Downloaded By: [Marsh, Nathan D.] At: 21:31 9 April 2007 abxlcais oeo hc a nld ylpnaern) and ring), cyclopentane a include may which tricarbonyl-CH of manganese (Methylcyclopentadienyl some MMT acids, carboxylic 12 (a naphthenate (NIST). Activities program. also Research (CRAEMS) of and Collaborative Science Utah, Simulation its Molecular of the through Environmental University in Foundation for the Science Center at National the (C-SAFE) the Explosions through and Energy Fires was of Accidental support Department Additional by International. through Engineering provided grant, Reaction (SBIR) Research from Innovative subcontract Business a Small II Phase a under Base, h otrdcn oeta fadtvs ycmaigi oamr complex more a to it (bis(cyclopentadienyl) comparing ferrocene additives, iron-Fe(C by The flame. additives, diffusion laminar of liquid-fed potential soot-reducing the Abstract: Copyright Tech. and Sci. Combust. O:10.1080/00102200600862497DOI: online print/1563-521X 0010-2202 ISSN: ahnMrhi o tteNtoa nttt fSadrsadTechnology and Standards of Institute National the at now is Marsh Nathan Force Air Wright-Patterson Force, Air S. U. the by funded 2006. was June 13 work accepted This 2005; June 14 Received à eateto obsinTcnlg,Uiest fMsoc Hungary Miskolc, of University Technology, Combustion of Department drs orsodnet [email protected] to correspondence Address vlaino raoealcFe Additives Fuel Organometallic of Evaluation Q 5 ahnD Marsh, D. Nathan nti ok eivsiaeteuiiyo h mk apfrevaluating for lamp smoke the of utility the investigate we work, this In H eateto hmclEgneig nvriyo Utah, of University Engineering, Chemical of Department alr&FacsGop LLC Group, Francis & Taylor nvriyo isuiClmi,Clmi,Missouri Columbia, Missouri–Columbia, of University 5 ) 2 ,rteoee(bis(cyclopentadienyl)ruthenium-Ru(C ruthenocene ), eateto hmsr n eerhReactor, Research and Chemistry of Department % 7:9710,2007 987–1001, 179: , rnsl fnptei cd hc samxueo fatty of mixture a is which acid, naphthenic of salt iron o otSuppression Soot for n dlF Sarofim F. Adel and .DvdRobertson David J. atLk iy Utah City, Lake Salt à ra .Palotas B. Arpad gai rcao rcG Eddings, G. Eric Preciado, Ignacio 3 C 5 H 4 Mn(CO) 5 H 5 ) 2 ,iron), 3 are ) Downloaded By: [Marsh, Nathan D.] At: 21:31 9 April 2007 msin,priual lr ie EA 98 asnadCo,1999; Chow, for and Watson particle standards 1998; fine (EPA, Oberdo to quality fines contributor ultra air primary particularly the emissions, ambient are sources promulgated health. Combustion ofPM2.5. recently Protection human Environmental concentrations U.S. has the on res- 1993), the Agency and al., particles cardiovascular et between and (Dockery (PM2.5) illness soot micron correlations piratory 2.5 of under strong sizes with impact the particles the by about motivatedPrompted is concerns sources combustion from by emission particulate of Reduction INTRODUCTION Keywords: 465). (average weight molecular high its th of of consequence vaporization poor a result the likely is lamp ir smoke the using in performa fou poor lamp the not that conclude wick is We reactor. drop-tube content the the metal in by in difference produced This roughl aerosol fuel. containing had soot fuel the ferrocene-containing of using content lamp wick th that the find we by and content, metal their determine X-Ra to order by analyzed in were reactor, drop-tube the from fro several collected as were samples JP in additives naphthenate soot iron su naphthenate), and ferrocene burning soot lamp iron signifi a and indicate MMT to a from fails sometimes find (i.e., lamp smoke we the i slightly, aerosol, why the stand aerosol of fraction organic soot soluble the of of production yield the elevate uncsaddee nie,wt ou ncmutrdsg and design combustor on focus chemistry a fuel on with than coal-burning rather engines, as treatment exhaust such diesel sources and combustion furnaces from emission particulate the r ut fetv,epcal tfe encniin,weeso suppression soot where additives conditions, four lean all fuel reactor, drop-tube at the 90–95 especially in reaches have effective, with hand, naphthenate quite increases other iron effectiveness and the are MMT their On lamp, that effect. smoke and minimal the effective JP-8, In are in ruthenocene, concentration. find degree used increasing We lesser when a systems. to complex suppressors and more ferrocene, soot that in lamp found sup- ignition, smoke the operation—typically soot vaporization, in lean of accurately processes—droplet vs. measure