Mobility, Subsistence, and Technological Strategies of Early Holocene Hunter-Gatherers in the Bolivian Altiplano

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Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e16

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Mobility, subsistence, and technological strategies of early Holocene hunter-gatherers in the Bolivian Altiplano

* Jose M. Capriles a, , Juan Albarracin-Jordan b, Douglas W. Bird a, Steven T. Goldstein c, Gabriela M. Jarpa d, Sergio Calla Maldonado e, Calogero M. Santoro f a Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA b Instituto de Investigaciones Antropologicas y Arqueologicas, Universidad Mayor de San Andres, La Paz, Bolivia c Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany d Departamento de Antropología, Universidad de Tarapaca, Arica, Chile e Carrera de Arqueología, Universidad Mayor de San Andres, La Paz, Bolivia f Instituto de Alta Investigacion, Universidad de Tarapaca, Arica, Chile article info abstract

Article history: The Altiplano constitutes the most extensive, high-elevation terrain in South America. Most archaeo- Received 15 January 2017 logical research on the earliest human occupation of this region in the Bolivian Andes derives from sites Received in revised form such as Viscachani where the emphasis has been on typological comparisons of projectile points, rather 20 August 2017 than on complete and radiometrically dated assemblages. In this paper, we present survey and exca- Accepted 30 August 2017 vation data from the Iroco region in the Central Altiplano of Bolivia to address questions related to the Available online xxx adaptive strategies engaged by Archaic Period highland foragers. Speciﬁcally, we focus on the nature of mobility, subsistence, and technological strategies, stemmed from principles in human behavioral Keywords: Andean Altiplano ecology. Based on data from radiocarbon dates, lithic, and faunal analyses, we suggest that, similar to Foragers adaptive strategies other mobile foraging societies in arid environments, highland foragers in Iroco engaged in seasonal High-elevations residential mobility, consumed a broad range of faunal resources, and developed a curated technological Human Behavioral Ecology toolkit within the context of ameliorated environmental conditions that prevailed during the early Lithic technology Holocene (11,500e8000 cal BP). © 2017 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction (Aldenderfer, 2009; Aldenderfer and Flores Blanco, 2011; Capriles and Albarracin-Jordan, 2013; Osorio et al., 2017a). The Andean Altiplano covers over 200,000 km2, constituting the Most research regarding the Archaic Period of the South Central greatest extension of highland terrain (>2500 m above sea level Andes (10,000e3500 cal BP) has been carried out in southern Peru, [asl]) in South America. Situated between the extrusive western northern Chile, and northwest Argentina (Aldenderfer, 1989, 1998, cordillera and the intrusive eastern cordillera of the South Central 2008; De Souza, 2004; Dillehay, 2000, 2008; Grosjean et al., 2005; Andes, the Central Altiplano is a semi-arid plain intersected by Río Haas and Viviano Llave, 2015; Haas et al., 2017; Mendez, 2013; Desaguadero, the only outﬂowing river from Lake Titicaca, which Núnez~ et al., 2002; Osorio et al., 2011, 2017b; Pintar and runs 398 km to the south, draining into Lake Poopo. This region is Rodríguez, 2015; Pintar et al., 2016; Politis et al., 2008; best known for the well-documented emergence of complex agri- Rademaker et al., 2013, 2014; Santoro and Núnez,~ 1987; Santoro cultural and pastoralist societies during the late Holocene et al., 2011; Yacobaccio et al., 2017). In the case of the Bolivian (3500e1500 cal BP) (Hastorf, 2008; Quilter, 2014; Stanish, 2003). Central Altiplano, a number of aceramic sites have been reported Understanding the trajectories that led to these developments re- and classiﬁed as “preceramic” and assumed to be considerably old, quires a more thorough examination of the social and economic despite the fact that very few of them have been systematically strategies of the earliest hunter-gatherers to settle the Altiplano dated or excavated (Capriles and Albarracin-Jordan, 2013; Lanata and Borrero, 1999; Paz et al., 2014). Open-air occurrences like those at the well-known site of Viscachani have yielded thousands

