Street Codes, Routine Activities, Neighborhood Context, and Victimization: an Examination of Alternative Models
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Street Codes, Routine Activities, Neighborhood Context, and Victimization: An Examination of Alternative Models A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctorate of Philosophy (Ph.D.) In the School of Criminal Justice of the College of Education, Criminal Justice, and Human Services 2013 By Susan M. McNeeley B.A., Centenary College of Louisiana, 2007 M.A., University of Memphis, 2009 Dissertation Committee: Pamela Wilcox, Ph.D. (Chair) John Wooldredge, Ph.D Francis T. Cullen, Ph.D Eric A. Stewart, Ph.D. ABSTRACT According to Elijah Anderson’s Code of the Street (1999), individuals in disadvantaged communities adopt a set of oppositional values, partly because demonstrating these values allows them to avoid victimization. However, the empirical evidence on the effect of the street code on victimization is mixed, with several studies finding that those who adhere to the values provided in the code are at greater risk for victimization. This study incorporates lifestyle-routine activities theory in order to better understand the relationships between subcultural values, opportunity, and victimization. Specifically, three theoretical models are tested. In the first model, the main effects of code-related beliefs are examined, net of activities. The second model proposes an indirect effect of subcultural values on victimization through an increase in public activities or lifestyle. The third model is interactive in nature; one’s beliefs and activities may interact to increase the chances of experiencing victimization, with adherence to subcultural values affecting victimization to a greater extent for those who more often engage in public activities. Additionally, the extent to which the effects of subcultural values in the form of street codes and public activities vary by neighborhood context is examined. Using survey data from approximately 3,500 adults from 123 census tracts in Seattle, Washington, multilevel models of crime-specific victimization were estimated. The findings revealed that both public lifestyles and adherence to the street code were positively related to violent and breaking and entering victimization. In addition, the effect of the street code on both types of victimization was moderated by public activities; code-related values contributed to greater risk of victimization for those with more public lifestyles, but were protective for those who did not spend as much time in public. Implications for policy and theory that arise from ii these findings are discussed, as are suggestions for future research. iii iv DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my mother, Marian McNeeley, and my grandfather, Marian “Hap” McGilberry. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I would like to acknowledge my advisor and mentor, Dr. Pamela Wilcox. I am so grateful for the opportunity to work with you. Because of you, I am a stronger scholar, a more effective teacher, and a better person. I would also like to thank my other committee members, Dr. Francis T. Cullen, Dr. Eric Stewart, and Dr. John Wooldredge, for your valuable comments and direction on this dissertation. Your input helped me vastly improve my work. I would like to especially acknowledge Dr. John Wooldredge – thank you for being there for me professionally and personally. To the rest of the faculty and staff of the School of Criminal Justice at University of Cincinnati: thank you. To Jean Gary and Janice Miller, I appreciate all your assistance and words of support. To former professors at other universities (notably Dr. Margaret Vandiver, Dr. K.B. Turner, Dr. Maureen Murov, and Dr. David Stafford), I am so grateful for the ways in which you have impacted my development as a scholar and teacher. Thanks especially to Dr. Wayne Pitts for taking me under your wing in Memphis and changing the way I think about criminal justice and social science research. Thank you to my friends who have been there to listen and give me needed distractions from work. Amy, thank you for being such a supportive friend and colleague. Lesli, I’m so glad that our dogs are best friends; the time we spent letting them have fun together really helped me prevent burnout. Kate, looking forward to our craft projects gave me a great incentive to concentrate on the last stages of writing. I especially want to thank Maeghan Davis. Thank you for never closing the complaint department and constantly encouraging me to finish this dissertation, even though we had fantastic backup plans in place. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter One: Introduction.............................................................................................................1 Victimization in the United States....................................................................................................2 Opportunity Theory...............................................................................................................4 Subcultural Theory................................................................................................................5 Social Disorganization Theory: The Importance of Neighborhood Context........................6 The Present Study.............................................................................................................................7 Overview of Chapters to Follow.........................................................................................11 Chapter Two: Literature Review.................................................................................................13 Victimology: Origins and Contemporary Directions......................................................................13 Early Research on Victimization.........................................................................................13 The Victim-Offender Overlap.............................................................................................14 “Similar Mechanisms” Thesis.............................................................................................16 Lifestyle-Routine Activities and Crime..........................................................................................17 Routine Activities and Individual Offending: A Review of the Literature........................20 Routine Activities and Individual Victimization: A Review of the Literature..................24 Research on Exposure............................................................................................25 Research on Proximity...........................................................................................33 Research on Target Attractiveness.........................................................................34 Research on Guardianship......................................................................................35 Violent Subculture: “Street” Codes and Crime..............................................................................36 Subculture and Offending: A Review of the Literature.....................................................39 Subculture and Victimization: A Review of the Literature................................................46 vii Neighborhood Disorganization.......................................................................................................52 Social Disorganization........................................................................................................53 Physical Disorganization.....................................................................................................55 Disorganization and Offending: A Review of the Literature..............................................57 Disorganization and Victimization: A Review of the Literature........................................58 Social Disorganization and Victimization..............................................................58 Physical Disorganization and Victimization..........................................................59 The Present Study..........................................................................................................................60 Research Questions............................................................................................................61 Chapter Three: Methods..............................................................................................................67 Data................................................................................................................................................67 Sample Characteristics....................................................................................................................68 Measures.........................................................................................................................................69 Dependent Variables...........................................................................................................69 Independent Variables........................................................................................................71 Street Code Orientation..........................................................................................71 Activities……………............................................................................................72 Neighborhood Disorganization..............................................................................72 Control Variables...............................................................................................................73