more and rich sooting effective reactor conditions and the an drop-tube physical evaluating provide The the not additives. captures for does metal-containing test it by widely-available fuels, pression and liquid lamp of smoke inexpensive, the potential Although simple, JP-8. fuel a jet the is in concentrations various at evaluated 988 oeta frdcn M. msin.Hwr n ash(1980) Kausch and Howard emissions. PM2.5 reducing of potential through achieved additives. be fuel can of impact use economical the and significant a However, h s ffe diie sacs-fetv prahta a the has that approach cost-effective a is additives fuel of use The ¨ se,20) nteps,mjrefrshv oue nmitigating on focused have efforts major past, the In 2001). rster, aia ifso lms otadparticulates and Soot flames; diffusion Laminar % ne ulrc odtos hr nsm ae h additi the cases some in where conditions, fuel-rich Under . = obso interactions. combustor e,tr nodrt under- to order In tar. .e., 8 hs ape,a well as samples, These -8. diiefo h wick, the from additive e di ape produced samples in nd otarslproduced aerosol soot e c fio naphthenate iron of nce loecne(XRF) Fluorescence y atices nthe in increase cant 0tmsteiron the times 30 y .D as tal. et Marsh D. N. pesn potentialppressing on-naphthenate- wick a m ves Downloaded By: [Marsh, Nathan D.] At: 21:31 9 April 2007 vlaino ulAdtvsfrSo upeso 989 Suppression Soot for Additives Fuel of Evaluation n islegns h eiwfcsspiaiyo ea containing metal (bis(cyclopentadienyl)iron-Fe(C on primarily ferrocene focuses identifying review turbines, for The gas additives, additives engines. boilers, fuel oil-fired diesel on spanning literature and applications earlier with the reduction of soot review excellent an provide aiy nodrt vlaetevldt fkntcprmtr o s in use for parameters kinetic of validity relatively the modeled simulations. evaluate be CFD to can and order combustors. well-defined in practical the more easily, of to is identical characteristic system not the are is However, that axis, flows its along reacting potential stream flowfieldturbulent the laminar droplet and a monodisperse system, conditions, a Our lean delay. with and ignition and rich atomization environment, both of combustion in impact the operate into to additives) ability the without the of or introduction (with direct fuel the flamesliquid including the systems, of liquid-fueled more processes practical experiment and in conditions latter physical The the more flame. reproduces a accurately diffusion to it laminar comparing liquid-fed by additives, complex of potential is soot-reducing the effectiveness uating additive and evaluating effects for take action—atomization utility to additive its unable questionable. effects, of is combustor lamp delay modes turbine smoke ignition gas two the sooting simplified of the that a where Considering advantage in al. mixtures different. appli- and et fuel quite lamp the Himes make are smoke when example, can the of For appropriate one in structure. that tendency is flame Point shown lamp complex have smoke more (1984) Smoke been a the D has has whether question ASTM for cation the to the the However, as as as Method Fuels. reported adopted raised Turbine is been Aviation Test point and has this Kerosene method standard—Standard at begins this this flame flame In fact, the the 1322-97 lamp. until In of smoke raised point. height the is the smoke lamp is smoke; standardized additives) emit a without to of or wick (with the fuel device, liquid a (1980). of Kausch effectiveness and the for Howard responsible by is be particles. identified to flame additives presumed carbon is the the of that of effect before oxidation last this enhance premixing is catalytically and It 4) which vaporization and distance), for lift-off established; vaporization time (flame enhances delay more formation ignition which allows particle increase atomization, inhibit 3) 1) premixing; fuel and action: promote of 2) methods chemistry; four via effectiveness. emissions their to late critical is temperature-oxidation act additives the additives the many that which demonstrating for under soot, history results reduce contradictory to observe designed they However, tems. n M Mty-ylpnainlmnaeetricarbonyl- manganese (Methyl-cyclopentadienyl MMT CH and 3 nti ok eivsiaeteuiiyo h mk apfrteeval- the for lamp smoke the of utility the investigate we work, this In character sooting the of evaluation the for tool used commonly A particu- suppress may additives fuels, liquid involving