* Corresponding author. of stone tools, but research has so far been focused mainly on E-mail address: [email protected] (J.M. Capriles). typological assessments (Ibarra Grasso, 1965b). Analyses of bifaces https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.08.070 1040-6182/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Capriles, J.M., et al., Mobility, subsistence, and technological strategies of early Holocene hunter-gatherers in the Bolivian Altiplano, Quaternary International (2017), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.08.070 2 J.M. Capriles et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e16 and projectile points were used to propose a hypothetically early willow leaves and with fine lateral retouching, whereas the second human occupation for the site (Patterson and Heizer, 1965; type consisted of broader points, similar to bay leaves, which were Lizarraga-Mehringer, 2004). A lack of both radiometric dating and worked by a percussion flaking technique. The first type was linked correlation to environmental conditions have been major impedi- to the Ayampitín complex described by Alberto Rex Gonzalez ments to interpreting sites like Viscachani and using their rich (1952) from a cave and additional open-air sites located in the collections to reconstruct early hunter-gatherer strategies in the Argentinean province of Cordoba; comparable to the “leaf-shaped region. Just as problematic, however, is the current lack of coherent projectile point complexes” (Willey, 1971:53). The second tool kit theoretical approaches for organizing comparative studies of was compared to a “Paleolithic” bifacial lithic tradition (Lynch, hunter-gatherers in the Altiplano region. 1983; Willey, 1971). Oswald Menghin (1954) subsequently named In this paper, we attempt to address these issues by contributing these groups, from younger to older industries “Ayampitinense” new chronological data for early Holocene (11,500e8000 cal BP) and “Viscachaniense”, respectively. Ibarra Grasso (1965b:54e57) hunter-gatherers on the Altiplano, and applying a framework of then subdivided these groups into five chronological phases human behavioral ecology (HBE) to the subsistence and techno- and speculated that the Viscachani site could be several thousand logical signatures of the focal sites. We will focus on the locality of years old. Iroco, located 125 km southeast of Viscachani and within the same Andean archaeologists welcomed this new addition to the list of high-elevation arid environment. We use HBE as a reference Andean early sites (e.g., Kornfield,1977; Lanning,1967; Lanning and framework to address four questions: (1) How residentially mobile Hammel, 1961; Lynch, 1983; Núnez,~ 1980; Ravines, 1972; Willey, were these hunter-gatherer populations? (2) What was their sub- 1971), albeit with some criticism. For instance, Edward Lanning sistence base? (3) How did they organize technological strategies? and Eugene Hammel (1961) argued that the distinction between (4) What role did climate change have in shaping human resource- the two industries was probably artificial. Thomas Patterson and use strategies in the region? By addressing these questions, we also Robert Heizer (1965) carried out a technological and stylistic aim at furthering our understanding of the evolutionary processes analysis of 63 artifacts, mostly composed of projectile points, sug- that eventually led to the development of agriculture, pastoralism, gesting that the bulk of the assemblage was similar to the earliest and the emergence of social complexity in the South Central Andes. (Ayampitín) level of Intihuasi Cave (ca. 8250 BP) in central We rely on HBE principles to develop an argument that Archaic Argentina, and the Luz (ca. 7450 BP) and Canario (ca. 6900 BP) Period foragers engaged in solving important livelihood trade-offs, complexes in the Peruvian coast. In 1997, Karen Lizarraga- and, as such, we expect material patterns to reflect effective solu- Mehringer carried out additional fieldwork in Viscachani, tions to challenging social, demographic, and ecological conditions including the excavation of a 1 m2 unit in the center of the (Bird and O'Connell, 2006; Winterhalder and Smith, 2000). In this dispersion of stone tools, very close to Trimborn and colleagues' paper, we lay out the framework for developing specific hypotheses pits. As a result, she documented a hearth in association with 466 about variability in subsistence, mobility, and technological orga- lithic artifacts, including 19 projectile points and as many as 172 nization, along with the sorts of data we will need to collect to test camelid bones. Unfortunately, a bone sample selected for radio- them. Our working hypothesis is that subsistence behavior of the carbon analysis did not contain enough collagen to produce a date Archaic Period Central Altiplano hunter-gatherers was constrained (Lizarraga-Mehringer, 2004). Despite the absence of systematic and opportunized by a series of environmental factors such as high- regional research and radiometric dating, Viscachani is still cited as elevation, aridity, low primary productivity, highly seasonal and an emblematic example of a highland foraging locale (e.g., variable precipitation, and predictable availability of key resources Aldenderfer, 2009; Bruhns, 1994:60; Dillehay, 2000:181). including fresh water, stone raw materials, and faunal resources. The discovery of Viscachani prompted systematic archaeological research that resulted in the discovery of several highland sites in 2. Viscachani and the Archaic Period of the Central Altiplano the Andes. Many of these sites are rock shelters located in the highlands of the Peruvian central Andes and northern Chile, which Archaeological research on the Archaic Period (ca. provide different insights into the process of human adaptation to 11,500e3500 cal BP) of the Bolivian Central Altiplano has been this environment (see Aldenderfer, 1989; Lynch, 1983; Núnez,~ 1980; limited to a handful of sites, typological comparisons based on Rick, 1980; Ravines, 1972; Santoro, 1989; Santoro and Núnez,~ 1987). undated assemblages, and a complete absence of subsistence In addition, a few open-air sites, such as Asana, a multicomponent related studies (see Capriles and Albarracin-Jordan, 2013; Lanata residential base located in southern Peru, revealed previously un- and Borrero, 1999). A case in point is Viscachani, an open-air site known aspects about highland foraging and its change through located between La Paz and Oruro, at an altitude of 3820 m above time (Aldenderfer, 1989, 1998). The systematic survey of a series of sea level (asl), in the vicinity of a well-known hot spring. Extending western river tributaries of Lake Titicaca, specifically designed to between six and eleven hectares, Viscachani is covered with lithic identify Archaic Period occupations, has yielded significant results projectile points, flakes, and other stone tools (Ibarra Grasso, 1955; (Cipolla, 2005; Craig et al., 2010; Klink, 2005). Dozens of occupa- Ibarra Grasso, 1957; Ibarra Grasso, 1965a; Ibarra Grasso, 1965b; tions associated with diagnostic projectile points evidence impor- Lizarraga-Mehringer, 2004). Ibarra Grasso suggested that the set- tant site variability and settlement pattern changes throughout the tlement was located on top of 8e15 m tall terraces, on the shores of Holocene (Haas et al., 2015). The systematic excavations of a few of a now dried-up ancient glacial lake. Surface collections carried out these sites has also helped to frame discussions on the emergence between 1954 and 1960 produced over 9000 artifacts (see also of agriculture, metallurgy, and the manifestation of interpersonal Vela, 1964). Excavations included five initial test pits (Ibarra Grasso, violence (see Aldenderfer et al., 2008; Haas and Viviano Llave, 1957:145; Ibarra Grasso, 1965b:32) and 30 additional shovel probes 2015; Hastorf, 2008; Rumold and Aldenderfer, 2016; Tripcevich conducted in 1960 in collaboration with German scholars Hermann and Capriles, 2016). Trimborn, Hansjürgen Müller-Beck, and Josephine Welt (Ibarra Paleoenvironmental reconstructions based on the chrono- Grasso, 1965a:13; Trimborn, 1967). Nevertheless, no substantive stratigraphic analysis of a series of sediment cores collected along stratigraphy of these pits was documented, due to a combination of the course of the Desaguadero River valley suggest that throughout aeolian soil deflation and agricultural plowing affecting the site. the Holocene, the Central Altiplano experienced fluctuating cli- Ibarra Grasso (1955) initially classified the Viscachani projectile matic conditions within an arid climate regime (Rigsby et al., 2005). points in two types; the first included elongated points similar to During the early Holocene (11,500e8000 cal BP), a few strong

