mean ages are population remains engaged in farming at least workforce is 38–45 years. And even includ- slightly higher, ranging from 33 years to 40 on a part-time basis (Yeboah and Jayne, 2018), ing all elderly people of any age working in years (see upper Table). Although farming is so that the average age of African adults in farming hardly changes the average age. This is generally the primary employment for young farming is hardly rising over time. because only 3.1 per cent of sub-Saharan Afri- people, it is often a part-time activity as youth ca’s population are 65 years and over, and only typically combine employment with educa- about half of them are economically active and tion. Hence, restricting the sample to those People in off-farm jobs slightly engaged in farming. devoting at least 50 per cent FTE to farming younger than those in farming slightly raises the average age of those in farm- Second, the average age of the agricultural ing. Similarly, when excluding the 15–24 year Individuals in off-farm jobs are generally a workforce in the six African countries exam- old youth population entirely, the mean age of couple of years younger than those in farming. ined has either increased by one or two years farmers ranges from 39 years in Zambia to 45 As shown in the Tables, working-age individ- or remained constant in most of them over years in Nigeria (lower Table). There are very uals devoting at least 50 per cent of their total the past decade. Considering that roughly 7 slight differences in the mean ages of men and work time to farming are from one to at most to 10 million young people are entering the women in farming. four years older on average than their counter- labour force in sub-Saharan Africa each year, parts in the off-farm sector. But even here the it is easy to understand why the average age These results hold even if the upper limit of story must be nuanced. For the entire work- of the farming population is not rising, even the labour force is extended to include all indi- ing-age population, the mean age of farm- with large numbers of young people partial- viduals over 64 years of age. Doing so increases ers exceeds that of off-farm workers in only ly or fully moving out of farming. It may be the average age of the farming workforce only two of the six countries (Ghana and Rwan- at least several decades before Africa’s demo- by 1–2 years because this group constitutes da). They are roughly the same in three other graphic conditions begin to show increases in a mere 3.1 per cent of sub-Saharan Africa’s countries (Nigeria, Uganda, and Zambia). In the mean age of the overall labour force. overall population (United Nations, 2019). Tanzania, the mean age of farmers is actually lower than of those in off-farm employment. Third, individuals in off-farm jobs are an av- When excluding the 15–24 year group from erage one to three years younger than those in The age of Africans in farming is the analysis, the farming population is gener- farming, especially when the sample excludes hardly rising ally older than those engaged in off-farm em- the 15–24-year-old age group. ployment by two years on average. Differenc- Moreover, the age structure of farmers has es in the mean age of workers in off-farm and As highlighted in previous studies, farming’s hardly changed over the past decade or so. Be- farm jobs is expected considering the rapid employment shares are declining over time tween the first and latest survey periods, which expansion of off-farm employment opportu- as opportunities for off-farm employment spanned from 6 to 12 years, the average age of nities in Africa over the past decade (Yeboah expand in Africa’s rapidly transforming econ- the labour force (people between 15 and 64 and Jayne, 2018; OECD, 2018). With their omies. However, farming still accounts for years of age) in farming increased by less than 2 relatively higher educational attainment levels a significant proportion of the jobs held by years in four of the six study countries (Ghana, and mobility, African youth are taking advan- working-age individuals and remains the sin- Rwanda, Uganda, Zambia). Mean farmer age tage of job opportunities in the off-farm sec- gle largest employer of rural youth, although remained unchanged in Nigeria and declined tor, which further depresses the average age in most of these jobs are part-time (Yeboah and slightly in Tanzania. A similar picture holds the off-farm sector relative to farming but in Jayne, 2018). While the proportion of young when the sample is restricted to individuals no way implies that few young people are re- Africans entering farming is certainly lower over 24 years who spend at least half of their maining in farming or that the age of African today than it was several decades ago, a large labour time in farming (lower Table). Here, farmers is dramatically rising. youth population remains in farming, putting RURAL 21 03/20 41