applications In C 5 H 4 Mn(CO) 3 sefciei ait fpatclcmuto sys- combustion practical of variety a in effective as ) 5 H 5 ) 2 ) Downloaded By: [Marsh, Nathan D.] At: 21:31 9 April 2007 990 diie htaeblee ob xdto aayt,s httesmoke the that so catalysts, oxidation be not to is lamp believed are that additives rai aeil(a) u osgiiatcag nC soluble in and change particles significant a insoluble no produces both but ferrocene of (tar), flames, premixed yields material rich organic in in increase that Feitleberg flames. found significant despite premixed and (1993) rich that, (1987) al. in determined yield et al. fact and (1987) in inception et it al. particle systems, practical Ritrievi increases et in effect by Ritrievi soot-reducing previously-identified (1993). undertaken its al. were et flame Feitleberg utilizing effectiveness flat studies the of fundamental premixed (1984), additive, al. a soot-suppressing et a Kausch Himes as and by ferrocene degree Howard of limited by a recognition to simple and the in (1980), After especially understood, studies. and flame characterized laboratory well is it because cene, h e ulJ-,uigbt mk apadado-uereactor drop-tube a and lamp smoke a both using in JP-8, concentrations, aviation various fuel in at jet point evaluated, smoke are the of additives measurement these the way. fuels, for different turbine standard chemically existing a the in of fuel allows the it into because iron interest atom of the ruthenium is of naphthenate from a incorporation structure Iron the chemical with metal. of the ferrocene, interest effect of the identity as of separating the some therefore same is iron, acids, the Ruthenocene of place carboxylic ring). is in fatty cyclopentane structure of a its mixture include because a may is which which of acid, naphthenic of u ttefaetp iaaae l 20)rtr oarc premixed C rich on a effect to little has return ferrocene (2004) of al. addition burn- et the soot that promote Hirawasa show to tip. catalyst and flame a flame, They as the particles. acts at soot oxide the iron out for the points that nucleation a confirm before as also in nucleate serve that particles and oxide showing particles, iron soot findings, ferrocene, with these aggregates. doped confirm particle flame diffusion (1998) iron carbon Siegmann that the and and within Kasper flames, incorporated indeed diffusion flames, premixed are in rich particles inception in nucle- particle as based soot that, enhances the found is which ferrocene (1996) it around Megaridis particles and that oxide Zhang flame, iron suggests ates. solid diffusion and of presence a burnout, the in particle on that soot determined catalyzes (1991) ferrocene Bonczyk flames. diffusion flames. undoped to compared ae ercn-iecmon;adio ahhnt a12 (a naphthenate iron and compound; ferrocene-like based ie htcnb osdrdvrain nfroeeaeivsiae here: investigated are ferrocene (bis(cyclopentadienyl)ruthenium-Ru(C on variations ruthenocene considered be can that fortives sites as particles iron of role nucleation. the soot confirming further chemistry, PAH o h rsn upss ecnieorsuyt organometallic to study our confine we purposes, present the For nodrt vlaeptnilatfcsta ih eutfo h use the from result might that artifacts potential evaluate to order In diinlfnaetlsuiso ercn undt coannular to turned ferrocene of studies fundamental Additional nadto ofroeeadteaoeetoe M,toaddi- two MMT, aforementioned the and ferrocene to addition In priori a iavnae.W ou is nteefcso ferro- of effects the on first focus We disadvantaged. 5 H 5 ) .D as tal. et Marsh D. N. 2 1 ,aruthenium a ), -C 4 % chemistry, rnsalt iron 5 or Downloaded By: [Marsh, Nathan D.] At: 21:31 9 April 2007 infactortion oun;()100 (b) toluene; vlaino ulAdtvsfrSo upeso 991 Suppression Soot for Additives Fuel of Evaluation rtdacrigt h tnaduigtefloigbed fknown of blends cali- 60 following is (a) the apparatus values: using The standard point soot. the the smoke more Usually to produce values. according to point brated tend smoke fuels low high aromatic with have Fuels more flame. tendency diffusion a producing in fuels smoke method properties turbine test producing aviation is smoke This and relative kerosene reported. height the of is is of flame measurement indication value standard maximum average The until a the yet. provides The and continuously appeared flame. times not raised three the has repeated is smoke of the wick tip where the The determined at point. hydrocarbon is appears pure smoke sample against smoke