Please cite this article in press as: Capriles, J.M., et al., Mobility, subsistence, and technological strategies of early Holocene hunter-gatherers in the Bolivian Altiplano, Quaternary International (2017), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.08.070 J.M. Capriles et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e16 3 humid phases included significant regional flooding. On the con- patch, what types of resources are exploited, the direction of trary, strongly arid conditions prevailed during most of the middle change in resource and patch utilization, and investments in sub- Holocene (8000e4000 cal BP), causing major erosive un- sistence technology. conformities and decreased biomass productivity (see Baker and Classic prey and patch utilization models in HBE begin with the Fritz, 2015; Baucom and Rigsby, 1999; Ledru et al., 2013; Moreno assumption that consumers of resources are sensitive to the op- et al., 2009; Placzek et al., 2006; Rigsby et al., 2003). The strong portunity costs of food acquisition: the benefits of handling a arid conditions of the middle Holocene have also been documented resource incur a loss of opportunity to search for more resources, in other regions of the South Central Andes and correlated to de- the benefits of searching for resources incur a loss of opportunity to terred demographic growth and cultural discontinuities (see travel elsewhere to search for resources, the benefits of utilizing a Barberena et al., 2017; Craig et al., 2010; De Souza, 2004; Grosjean region incur a loss of opportunity to move to another region. The et al., 2007; Herrera et al., 2015; Mendez et al., 2015; Neme and Gil, social and ecological contexts that shape those trade-offs are 2009; Núnez~ et al., 2005; Osorio et al., 2017b; Pintar, 2014; Santoro complex and dynamic. Prey choice and patch models offer a first et al., 2005; Yacobaccio et al., 2013, 2017). The late Holocene step in a systematic exploration of that complexity (Stephens and (4000 cal BP - Present) saw ameliorated environmental conditions, Krebs, 1986). The ‘prey choice’ model predicts the subset of re- including progressive increase in the water levels of Lake Titicaca, sources a consumer should select from an array of options. ‘Patch which produced a relatively constant outflow of the Desaguadero choice’, ‘marginal value’ and ‘ideal distribution’ models predict the River. The increased humidity correlates well with the transition spatial distribution of consumers and the circumstances that in- from hunting-gathering societies to fully sedentary agricultural fluence movement. The models have been evaluated in a broad communities and the progressive development of social complexity range of ethnographic and ethnoarchaeological contexts (Codding throughout the South Central Andes (Burger et al., 2000; Hastorf, and Bird, 2015 for a recent review), and number of heuristic 2008; Quilter, 2014; Stanish, 2003; Santoro et al., 2017). guidelines for organizing archaeological hypotheses about subsis- Our archaeological research in the Bolivian Central Altiplano has tence and mobility variability have emerged (all based on the been designed to identify and assess the variability associated with assumption that consumers face trade-offs in resource use). Archaic foraging adaptations in the highlands under the constraints O'Connell and Allen (2012) summarize archaeologically relevant placed by environmental change (Capriles et al., 2011; Osorio et al., expectations of the models in the following manner: 2017a). Specifically, we focus on early foraging mobility, technological organization, and subsistence strategies, as well as on the 1) Food resources can be ordered by their post-encounter return interplay between these strategies and environmental fluctuations. rate: the net yield (in a specified currency, usually energy) for We are interested in understanding changes in patterns of behavior time spent handling (pursuing, collecting and processing). Re- within the constraining conditions of high-elevation, aridity, and sources with high post-encounter return rates (e.g., relatively hunting-gathering technology. Our ongoing research at Iroco, the slow and large animal prey, and many kinds of fruit) generally highlands of northern Chile, and in the Sora River Valley, in Lipez have low handling costs; resources with low post-encounter (Albarracin-Jordan and Capriles, 2011; Capriles et al., 2016; Osorio return rates (e.g. many tough seeds and nuts) have high ones. et al., 2017b), provide novel outlooks for contextualizing previ- 2) On encounter, consumers should always select an item of the ously studied Altiplano sites, such as Viscachani, as well as resource type with the highest return rate. Items with lower improving our understanding of broader processes of human return rates should be collected on encounter in descending adaptation to the Andean highlands. order as encounters with higher ranked resources declines. 3) Scaling up, consumers should always favor a patch or group of 3. Early highland foragers and Human Behavioral Ecology patches (habitat) where return from searching and handling is highest. With declining return rates in the highest ranked patch/ To frame our approach to mobility, subsistence, technology, and habitat, consumers should either add lower ranked resources on environmental change, we begin by assuming that all people encounter or move to another patch/habitat offering higher everywhere face trade-offs of time and energy in decisions related returns (depending on the cost of relocation). to their livelihoods, and given that resources are always finite, the 4) Resource choice and patch utilization are complicated by how opportunity costs of subsistence always matter. We assume that the material costs and benefits are shaped in social interactions, human capacity to evaluate those trade-offs is related to fitness, or especially in how conflicts of interest and problems of collective the propensity to contribute traits to future generations. If so, we action make certain types of costly resource acquisition, display, expect individuals to be highly sensitive to the social, demographic, and distribution, especially valuable as forms of symbolic and ecological contexts that shape the costs and benefits they face communication (see Bliege Bird et al., 2001). Such conflicts are within a particular patch or group of patches (habitat). Some of the often gendered and/or political in ways that have clear archae- material consequences of livelihood decisions are likely to leave ological expression (e.g., Watson and Phelps, 2016). Resources durable traces in the archaeological record, and (provide our as- that serve as ‘costly signals’ are typically those wherein acqui- sumptions hold) patterns in their expression that can therefore be sition or distribution makes them especially effective for understood in terms of their adaptive value (i.e., “function” sensu communicating motivations or underlying qualities to inter- Tinbergen, 1963, see Bird and O'Connell, 2006). ested receivers. Such assumptions underwrite much of contemporary theory in HBE, and have been useful in defining a broad set of operational For the Central Altiplano, in general, given the arid and often hypotheses for questions about variability in subsistence organi- unpredictable environmental conditions, we would expect Archaic zation and its relationship to changing demographic and environ- Period foragers to have been highly sensitive to changes in the mental conditions (e.g. Bird and O'Connell, 2006; Codding and Bird, opportunities and constraints that affect the efficiency of foraging: 2015; Kelly, 1995; Kennett and Winterhalder, 2006; Lupo, 2007; the food value relative to the costs of travel, search, and handling of Morgan, 2015; Surovell, 2009). Among the contributions of this resources. Technological shifts would follow suit: for example, we work, and key for our purposes, are archaeological expectations would expect declining opportunity costs of investing in regarding the relationship between changes in habitat/patch suit- manufacturing and maintaining processing equipment with ability, and how much time a forager spends in a given habitat/ decreased mobility. Clear deviations of these expectations would

Fig. 1. Regional landscape of Iroco with Lake Uru-Uru in the background.