Mean age of working age individuals (15–64 years), by extent of engagement in farming Country Survey whose primary employment is engaged at least 50% FTE in engaged at least 50% FTE in whose primary activity is years non-farm activities non-farm activities farming farming Total Males Females Total Males Females Total Males Females Total Males Females Ghana 2005/06 36 36 35 37 37 36 38 38 38 37 36 37 2012/13 35 35 35 36 36 36 39 39 38 35 34 36 2016/17 36 36 35 37 37 37 39 39 40 37 36 38 Nigeria 2003/04 39 40 38 39 38 40 40 40 40 39 40 39 2012/13 39 40 38 39 40 39 39 39 39 37 36 38 2015/16 40 40 39 40 41 39 40 39 41 39 38 40 Rwanda 2005/06 32 32 33 33 32 33 33 33 34 33 33 33 2010/11 31 31 32 32 32 33 36 35 36 35 34 35 2013/14 31 32 30 33 33 32 37 37 37 35 34 35 Tanzania 2008/09 35 36 35 36 36 36 36 35 36 35 35 35 2012/13 33 34 33 34 35 34 35 34 35 33 32 34 2014/15 35 35 34 35 36 34 33 32 34 32 32 33 Uganda 2005/06 33 33 31 33 33 32 33 33 33 31 31 32 2011/12 32 33 32 33 32 33 34 33 35 31 30 32 2013/14 34 35 34 36 36 34 36 35 36 33 31 33 Zambia 2005 33 34 32 33 34 32 31 31 32 31 31 32 2012 34 34 33 34 35 34 34 35 33 33 34 33 Mean age of individuals in the labour force at least 25 years of age, by extent of engagement in farming Country Survey whose primary employment is engaged at least 50% FTE in engaged at least 50% FTE in whose primary activity is years non-farm activities non-farm activities farming farming Total Males Females Total Males Females Total Males Females Total Males Females Ghana 2005/06 39 39 39 39 39 39 41 42 41 41 41 41 2012/13 39 38 39 39 39 39 42 43 42 42 43 42 2016/17 39 39 39 40 39 40 43 44 43 43 43 43 Nigeria 2003/04 41 42 40 40 41 39 43 43 42 43 43 42 2012/13 41 42 41 42 42 41 44 44 43 43 44 43 2015/16 42 43 41 42 43 41 45 45 44 45 45 44 Rwanda 2005/06 37 37 38 37 36 37 40 40 40 40 39 40 2010/11 36 36 36 36 35 36 40 40 40 40 40 40 2013/14 36 36 35 36 36 37 41 41 40 40 41 40 Tanzania 2008/09 38 38 38 39 39 39 40 41 40 40 40 40 2012/13 38 38 38 38 39 38 41 41 41 41 41 41 2014/15 38 39 38 38 38 38 41 41 40 40 41 40 Uganda 2005/06 36 37 35 36 37 35 39 39 38 39 39 39 2011/12 36 37 36 37 37 37 40 39 40 40 40 40 2013/14 39 39 38 39 39 38 41 41 41 41 41 41 Zambia 2005 36 36 36 36 36 36 39 38 39 39 38 39 2012 37 37 37 37 37 37 39 39 39 39 39 39 Source: Author’s estimates from Ghana Living Standard Survey 5, 6 and 7; Nigeria’s Living Standard Survey (2004) and General Household Survey (2013 and 2016); Rwanda Integrated Household Living Survey (EICV 2, 3 and 4); Tanzania National Panel Survey (2009, 2013 and 2015); Uganda National Panel Survey (2006, 2012 and 2014); Zambia Labor Force Surveys (2005 and 2012). downward pressure on the average age of the already engaged in farming to make farming T. S. Jayne is University Foundation Professor at farming population. more profitable. Making agriculture “sexy” is Michigan State University. not nearly as important as making it profitable. Contact: [email protected] Given these nationally representative surveys, Young people will flock to agriculture if/when it should be clear that maintaining a sufficient- it becomes clear that it can make good money. Acknowledgements ly dynamic and youthful workforce in farming A related priority is for governments to address This article summarises the findings of the is fortunately not among the region’s many the many policy, regulatory and financing bar- following study: Yeboah, F. K., and T. S. Jayne agricultural challenges. What is missing, how- riers that inhibit skilled young Africans from (forthcoming). Is African Agriculture Becoming the ever, is a critical mass of skilled young Africans starting and expanding agribusiness firms that Preserve of the Elderly? This study is co-funded with access to finance and knowhow to drive provide important services to African farmers. by the DfID-funded Agricultural Policy Research productivity growth in farming and related in Africa (APRA) Project and the USAID-supported value chains. The idea of keeping young peo- Food Security Policy Innovation Lab. ple in farming for fear of African agriculture Felix Kwame Yeboah is Assistant Professor becoming the preserve of the elderly is mis- and Senior Program Officer of Global Youth placed. A more effective strategy would pri- Advancement at Michigan State University, USA. References: www.rural21.com oritise resourcing the millions of rural youth Contact: [email protected] 42 SCIENTIFIC WORLD