known calibrated The is of Fuels). that lamp Turbine blends wick Aviation closed for a and Method in Test Kerosene burned (Standard of standard performed Point are 1322-97 experiments D Smoke lamp ASTM Smoke the ways. from to two emission according in soot evaluated the is suppressing fuel in jet additives these of effectiveness The Lamp Smoke by Evaluation stirrer. magnetic Actual a ways. on adverse overnight potentially accomplished affect in is may blending it viscosity, how fuel e.g., and used, properties, in be keep will fuel that must other additive one of terms, quantity practical total the in mind However, is effec- additives. that the these of additives appro- submit of most characterization we the tiveness and these is comparison atoms, mixture the of fuel for metal the normalization in action the priate atoms metal by of the of oxidation method concentration catalyzed the the be weight to Because by believed ppm solutions. 1000 and all 500 300, for 100, of concentrations metal-atom with h diie vlae r ercn,rteoee M,adiron and MMT, ruthenocene, ferrocene, are (80naphthenate evaluated additives The P8 iiayaito ulsmlrt e-,cmoe f99 to of added composed Jet-A, are to similar compounds fuel organic aviation military metal-containing a JP-8, four study, this For EXPERIMENTAL the additives. determine different containing to fuels are order from produced samples in soots soot (XRF), of Selected content Fluorescence metal fed. X-Ray fuel by by soot analyzed normalized measure atalso we mass, height experiments, by flame drop-tube the yield the measuring aerosol In by observed. way, is experi- usual smoke lamp the which smoke in The interpreted flame. are diffusion ments laminar liquid-fed a supporting f ¼ .8i bandadapidt h bevdsoepoint smoke observed the to applied and obtained is 0.98 % % nmnrlsiis.Fe-diiemxue r prepared are mixtures Fuel-additive spirits). mineral in sotn.Froraprtsadlcto,acorrec- a location, and apparatus our For isooctane. % sotn (2,2,4-trimethylpentane) isooctane % kerosene. þ 40 % Downloaded By: [Marsh, Nathan D.] At: 21:31 9 April 2007 rpiehaigeeetsronigteqat ue h softening 1300 The and approximately diameter, tube. tube, furnace quartz quartz the cm 5 the the of surrounding of center a element temperature the of heating through running graphite consisting tube a quartz chamber long cm reaction 112 heated electrically Furnace. or rich of variety a oxygen under conditions. the performed varying lean be By system. may gas it the experiments The where entering concentration, individually to system. probe, are prior the helium) mixed feed (alternatively and of the controlled nitrogen top around and the Oxygen reactor into preheated. the is fed supply drop through is gas then downwards the gas and control flows Reaction controllers breakup, system. flow the liquid-column Mass for by zone. reaction orifice the the through at generated are spesrzdt 5ka hc ocstefe hog h rfc.Uni- orifice. 160 the of through separation) fuel inertial the by (verified forces droplets which sized kPa, formly 35 to pressurized is eeao tteedo ae-oldpoe e uli e noacavity a into fed is 50 fuel a Jet with plate probe. thin water-cooled a a has of that end the at generator System. Feed next. described and and collection (1982) 1 sample Figure and Hanson furnace, in by system, depicted utilized feed as fuel first system, a have reactor, of to consists tube (1984), delay into drop Rah ignition lean The and additives) and atomization impact. without rich for an both or potential in the operate (with and to fuel the ability conditions, the including liquid environment, systems, combustion the the liquid-fueled and of conditions practical introduction physical a in the direct flames into capture the directly accurately of This more injected processes flame. to also is diffusion meant we laminar fuel a is lamp, in system the smoke burned and where by environment additives oxidizing reactor, hot, fuel drop-tube of a evaluation employ the to addition In Reactor Drop-Tube by Evaluation nalsbeun xeiet.Maueet eerpaal naverage on repeatable were to Measurements experiments. subsequent all in 992 os -mwd y3 mln,lctdo poiesdso h furnace the of sides opposite on win- located quartz long, two cm by 30 provided control by is OPTO-22 wide feed- access the 1-cm provide with Optical dows, to in laboratory. used tied the is is for tube which system quartz controller, the heating of the exterior to theback the and thermocouple near type-K tube cavity A quartz