Fig. 2. Map of the Archaic Period sites located in the Iroco survey. such as cores and ground stones, were found. No substantial sur- exploitation of strategic resources. For instance, some sites are ﬁcial architectural features were observed. The distribution of sites associated with chert outcrops, others near marshes in the shores and their contents suggest a temporary use of the locations, which, of Lake Uru-Uru, and yet others, to small rolling hills. Given that as a result, can be described as palimpsests. These mobile and wild camelids occupy deﬁned feeding and sleeping territories in possibly seasonal foraging camps were probably oriented to the the wetlands and hills, respectively, the location of these sites could have been focused in the procurement of family herds as they were moving and, thus, potentially more vulnerable to predation (see Franklin, 1983; Tomka, 1992). 60

5. Excavations and site structure 50 KCH20, situated at 3690 m asl, near the shore of Lake Uru-Uru, is one of the largest Archaic period sites in Iroco. Surface collections 40 and excavations were carried out in 2005, as part of the environmental impact assessment (EIA) of a mining project, before 30 beginning of mining operations (Albarracin-Jordan, 2005; Capriles, 2014a). All cultural materials from 100 plots (25 m2 each) were Lithics (n) collected and six test pits were excavated (Fig. 4). During systematic 20 surface collections, 4433 lithic artifacts (plus thousands of micro- debitage fragments) were recovered, producing a density of 1.85 artifacts per square meter. Approximately, 81% of the surface 10 assemblage is lithic debitage, with the remaining 19% identified as stone tools and a few cores. The largest concentrations of stone 0 tools and debitage were observed in the northern, eastern and, to a lesser extent, southwestern sectors of the site. 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 The first five excavations units in the western and southern Site size (ha) portions of the site (1 m2 each) produced a handful of lithic artifacts ¼ fl ¼ fl ¼ Fig. 3. Relationship between preceramic site size and counts of recovered lithic (Unit 1 9 akes, Unit 2 3 akes and 1 scraper, Unit 3 0 arti- artifacts. facts, Unit 4 ¼ 14 flakes, Unit 5 ¼ 0 artifacts), mostly deposited

Unit 6

3698

8 98. Trash pit feature 36

3698.2 3698.6 1 Soil stains 6

8.8 Rocks

369

3699 Rocks surface

3698.8

3 N8013926 3698. 69 E695388 9 .4 0 0.5 1 m 2 5 8 36 3 99.6 69 4

9 8.

3 4 Legend

8.6

.8 369 699 9.6 3 9 6 3 3698.8 3698.2 9 369 3699.4 Tools 3 699 3 .2 99 Debitage 36 Topography (0.2 m) 699 3 98 6

3698 0510 20m

Fig. 4. Map of site KCH20 showing surface collections scaled according to the quantity of lithic tools recovered from each and the plan of the trash feature in Unit 6.

within a discrete silt layer that was covered by sandy aeolian de- preserved and served for high level taxonomic identification. Seven posits. Unit 6 (5 m2), located in the northeast of the site, however, non-overlapping taxa were identified (Table 2). Arranged in rank- contained a feature, surrounded by large cobbles and stains. The order, the identified fauna includes camelids, wild guinea pigs, feature consisted of an oblong-shaped trash pit, or capped hearth, coots, ducks, deer, avocets, and canids. Approximately, 106 camelid which measured 1.2 m long by 1 m wide and 0.15 m deep. The bones, representing at least four different individuals, were iden- feature contained abundant ash, bone fragments, and lithic arti- tified (in addition to 187 fragments identified as large mammals, facts. Among the stone tools there were two shouldered and which most likely correspond to camelids). Osteometric assess- stemmed Patapatane style projectile points (Type 1B in Klink and ment of first phalanges and other postcranial bones suggests the Aldenderfer, 2005:31; Santoro and Núnez,~ 1987) indirectly sug- identified animals approximated the average size of modern gesting the site was occupied during the early Archaic Period llamas. This result places the KCH20 sample intermediate between (Fig. 5). Two samples of bone recovered from the trash pit feature the modern Sierra guanacos (Lama guanicoe cacsilensis) and the were AMS radiocarbon dated (Table 1). The results were calibrated larger Patagonian guanacos (Lama guanicoe guanicoe)(sensu using the SHCAL13 radiocarbon calibration curve (Hogg et al., 2013) Mengoni Gonalons~ and Yacobaccio, 2006). Our interpretation is in Oxcal v. 4.2.4 (Bronk Ramsey, 2013). Moreover, after passing a c2- that guanacos in the region, during this period, were probably Test (T ¼ 1.9 [5% 3.8] d.f. ¼ 1) of similarity, both dates were com- larger (and probably more varied in size) than modern critically bined to produce the range estimate of 9396e8985 cal BP (2s) for endangered Sierra guanacos. the feature. The archaeological context and contents of this feature The mortality profile of the camelids derived from postcranial suggests that it probably formed as the result of the sequential epiphyses fusion (in addition to an isolated P3) suggests the pre- accumulation of trash from various burning activities, including ponderance of adult individuals between 33 and 44 months roasting events. (Wheeler, 1999) and the absence of young individuals. The assemblage represents hunting of adult individuals, consumed and 6. Faunal remains and subsistence discarded in situ (even possibly during a single hunting episode). Assuming these animals were representative of the group's age The faunal remains recovered from the trash pit in Unit 6 con- structure, then the age profile would suggest that foraging occurred sisted of 446 bone specimens. Out of these, 225 were well during the dry season when young animals are rare (Moore, 1998).

Fig. 5. Stone tools from the trash feature at KCH20 including: AeB) stemmed with shoulders (Patapatane-type) projectile points, C) preform, D) hammerstone, E) sidescraper, and F) endscraper.