The potential of agroecology to build climate-resilient livelihoods and food systems

With the severe impacts that climate change is having on food security and nutrition, there is an urgent call for more sustainable and climate-resilient food systems. The quest for sustainable solutions is gaining increased importance as the world is tackling the COVID-19 pandemic and wants to “build back better”. A recent scientific study shows that agroecology could play a vital role here.

By Maryline Darmaun, Fabio Leippert, Martial Bernoux, Molefi Mpheshea and Adrian Müller

groecology builds on key management Acharacteristics which strengthen climate resilience (see Figure). To begin with, it is based on ecological principles, with a strong focus on high levels of biodiversity, overall diversity and heterogeneity (integrating different breeds, varieties and species into agricultural production), and healthy soils. It also takes into account social aspects, in particular the co-creation and sharing of knowledge and the promotion of local and traditional knowledge.

Economic aspects are considered as well, e.g. through diversification of economic activities (diversification of varieties and species grown/ raised on the farm, integrated systems), which mitigates the risk of single-crop yield losses. Mitigation co-benefits are also achieved, Knowledge sharing is key in agroecology. Photo: Bioversity International/A. Gupta mainly related to increased soil organic carbon (carbon sequestration) and reduced synthetic fertiliser use through otherwise improved soil ia Joint Work on Agriculture (KJWA). Fur- dicators of agroecosystems resilience of Cabell fertility. And last but not least, institutional thermore, an increasing number of countries and Oelofse (2012), and mobilising the FAO aspects, such as knowledge co-creation and and stakeholders from different backgrounds SHARP tool (Self-evaluation and Holistic As- dissemination via advisory services and farm- see agroecology and related approaches as sessment of climate Resilience of farmers and er-to-farmer approaches have a key role to a means well-suited to attain adaptation and Pastoralists), comparative field studies were play in supporting the development, improve- mitigation targets and to achieve effective conducted in Kenya and Senegal. Overall re- ment and uptake of agroecology. transformational change in agricultural sec- sults show that agroecological farmers have tors. For instance, an analysis of 136 countries’ significantly higher resilience levels than the nationally determined contributions (NDCs) control group (non-agroecological). In both Evidence of agroecology’s potential to demonstrates that ten per cent of them refer countries and despite very different contexts, increase climate resilience to agroecology as a promising approach to spatial and temporal heterogeneity as well as address climate change. Isolated agroecologi- integration and sharing of traditional knowl- A broad-based study examined the potential cal approaches are also mentioned in NDCs, edge appear to be factors that enhance resil- of agroecology to build climate-resilient liveli- mainly related to the core agroecological prin- ience of these systems. hoods and food systems (see Box). It revealed ciples according to FAO, namely “efficiency”, that agroecology not only can foster climate “recycling”, “diversity” and “co-creating of This study reveals that: change adaptation and increase resilience but knowledge”. These are often associated with also contribute to a low-emission pathway. alternative conceptions of production systems Agroecology enhances social and The results of this study support the claim such as conservation agriculture, climate-smart human capital. The ability of agro- that agroecology should be acknowledged as agriculture, etc. ecological farmers to self-organise al- a powerful approach to transform agricultural lows them to form broader social safe- production systems for a more sustainable and ty networks that buffer them against climate-resilient future. Lessons learned from Kenya and disturbances including both climatic Senegal and economic impacts. The rich tra- Agroecology is gaining momentum in the in- ditional knowledge and wider man- ternational policy arena, in particular in the To gain a better understanding of the eco- agement skills passed down through United Nations Framework Convention on logical and socio-economic resilience perfor- generations within agroecological Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Koroniv- mance of agroecology according to the 13 in- farms also contribute to their adap- RURAL 21 03/20 43