helium. this with the in purged between continuously cavity is shell The furnace furnace. the of temperature Æ . mm.0.5 h unc,mnfcue yAtoIdsre,Ic a an has Inc, Industries, Astro by manufactured furnace, The h iudfe edsse ossso noiiedroplet orifice an of consists system feed fuel liquid The m rfc ntebto.Teicmn fuel incoming The bottom. the in orifice m  ,lmt h upper the limits C, .D as tal. et Marsh D. N. m diameterm Downloaded By: [Marsh, Nathan D.] At: 21:31 9 April 2007 vlaino ulAdtvsfrSo upeso 993 Suppression Soot for Additives Fuel of Evaluation aigJ- otyed h a n atcepae r updtgte in together lumped are phases particle and tar the yield, soot JP-8 uating nac unhn ftesml si nestepoe h soluble The to sin- probe. a probe on the the collected are enters of aerosol it soot tip the 0.2 as of gle the phases sample particle at and holes the (tar) organic wall additional of innermost be through the quenching can up and enhance makes injected insertion probe, that is of the Helium tube experiment. metal of depth the sintered of a the probe time through the and residence radially of the reactor, vary end the to sampling adjusted The into filter. upwards sample extends a and probe water-cooled System. kPa). Collection (0.84 Sample pressure ambient laboratory at maintained and monitored is inzn scnrle yavlei h sampling the allowing reac- in windows, the valve in the a Pressure by of generated. controlled top are is they the zone as below tion droplets posi- just fuel is of probe injector feed observation the The zone. with hot the tioned around centered symmetrically and m elnfle MlioeFL000.Frteproe feval- of purposes the For FGLP09050). (Millipore filter Teflon m iue1. Figure ceai ftedo-uefurnace. drop-tube the of Schematic h apecleto ytmcnit fa of consists system collection sample The = xas ytm and system, exhaust Downloaded By: [Marsh, Nathan D.] At: 21:31 9 April 2007 etfrmitr eoa eeeaie,icuigoe rigat drying oven including examined, soluble were the removal treat- while 100 post-filtration moisture of phase, methods for particle Several phase. ment insoluble tar the the deemed is deemed material is filter second ihooehn DM olwdb itaintruhasecond a through in filtration agitation ultrasonic by by separated followed 0.2 be However, (DCM) may filter. phases the Dichloromethane these on cases material the some of in measurement gravimetric single a 994 esrmnsi 3 Vfrte59 e nK Mn keV 5.90 the for these eV 135 in used is detector The reduced. the measurements greatly of of is resolution geometry amount using energy Cartesian when the full-width-half-maximum a detector in polarization, a source by of Bragg-polarized seen plane a radiation plane-polarized equipped scattered the coherent the is into and Because scatter Compton that not source. instrument may 2000 excitation photons X-lab Bragg-polarized Spectro a a with measurements with XRF analysis. performed energy-dispersive The later are XRF. Samples for by retained filter. analyzed filters are are the The furnace and aerosol. onto jars soot sample soot glass g the 0.1–0.5 in yielding pull placed minutes, flame, then to the are 30 used experi- above for is cm furnace collected 30 pump drop-tube approximately are is vacuum the holder upward. filter in a chimney soot a the used and diameter in direct variety placed cm and 7.5 same is flame the ments, A the filter, soot. stabilize Teflon to of A lamp enough emission the raised wick over visible iron the placed with ppm a 500 lamp, the produce each smoke in naphthenate, the to individually iron burned to are and combustion identical JP-8, ferrocene functionally in or of otherwise behavior Solutions is vaporization lamp lamp. affects expected the not scale as is in It chemistry, flame. a increase wick-based alternative, the a gen- from that to an soot used of is As quantities Burner’’) larger replenishment. ‘‘Simplicity erate International long fuel (Shor requiring lamp frequent wick reservoir, the aerosolslarger fuel However, and soot and furnace. wick times selected small drop-tube sampling of relatively the a content and has lamp lamp metal smoke smoke the the determine by to produced used is XRF Fluorescence X-ray by Evaluation absorp- moisture that indicating significant. filter, not the is on tion mass final the affect cantly ihaP nd;mlbeu o rYadH–h(5k,44mA), 4.4 kV, mA). (35 13 pyrolytic Hf–Th kV, oriented (15 highly and Na–V and mA), for Cr–Y 5.7 graphite kV, for (52 targets Zr–Nd molybdenum excitation for oxide three anode; aluminum