The site location suggests that it is likely that hunting took place llama (if the inferred size of the consumed camelids is a proper near the Karakollu River. Given the small sample size, these are analogy, as discussed above) is approximately 75 kg, hunted ani- tentative interpretations because the assemblage could have also mals did require prior dismemberment before being transported to been accumulated during different hunting episodes, in which case their final consumption locations. Furthermore, 23% of the identi- the narrow age range might correspond to a standardized hunting fied camelid specimens were partially burned, suggesting that strategy. In either case, hunting adult individuals seems to be an grilling or roasting may have taken place. Three cut-marks, four optimal hunting strategy because it can promote the viability of chop-marks, and 20 percussion marks confirm that these speci- wilds herds, in the long term (see Rick and Moore, 2001). Moreover, mens were intensively processed for nutrient extraction. In addi- given that camelids have lean meat, hunting adult individuals, as tion, most bones had some form of weathering (particularly stages opposed to younger and older adult individuals, can optimize the 1 and 2) and several had evidence of mechanical abrasion, which extraction and consumption of fat in meat (De Nigris and Mengoni suggests the assemblage was left partially exposed before final Gonalons,~ 2002). deposition. Regarding skeletal element representation, no correlation was The second most common taxon was wild guinea pigs identified between percentage of survivorship and volumetric (NISP ¼ 88). Based on morphology and osteometry, the most likely density (rs ¼0.05, P ¼ 0.79, n ¼ 31) or economic utility species is Cavia tschudii, a common highland species. The abun- (rs ¼0.06, P ¼ 0.81, n ¼ 17) (sensu Stahl, 1999). However, some dance, composition, and physical properties of these rodent re- elements were effectively more represented than others, suggest- mains suggest human consumption. Several intentionally ing that consumption and discard behavior affected the deposition fragmented specimens, with percussion marks on them, were of the assemblage (Fig. 6). It is possible that other criterion, such as recorded in similar skeletal portions. A perforation mark that might maximizing fat or marrow, could have also affected the percentage have been intentionally produced was also noted. Furthermore, 32% of surviving camelid elements. Given the average weight of an adult of these remains were partially burned, indicating that along with

Table 1 Radiocarbon dates from the trash feature in KCH20 calibrated and combined using SCHCAL13 (Hogg et al., 2013) in Oxcal v. 4.2.4 (Bronk Ramsey, 2013).

Lab Code 14C years BP and error d13C cal BP (1s) cal BP (2s) Material

AA91568 8273 ± 82 19.7 9304e9033 9426e9015 Lama guanicoe metapodial (collagen) AA91569 8105 ± 92 20 9115e8774 9255e8641 Cavia tschudii mandible (collagen) Combined dates 8200 ± 62 9239e9012 9396e8985 Х2-Test: T ¼ 1.9 (5% 3.8) d.f. ¼ 1

Table 2 ardesiaca)(Flores Bedregal and Capriles Farfan, 2010). These birds Faunal remains organized by taxa, number of identified specimens (NISP), weight, flock in large numbers, are easy to spot, and are a good source of and minimum number of individuals (MNI) from feature in KCH20. meat. Their preferred habitats include totora reeds and marshes Taxa Common name NISP Weight (g) MNI near the lake shore. Uru fishermen hunt coots, occasionally, and Mammalia collect their eggs during fishing trips (Portugal Loayza, 2002). Camelidae Camelids 106 819.05 4 Ducks (Family Anatidae) were also well represented at KCH20. Cervidae Deer 6 1 1 Ducks are currently abundant in the study area and include several Canidae Canids 1 15.45 1 common species, such as the Andean goose (Chloephaga mela- Caviinae Guinea pigs 88 5.6 12 Aves noptera), crested duck (Lophonetta specularioides), speckled teal Anatidae Ducks 10 5.87 3 (Anas flavirostris), yellowed-billed pintail (Anas georgica), white- Rallidae Coots 12 12 4 cheeked pintail (Anas bahamensis), and puna teal (Anas puna). Recurvirostridae Avocets 2 1.9 2 Ducks often share the same habitat and social behavior as coots. Total Identified 225 860.87 27 Undetermined Some ducks are migratory and usually occupy the region during the Large-size mammals 187 209.29 wet season. Collecting coot and duck eggs is a well-documented Medium-sized birds 22 7.27 practice that is often performed at the beginning of the wet sea- Small vertebrates 12 5.2 son in muddy islands and totora reed fields (Rocha Olivo, 2002). Total NISP 446 1082.63 KCH20 also included two specimens of avocets (Family Recur- virostridae). These two specimens correspond to two left proximal humeri that could be further identified as Recurvirostra andina, also the camelid remains, they were probably grilled. Similarly, Hesse known as the Andean avocet. One specimen was broken with a (1984) reports the presence of several Cavia spp. bones from the spiral fracture and the other was partially burned, suggesting hu- site of Tiliviche in northern Chile, occupied around the same time as man consumption. KCH20, which also included abundant camelid remains. Six fragments of deer antler were identified at the site. These Birds were abundant at KCH20. Individuals from at least three most probably correspond to the Andean huemul or taruca (Hip- different families were identified in the faunal assemblage. Some pocamelus antisensis). Some of these fragments seem to be part of cut and several percussion marks were identified in long bones and the same piece and all of them might have corresponded to an were probably produced during food processing. Most bird long initial single piece. It is possible that these fragments were part of a bones were fragmented, possibly because of human cooking and percussion tool that was subsequently broken and fragmented. consumption (see Steadman and Hastorf, 2015). A similar pattern of Finally, the only canid bone identified in the collection consisted of utilization is observed in northern Chile were Atacama highland a calcaneus that, according to size, could correspond to an Andean hunter-gatherers exploited several taxa of birds beginning during fox (Lycalopex culpaeus) or a small, domesticated dog (Canis the Early Archaic Period (Cartajena et al., 2005). familiaris). Coots (Family Rallidae) are the most common bird taxa present in KCH20. Currently, there are several species of coots distributed in 7. Lithics and technological organization Iroco, including the plumbeous rail (Pardirallus sanguinolentus), common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus), giant coot (Fulica gigantea), Formal tools were not abundant enough to contribute to typo- horned coot (Fulica cornuta), and slate colored coot (Fulica logical sequences in the highlands, which have so far been focused

Fig. 6. Percentage of abundance of skeletal representation of faunal assemblage.

Table 3 Lithic artifacts from the surface collections (n ¼ 96) of KCH20 and from the occupation surface and trash feature recorded in Unit 6.

Provenience and lithic category Local Non-local Total

Light chert Quartz Quartzite Black basalt Chalcedony Brown chert Dark chert Obsidian Hematite

Surface collections Tools Projectile point 4 7 28 7 1 47 Biface 2 14 2 6 24 Adze 4 1 5 Knife 11 Scraper 36 10 180 2 27 22 277 Burin 1 2 3 Core 2 1 2 14 4 6 1 1 31 Debitage All flakes 290 40 262 2489 15 456 490 3 4045 Subtotal 332 42 287 2728 17 496 526 4 1 4433 Occupation surface Tool Knife 1 12 Debitage Bifacial flake 3 2 5 Flake 1 2 15 13 31 Retouch flake 2 2 1 5 Angular shatter 1 6 4 11 Subtotal 5 2 26 1 20 54 Trash feature Tool Projectile point 3 3 Knife 33 Sidescraper 1 1 2 Endscraper 1 1 2 4 Abrader 11 Hammerstone 1 1 Debitage Bifacial flake 15 15 Flake 1 1 14 2 18 Retouch flake 3 21 2 26 Angular shatter 1 15 1 1 2 20 Subtotal 4 2 4 69 1 2 11 92

Table 4 Flake termination and platform morphology by raw materials of all debitage recovered from Unit 6.