tive capacity. Agroecological farmers systems is a crucial element in en- Based on the study, the following series of rec- appear not to be reactive to climatic hancing performance and efficiency ommendations are drawn, targeted to donors, and other shocks but are able to an- that could manifest into increased re- decision-makers and researchers: ticipate and plan their adaptation pro- silience, reduced risks and maintained cesses in accordance with the past and stability of food production in the Given the existing evidence, agro- current events. This is made possible wake of shocks and stresses. ecology should be acknowledged as a by a plethora of different learning and powerful approach to transform agri- information-sharing mechanisms that cultural production systems for a more seem to be more widespread among A window of opportunity sustainable and climate-resilient future. agroecology farms compared to their Existing financial flows to agriculture conventional counterparts. The case studies from Kenya and Senegal show should be better channelled according Diversification within agroeco- that in both countries, despite different poli- to agroecological aspects. logical farms builds their natural cy settings, there is considerable potential for Complexity ought to be embraced, capital. Higher levels of biologi- agroecology to gain recognition as a resilient and a more systemic understanding cal diversity in these farms improve and sustainable production approach. Howev- of challenges and solutions to hedge biogeochemical processes like nutri- er, it is challenging to translate the interdis- against climate change has to be gained ent and water cycling and increase ciplinary and systemic nature of agroecology by breaking silos and working across soil organic matter levels that add to into policies, laws and strategies. Both case agricultural sectors. soil fertility and overall soil health. studies highlight the importance of training Investment in research on agroecolog- These processes are fundamental for and awareness-raising activities to create a ical approaches must be stepped up, resilience building and adaptation to common and systemic understanding of agro- and transdisciplinary and participatory climate change. Furthermore, diver- ecology and to ensure that it is embraced by action research, conducted by innova- sification of different aspects of food appropriate institutional frameworks. tion platforms that foster co-creation and dissemination of knowledge, requires support. The climate resilience concept and main agroecological resilience strengthening Further comparative research on the mechanisms multidimensional impacts of agroecology has to be developed for rational decision-making and efficient resource ROECOLO AG GY allocation at all levels. There are no “one-size fits all” solutions, no silver bullets – individual CLIMATE CHANGE HETEROGENEITY HEALTHY contexts and local knowledge building + MITIGATION CO-BENEFITS & DIVERSITY SOILS on the ten elements of agroecology must be considered.

- + SOCIAL + A profound holistic and systemic transforma- STRESSES ELEMENTS tion is needed to address climate change as well & SHOCKS FROM CLIMATE as to achieve Agenda 2030 and the four di- CHANGE mensions of food security (availability, access, utilisation and stability). These challenges will EXPOSURE SENSITIVITY ADAPTIVE CAPACITY + + + have to be faced in the light of a growing glob- - RESILIENCE al population which is putting increased pres- POTENTIAL IMPACT VULNERABILITY - sure on natural resources and impacting land, water and biodiversity. +

Maryline Darmaun is a PhD Student at the French The study at a glance National Research Institute for Sustainable The study The potential of agroecology to build climate-resilient livelihoods and food systems was Development (IRD) and Montpellier Supagro, jointly developed by a broad set of actors: the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United headquartered in Montpellier/France (previously at Nations (FAO), research institutions (FIBL, Bioversity, Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles FAO in Rome/Italy). – ISRA) and civil society organisations (Biovision Foundation for ecological development, Enda Fabio Leippert is Programme Manager Policy and Pronat, Institute for Culture and Ecology – ICE). It addresses three different dimensions: Advocacy at Biovision Foundation for Ecological 1) an analysis of the International policy arena, in particular regarding the United Nations Frame- Development in Zurich, Switzerland. work Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and nationally determined contributions (NDCs) Martial Bernoux is Senior Natural Resource Officer and the Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture (KJWA); 2) a meta-analysis of peer-reviewed scientific and Molefi Mpheshea is Natural Resource Officer studies on agroecology and climate change; 3) two country case studies that assess both the policy at FAO in Rome/Italy. potential of agroecology in national settings and the technical potential of agroecology to foster Adrian Müller is Senior Researcher at the Research climate resilience at farm level. Institute of Organic Agriculture FiBL in Frick, Switzerland. For more information, visit the FAO website or the Biovision website. Contact: [email protected] InternatIonale Steuerberatung · speziell im Bereich Entwicklungszusammenarbeit ·

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