of Pd combination a a with using made are measurements m  otsmlscletdfo ohtewc apadtedrop-tube the and lamp wick the both from collected samples Soot n s fadscatcabr u hs ehd i o signifi- not did methods these but chamber, desiccant a of use and C elnfle,addb aum h aeilrmiigo the on remaining material The vacuum. by aided filter, Teflon m a -a.TeXRF The X-ray. .D as tal. et Marsh D. N. Downloaded By: [Marsh, Nathan D.] At: 21:31 9 April 2007 vlaino ulAdtvsfrSo upeso 995 Suppression Soot for Additives Fuel of Evaluation nocene, iue2.Figure P8slto soe h ii fteaprtsadwsteeoenot all therefore at was substantially and in point apparatus Fe smoke the ppm the 1000 of the increases limit of the Ruthenocene point over measured. smoke is the we The solution with (decreasing ferrocene ferrocene. JP-8 agreement point of in For smoke studies concentration, increasing concentrations. previous increasing of with several trend tendency) linear of at sooting lamp, generally smoke JP-8 the a using in observe tests, of series additives a from these results the shows 2 Figure LampSmoke DISCUSSION AND RESULTS of pressed-pellets 70 over materials. with reference calibrated standard The was models. pressed method parameters then XRF using fundamental and was determined thick-target Compton were mixture the concentrations resulting of The combination The pellet. a diameter mill. -mm mixer 32 vial a a polycarbonate into virgin on a approxi- minutes in the with (Chemplex) 15 Mix sample for X-ray For ground of analysis finely grams of WA). XRF 0.5 grams for mately 2 (Seatle, prepared approximately were mixing Inc. sixty samples by the over MicroMatter, analysis, using XRF calibrated from thick-target is standards method The thin-film method. Price Lucas-Tooth, h ra ocnrtosi h hnsmlsaedtrie sn the using determined are samples thin the in concentrations areal The ~ feto diie nJ- ntesoepoint. smoke the on JP-8 in additives of Effect MMT, & rnNpteae aafo aoa ta.(2003). al. et Palotas from Data Naphthenate. Iron ^ Ferrocene,  Ruthe- Downloaded By: [Marsh, Nathan D.] At: 21:31 9 April 2007 o ait foye ocnrtos rm15 from shown concentrations, are oxygen Results furnace. of drop-tube variety the a from for results the shows 3 Figure FurnaceDrop-Tube soot the additives. a in different by content using fed lamp metal flames wick the a from of perform from yields investigation produced we soot and further, of delivery atomizer, issue evaluation fuel simplified this studies: atypical investigate vapor- additional an To the wetwo additives. inhibit wick, study, may some a combustors, of our of practical ization use most In to lamp’s factor. compared smoke method tem- important the different identify an that in (1980) believe as additives Kausch history for and results perature-oxidation Howard inconsistent divergent. configurations, so explain combustion are to additives sur- iron-containing attempting also the is In for It results the configurations. its that combustion given prising surprising complex is more MMT in of performance effectiveness the poor the in particular, In alous. effectiveness compounds’ physical these similar for or lamp. structures smoke responsible by similar achieved are is the properties ferrocene that to addi- match suggesting the closest allow The ruthenocene, smoke that effectively. the conditions function that combustion to indicates the tive substantially lamp, reproduce also smoke not is the does Simi- MMT, in lamp properties. additive, ferrocene proven than physical emphasizes other effective or the ferrocene less does that chemical in naphthenate fact as additive’s the a degree the larly, similar as of a introduced to importance by iron point the as captured smoke that literature not the fact the raise is The not in effectiveness lamp. reported their smoke are that the they measure- indicates although point additives, these smoke extent, the effective lesser of affect much naphthenate repeatability iron a and in average to MMT size that the symbol fact and to The (The MMT ments.) effects. corresponds ferrocene. detectable figure than but the small extent have lesser naphthenate a iron to although concentrations, 996 oee M,adio ahhnt,i htodr ttehighest the At order. that in (40 naphthenate, effect, ruthe- concentration iron by reduction closely oxygen and soot followed performer, MMT, significant best the nocene, a generally available. still is have oxygen is excess Ferrocene we additives significant where configuration, tempera- are