Raw material, ﬂake type and termination Platform morphology

Flat Double-faceted Multifaceted Abraded Indetermined Total

Black basalt Bifacial flake Feathered 5 1 2 8 Hinged 6 2 1 9 Stepped 1 1 Flake Feathered 5 4 3 12 Hinged 3 1 1 5 Overshot 1 1 2 Stepped 3 2 1 6 Undetermined 66 Retouch flake Feathered 9 2 4 15 Hinged 6 2 8 Overshot 1 1 Stepped 11 Dark chert Bifacial flake Hinged 1 1 Stepped 1 1 2 Flake Feathered 2 1 2 5 Hinged 2 1 1 4 Stepped 2 2 1 5 Undetermined 33 Retouch flake Feathered 4 1 5 Hinged 1 1 Stepped 1 1 Light chert Flake Feathered 11 Stepped 1 1 Retouch flake Feathered 2 2 Stepped 1 1

Total 57 12 21 1 15 106

and 5, which represent secondary thinning and final shaping recovered were either broken artifacts or fragments, reflecting the respectively. The fact that many of the hafted projectile points high rate of curation expected of mobile groups. The apparent (regardless of traditional typology) fall into earlier thinning and emphasis on generalized activities of a highly mobile population is edging phases, indicates that nearly all bifaces at KCH20 were late- an efficient strategy for exploiting a broad and dispersed resource stage artifacts. The absence of clear early stage biface resembles base (Binford, 1979; Kelly, 1995). This is also supported by the strategies in which most reduction occurs at the quarry itself with presence of multiple raw materials, which is expected from highly finishing retouch taking place at the habitation site. Bifaces were mobile populations whose movements bring them through the prepared off site, probably to maximize the number of potential vicinity of more diverse stone sources (Andrefsky, 1994). tools in relation to the total carrying capacity (Bamforth, 1991). The non-local, dark cherts were also common and were used Biface reduction favored a generalized trajectory that emphasized primarily for the manufacture of sidescrapers and endscrapers versatility, rather than multiple trajectories for more specialized (Fig. 7). In fact, these tools were abundant in sectors beyond the tools. trash pit, in Unit 6, as well as throughout KCH20 and other Archaic We applied a technological typology to the flake assemblage and Period sites in the study area. Many of the scrapers show evidence were able to establish that at least 20 flakes correspond to bifacial of heavy wear. These tools were probably used in multiple activ- reduction or bifacial retouch. None of the debitage samples had ities, including gear maintenance and hide preparation. Very few cortex and very few blades were identified. Pressure flakes, rep- flakes show evidence of use-wear, heat treatment, or thermal resenting final shaping or retouching of tools, constitutes a small exposure. The latter is relevant because it suggests that the trash pit but significant percentage of the sample. More common are angular in Unit 6 was not a hearth but the secondary deposition of debris shatter fragments, probably reflecting the overall poor quality of from various activities. the raw materials that were used. Bipolar reduction at KCH20 is Scraper technology is strongly represented in the KCH20 represented by only one splintered piece. assemblage and constitutes the only line of evidence for some form Bifacial curated toolsdin addition to chert scrapers, blades and of specialized tool production. Chert endscrapers were manufac- bladeletsdwere probably used for most domestic tasks as only a tured from thick bladelet blanks produced from hierarchical bla- low proportion of bifacial reduction flakes had evidence of use or delet cores. Two such exhausted cores were recovered during retouch (1:9). The few utilized elements identified had continuous surface collections. Most of the scrapers are formal endscrapers of abrupt retouch and formed edge angles 60, which are most a very atypical morphology. They are extremely small, on average commonly associated with hide-scraping tasks. Most of the bifaces only 188 cm3, with relatively high working edge angles.

Fig. 7. Examples of lithic tools from KCH-20 including: AeC) endscrapers, DeG) knifes, and HeJ) sidescrapers.

Furthermore, many have spurs at the lateral margins of the working represents a limitation of the geometric indexing approach edge. It has been argued that elderly, or inexperienced, flintknap- (Hiscock and Clarkson, 2005), or whether it represents a genuine pers, produce similar outcomes (Shott and Weedman, 2007); behavioral pattern. however, their morphological consistency and regular placement in We undertook different metric debitage analyses to understand this assemblage points toward a standardized design feature, or, the basic cost-benefit calculus of lithic reduction strategies at alternatively, the effect of being retouched while hafted. KCH20. These data are largely descriptive, in the absence of The small size of these scrapers is, most likely, the outcome of comparative samples in the region, but, despite this limitation, we raw material availability. The high quality cherts and chalcedonies can make some basic interpretations about the kinds of economic suitable for fine scraper production are available only as small and mobile strategies that constrained tool use and raw material cobbles or pebbles. On the other hand, it is also likely that the cores conservation at the site. For instance, we assessed the relationship themselves had numerous flaws that prevented the extraction of between the raw material cost of producing each flake, measured large flakes. Assuming that cherts were always brought back to the by platform size, to its total surface area (Hiscock and Clarkson, site, source mapping could provide an estimate for the foraging 2005). The results suggests a positive significant correlation range, including estimates of regional migration (Pintar and (r2 ¼ 0.67, P < 0.01) with a distribution showing tight clustering of Rodríguez, 2015; Pintar et al., 2016). The unique microscraper- high-cost and low-benefit flakes and a broader dispersion in the assemblage might indicate a technological solution to the specific larger tail end. Larger flakes (thicker than 10 mm) seem to repre- environmental or resource constraints of this region (see Yi et al., sent biface preparation or cortical reduction, which explains why 2013). Nonetheless, a more systematic study on raw material they are not only large, but have such, seemingly, abnormal resources would be needed to investigate further. lationships to the rest of the assemblage. The paucity of such early The presence of formal endscrapers would generally be stage material confirms the possibility that prepared bifaces, and considered evidence of high mobility, and spurred endscrapers not nodules or flake blanks, were brought to the site. often characterize Paleoindian assemblages (Morrow, 1997). How- ever, these microscrapers exhibit a few contradictory features. 8. Discussion Their very small size, for example, is not a sign of exhaustion. Following Kuhn (1990), the calculation of a unifacial geometric Research in Iroco, in general, and at KCH20, in particular, shows index of reduction (IR) reveals that, while many microscrapers were that substantial early Holocene occupations were present in the heavily reduced, just as many were deposited with greater use-life Bolivian Altiplano. Our study establishes a baseline for under- potential, assuming consistent size and shape of hafting elements. standing the mobility, subsistence, and technological organization Raw material variation does not seem to be structuring this pattern, of these early societies and is potentially helpful for understanding and IR values do not correlate with length, which, like width and other sites, such as Viscachani, situated in a similar ecological thickness, were highly constrained. In the absence of a larger context. The identification of many open-air sites associated with sample size at KCH20, it remains uncertain whether this variation the Archaic Period is the result of a combination of factors,

Please cite this article in press as: Capriles, J.M., et al., Mobility, subsistence, and technological strategies of early Holocene hunter-gatherers in the Bolivian Altiplano, Quaternary International (2017), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.08.070 12 J.M. Capriles et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e16 including the methodology that was employed in the survey and aquatic birds (see Cartajena et al., 2007; Hesse, 1984; Moore, 1998). the regional taphonomy. The open-air camps that were identified Taxonomic richness (comprised by seven taxa), abundance, and in the region share important attributes with settlements previ- cultural modifications, coupled with the dozens of lithic artifacts ously documented elsewhere in the Andes. For instance, the associated with the faunal remains, provide key information on western Andean sites of Asana, in southern Peru, and Ipilla-2, in seasonality, hunting strategies, and food consumption practices. All northern Chile, also contain fairly dense surface concentrations of the camelid bones identified at the site were from adults (about stone tools (Aldenderfer, 1998; Herrera et al., 2015). More impor- three-and-half years old). These animals were the size of modern tantly, the settlement density and composition found in Iroco is llamas but most likely correspond to Sierra guanacos (currently consistent with the settlement patterns identified for the early extinct in the central Altiplano), the ancestor of the domesticated Archaic Period in some of the western tributaries of Lake Titicaca, llama. Guanacos occasionally migrate from wetland areas, where including the Ilave, Huenque, and Huancane-Putina rivers they reside during the dry season, to higher pastures, during the (Aldenderfer, 2002, 2009; Cipolla, 2005; Craig et al., 2010; Haas wet season, within the altiplano. Furthermore, the remains of et al., 2015; Klink, 2005; Tripcevich, 2007). As is the case in these dozens of wild guinea pig bones with clear evidence of human regions, the aggregation, density, and multiple sequential occupa- consumption esuch as burning, helicoidal fractures, and percussion tions of sites in Iroco produced a patchy but dense distribution of impact markse imply reliance on a broad range of resources. early Holocene sites. This pattern can be attributed to reduced, and Therefore, this assemblage might correspond to hunting episodes possibly, seasonal mobility. In this light, the settlement system that occurred near the site during the dry (winter) season, when could represent a seasonal inter-ecological mobility strategy (see guanacos would have been grazing near the shoreline of Lake Uru- Osorio et al., 2017a). Given our initial expectations, we hypothesize Uru. In addition to adult camelids, which could have been hunted that in a context of ameliorated but fluctuating environmental near their grazing grounds, the remains of aquatic resources, conditions, by the beginning of the Holocene, more intensive oc- including ducks, coots, and avocets, suggest a generalized pro- cupations of productive patches were favored. curement strategy oriented to maximizing the utilization of the wetland habitat. 8.1. Mobility Furthermore, the procurement of resources from various habitats, such as birds from wetlands, rodents from shrublands, and The location and distribution of the Iroco sites indicate that camelids from grasslands, suggest that, most likely, different in- their selection was based on strategies that maximized the pro- dividuals were simultaneously foraging for different resources. curement of resources from adjacent habitats between the shores Alternatively, they may represent different foraging episodes by of Lake Uru-Uru and the narrow hills to the east. The settlements highly mobile hunters. From a comparative perspective, the consisted of mostly small camps occupied for different lapses of foraging strategies of Martu hunter-gatherers of Australia's time, which yielded variable densities of lithic remains. The small Western Desert often involve men hunting for less predictable but sizes, poor composition, and low sorting of these sites reflect a potentially high yield prey, such as kangaroos, while women tend narrow and short term set of activities, mostly related to main- to hunt for more reliable but lower yield prey, such as monitor taining tools in the context of procuring and processing wild lizards (Bird and Bliege Bird, 2005; Codding et al., 2016). The resources. The consistent, albeit low frequency of projectile unpredictability of kangaroo hunting makes their pursuit an points, sidescrapers and endscrapers, as well as the absence of inefficient option, if the primary goal of hunting is provisioning ground stones and low frequency of cores and debitage with food (Jones et al., 2013). The gendered nature of some Martu cortex, suggest high residential mobility. Most stone tools were hunting efforts reflects conflicts of interest over goals related to manufactured with non-local raw materials, such as black basalt reputation building, signaling social and ritual commitment with from the southwestern shore of Lake Poopo and dark cherts widespread generosity, trustworthiness through pro-sociality, and possibly from the eastern Cordillera. The evidence supports the provisioning dependents (Bird et al., 2009; Bliege Bird et al., 2012; hypothesis that highland foragers engaged in relatively high and Codding et al., 2011). Hunted prey are cooked in roasting pits at possibly seasonal mobility, meaning that they occupied this logistically situated foraging-specific camps. Similar patterns are environment during wintertime, when no young camelids are to common in other foraging societies (Codding et al., 2010). The be found, and similarly to the ethnographic transhumant pattern archaeological record of Iroco, probably, corresponds to an that abandon prairies above 4000 m asl during winter (van aggregate of foraging tasks that were carried out by various Kessel, 1980). gender and age groups. Wild camelids and deer were, most likely, hunted by men, while smaller prey, such as guinea pigs and 8.2. Subsistence aquatic fowl, were caught by women and possibly children. Aldenderfer (2006) proposed that the domestication of Andean The contextual data from the excavations at KCH20 provide a camelids could have been a consequence of this type of gendered baseline for understanding economic variability associated with foraging behavior. the human occupations in the central Altiplano during the early Faunal data support the hypothesis that early foraging groups in Holocene. The faunal analysis indicates food preparation and the Altiplano procured a broad range of resources. The broad- discard of terrestrial and aquatic species at the site. Moreover, the spectrum subsistence strategy has often been associated with the trash pit identified in KCH20 was, apparently, the result of various transition between generalized and specialized hunting of camel- roasting events, indicating numerous cooking and consumption ids, leading to their domestication and the development of pasto- episodes, as supported by the presence of relatively high fre- ralist economies (see Cartajena et al., 2007; Mengoni Gonalons,~ quencies of camelid, bird, and wild guinea pig bones. Patterns of 2008; Tripcevich and Capriles, 2016). In contrast, as predicted by fragmentation, burning, and breakage, further support the hy- optimal foraging theory, we observe that a diet that incorporated potheses that these bone remains were produced by human con- various resources was probably a consequence of limited resource sumption and disposal activities. In correspondence with other availability and the need to include a broader dietary range to meet Andean faunal assemblages from roughly contemporary sites nutritional requirements, without engaging in intensification elsewhere in the Andes, camelids and deer were consumed at the practices (Bird and O'Connell, 2006; Codding and Bird, 2015; Lupo, site, but so were smaller animals, including wild guinea pigs and 2007).