four conditions same under experimental 3 particularly the all this at Figure that In alone in JP-8 concentration. find from presented oxygen yield yields and the of of soot ture ratio fraction The a the as flowrates. on reported oxygen based (NER) and ratio fuel equivalence nominal corresponding h eut rmtesoelm a ecniee oehtanom- somewhat considered be can lamp smoke the from results The % NER: ¼ .5,tepromneo iron of performance the 0.45), % o40to % .D as tal. et Marsh D. N. nNin 2 n the and , Downloaded By: [Marsh, Nathan D.] At: 21:31 9 April 2007 a ntearsl ssoni iue4 nterneo 15–20 of range the In 4. Figure in shown of as fraction aerosol, the increases O the We significantly yield. in ferrocene aerosol of overall tar addition the to the the tar that determine and find to particles corre- extracted this of solvent examine a contribution to are be order relative samples In must several aerosol. there closely, the addition more of increased, phase issue the is in tar by the loading happening in unchanged particle decrease is also sponding and and yield is additive, aerosol (Zhang this an total inception of whether the If particle consider experiments. must enhance our ferrocene we to is Because 1996), collected found JP-8. Megaridis, material been untreated of previously to mass has compared the burnout, unchanged soot essentially for oxygen insufficient of that near is and additives, other the ferrocene. to relative improves naphthenate Black–Ruthenocene; MMT; – Gray Lt Naphthenate; White–Ferrocene. Iron – Gray Dk additives). 3. Figure 997 Suppression Soot for Additives Fuel of Evaluation odtos stersl fpril ulainidcdb rnoxide iron by induced nucleation particle of rich (under result formation the soot enhanced is the conditions) that conclude They chemistry. l h a rcinfudi hs rmJ- ln.I at efn htat that find we fact, In alone. JP-8 from those in 18 found fraction tar the ble ftr(e nto e ul.O h te ad t15 at hand, other the On fuel). fed of unit (per tar of h diino ercn per ohv ital oefc nC on effect no virtually conditions, have flame Hirasawa to premixed of appears (rich) those under ferrocene contradict that of to show addition who seem unitthe (per (2004), would material al. results insoluble et of These yield fed). the fuel decreases ferrocene of addition 2 % h eoospoue yJ- ihfroeecnitnl aedou- have consistently ferrocene with JP-8 by produced aerosols the , ti loipratt oeta ne odtosweeteeis there where conditions under that note to important also is It n 20and otsprsini h rptb eco 10 ,30pmmetal ppm 300 C, (1100 reactor drop-tube the in suppression Soot % O 2 h diino ercn per odul h yield the double to appears ferrocene of addition the , % n 18and % O 2 the, % 5 Downloaded By: [Marsh, Nathan D.] At: 21:31 9 April 2007 ercn 30pmiron). ppm (300 ferrocene 998 R.I otfo h mk apuigfroeedpdfe,w find we ng by fuel, 19150 ferrocene-doped analysis of using to distribution lamp smoke subject iron using the an were both, from from additives, soot soot In naphthenate of XRF. samples the iron in furnace, and additives tube the drop ferrocene of the performance vs. the of lamp question smoke the resolve to order In that with FluorescenceX-Ray agreement presence in the is in hand tar (1993). other al. in expect the et not increases on Feitleberg would finding of consistent we Our and system, ferrocene. significant our of in such case see the to were this If nanoparticles. 4. Figure mk apuigfroeecnann ulhdruhy3 ie the the times by 30 produced roughly 1 had aerosol (and fuel soot content ferrocene-containing the iron using words, lamp other smoke In collected. material diie t50pmmtlcnetwsbre n30 in burned was content metal ppm 500 at additives fuel. iron-naphthenate-containing using lamp smoke the ftettlmtra olce.O h te ad nteso rmthe from dis- soot iron the an ng in observe 649 hand, we of other fuel, tribution iron-naphthenate-doped the using On lamp collected. smoke material total the of n rnnpteaedpdfeshv rncnet f0.083 of contents iron have fuels iron-naphthenate-doped and ocnrtosweeteeadtvshv ag feto otaerosol soot on effect large a 30 At have yield. additives these where concentrations o h R nlsso otfo h rptb unc,J- with JP-8 furnace, drop-tube the from soot of analysis XRF the For a rcin rmlow-O from fractions Tar % O 2 efn htteso eoosfo h ferrocene-doped the from aerosols soot the that find we = = cm h oa as fteso eoo rdcdby produced aerosol soot the of mass) total the 5 2 orsodn o0.008 to corresponding , = cm 2 ape.Sld–J-;Oe P8with JP-8 – Open JP-8; – Solid samples. 2 orsodn o1.2 to corresponding , % yms ftetotal the of mass by % .D as tal. et Marsh D. N. n 40and % ymass by % % and O 2 , Downloaded By: [Marsh, Nathan D.] At: 21:31 9 April 2007 htgetrdge foiainwe ercn sue.A 40 At used. is ferrocene when oxidation of degree greater what vlaino ulAdtvsfrSo upeso 999 Suppression Soot for Additives Fuel of Evaluation 0.078 00pm hs diie nyrsl nso euto hnexcess when reduction soot to in 100 (NER result from available only ranging is additives concentrations oxygen metal These yielding ppm. 1000 amounts in added fun- providing of modeling. potential through the has information also lean, that combus-damental size flame droplet fuel post diffusion the well-characterized laminar and and and a delay, vaporizing provide rich flow ignition laminar and fuel yield, The oxidation. operating soot atomizing tion of additives, of measures and providing tool fuel and screening advan- liquid the additive of additive has without system totality an a and Such with as stream. fuel liquid tages monodisperse the a which in into injected is reactor tube drop theheated by content). produced iron aerosol same selected soot the concentrations the has yield additive of to fuel wick (with content a ferrocene-containing fuel iron from the collected the iron-naphthenate-containing by soot times produced the 30 of aerosol roughly content soot iron The the 465),lamp. by weight molecular reflected (average to is naphthenate attributed iron which is the of lamp volatility smoke low a ofthe added in effectiveness measured when in given additives differences effects The metal-containing a different naphthenate. the that widely iron well or has shows sup- ferrocene fuel a also either soot the as It MMT, in of effective. iron that measure weakly of suggests concentration is effective it suppressant, an soot additives; provide known metal-containing not fuels, by liquid does of pression lamp, potential sooting smoke the measuring the for test standardized The CONCLUSIONS relativ the of ferrocene both result to compared the naphthenate iron probably lo of corresponding volatility, and is 465), weight This molecular (average phase. weight molecular gas makin iron the of amount insufficient into an of result the n is eff iron lamp the smoke of performance the to poor related the directly that conclude is can aerosol we soot additive, the in iron of ence iiatyehne nio concentration. iron in enhanced nificantly tti odto;tecroaeu aeiludrosamc greater much a 30 at undergoes than material oxidation carbonaceous of degree the condition; this at h rncneto h otfo rnnpteaedpdfe ie to rises fuel iron-naphthenate-doped from soot the of 0.360 content iron the et eecnutdwt e-ulmxue ihtefu additives four the with mixtures jet-fuel with conducted were Tests a using when overcome are lamp smoke the of deficiencies The ie hti ohtesoelm n h rptb unc,th furnace, tube drop the and lamp smoke the both in that Given % % epciey h ifrnecnb cone o ytesome- the by for accounted be can difference The respectively. , eutta scnitn ihtemc oe vrl otyields soot overall lower much the with consistent is that result a , < ) usataigtehptei htthey that hypothesis the substantiating 1), % O 2 evn eidarsdeta ssig- is that residue a behind leaving , cieeso the of ectiveness n JP-8.and pteaeinaphthenate l higher ely t way its g % pres-e wer O 2 , Downloaded By: [Marsh, Nathan D.] At: 21:31 9 April 2007 asn ..(1982) S.P. Hanson, ie,RM,Hc,RL,adSmesn ..(94 Chemica (1984) G.S. Samuelsen, and R.L., Hack, R.M., Himes, 1000 apr .adSemn,K 19)Teifuneo ercn nPAH on ferrocene of influence The (1998) K. Siegmann, and M. Kasper, oad ..adKuc,WJ 18)So oto yfe additives. fuel by control Soot (1980) W.J. Kausch, and J.B. Howard, etleg .. ogel .. n aoi,AF 19)Mtlehne soot enhanced Metal (1993) A.F. Sarofim, and J.P., Longwell, A.S., Feitelberg, aoa,AB,Srfm .. otoey .. dig,EG,adDn,B. Dunn, and E.G., Eddings, C.J., Montgomery, A.F., Sarofim, A.B., Palotas, Oberdo iaaa . ug .J,Yn,Z,Jsi . n ag .(04 fetof Effect (2004) H. Wang, and A., Joshi, Z., Yang, C.-J., Sung, T., Hirasawa, okr,D,Pp,CI,X,X,e l 19)A soito ewe i pollution air between association An (1993) al. et X., Xu, C.I., Pope, D., Dockery, P 19)Ntoa i ult n msin rnsRpr 19)Environ- (1997) Report Trends Emissions and Quality Air National (1998) EPA ocy,PA 19)Efc ffroeeo oti rvprzdiso-octane prevaporized a in soot on ferrocene of Effect (1991) P.A. 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