8.3. Technological organization survey in Iroco identified 35 Archaic Period open-air sites. Sys- tematic surface collections and excavations at one of these sites Most of the lithics recovered from the Iroco open-air sites were (KCH20) allowed the recovery of faunal remains and lithic artifacts manufactured with non-local raw materials, most notably fine- that, in turn, provide significant information on radiometrically grained black basalt and dark chert. The best-known source of dated early Holocene highland foraging, mobility, subsistence, and basalt is Querimita, located on the southwestern shore of Lake technological strategies in the Central Altiplano. Analysis of the Poopo. The Querimita quarry was one of the most commonly used lithic materials provides evidence of a technological assemblage sources of basalt during the Formative and Tiwanaku periods in the that incorporated a highly curated toolkit, a range of prepared core Lake Titicaca basin (Bermann and Estevez Castillo, 1993; Giesso, reduction strategies, and the intentional selection of high-quality 2003). Nevertheless, other quarries were also important in the raw materials. The faunal evidence suggests the consumption of a regional context, including multiple sources of fine cherts in the range of locally available faunal resources, including guanacos, wild eastern cordillera. Several lines of evidence in Iroco suggest that guinea pigs, and aquatic birds. In partial agreement with expecta- most stone tools were brought to the sites already in late stages of tions derived from human behavioral ecology, the archaeological production, and that they were only shaped into final tools, as data from Iroco reveals the presence of a settlement system char- needed, at the site. acterized by possibly seasonal residential mobility, broad resource Most tools correspond to sidescrapers, endscrapers, and pro- utilization, and an emphasis on technological flexibility, rather than jectile points. Very few cores were present but debitage is relatively specialization. Given the evidence provided by the Iroco case study, abundant. This is significant because it corroborates our assertion seasonal inter-ecological mobility possibly fits best with the that these sites were occupied temporarily, as their occupants observed archaeological evidence (Osorio et al., 2017a). brought and discarded materials initially manufactured elsewhere. Moreover, similarities in site composition and technological These behaviors are also in line with our hypothesis that subsis- organization, between Iroco and other nearby regions, suggest the tence strategies featured high residential mobility, within a diverse existence of a previously identified but not well-understood range of ecological conditions. The technological response to this pattern of highland mobile foraging that could be partially attrib- context in Iroco seems to have been an emphasis on generalized uted to seasonal residential mobility (see Aldenderfer, 2002; bifaces and scrapers, an indication of a more restricted resource Binford, 1980; Habu and Fitzhugh, 2002; Kelly, 1995). For base. Bifacial technology allows highly mobile populations to face instance, the dense and large (>4 ha) distribution of lithic artifacts high ecological variability, or unpredictability, with a highly ver- observed in Viscachani (Ibarra Grasso, 1965b; Lizarraga-Mehringer, satile and readily transportable toolkit (Kelly, 1995). The abundance 2004; Patterson and Heizer, 1965) might have been formed by the of projectile points, not only in Iroco but also in sites such as Vis- progressive accumulation of temporary foraging episodes. Our cachani, along with the limited diversity of tool types, could reflect ongoing analyses of sites in Iroco in the Central Altiplano and Cueva the use of these sites as recurrently revisited temporary hunting Bautista in the Lípez highlands of the southern Altiplano (Capriles camps (Andrefsky, 2005). et al., 2016) provide new and unique opportunities to better understand early human adaptation to climate change in high- 8.4. Paleoenvironment altitude ecosystems throughout time. Finally, the Iroco case study provides a preliminary, yet sound, The main occupations in Iroco apparently took place before and platform for broader applications of HBE in the Andes of South after the regional arid episode that the Central Altiplano experi- America. HBE models have been particularly important in large enced during the middle Holocene. Radiocarbon dating comparative datasets that trace human settlement, subsistence, (9396e8985 cal BP) of KCH20 fits within one of the humid phases and technology, in different ecological conditions (e.g., Kennett and observed in the Río Desaguadero core sequence during the early Winterhalder, 2006; Morgan, 2015; O'Connell and Allen, 2012; Holocene (Rigsby et al., 2005). As such, KCH20 is one of the earliest Surovell, 2009). Although, currently, we lack the datasets to documented sites recorded in the central Altiplano during this develop a robust model for the Andean Altiplano, we believe that period. The site's chronology confirms that humans occupied the the dramatic and rapid vertical variation in ecologies, well docu- region in synchronicity to ameliorated climatic conditions that mented paleoclimatic changes, and a rich archaeological record featured increased precipitation, which likely amplified the overall offer unique opportunities to contribute to growing HBE applica- regional ecological biomass productivity. The site, most likely, tions in archaeological studies. To that end, we have presented represents a location frequently occupied by highland hunters prior some hypotheses and a template for datasets necessary to evaluate to the development of incipient pastoralism in the region. The them for continuing to and refine HBE models for the region. stratigraphy of KCH20 also confirms the presence of an extremely Building from this foundation, future research in the Altiplano is arid period, as evidenced by a fining downward bedding strati- well positioned to advance our understanding of the behavioral graphic sequence capped by a thick aeolian deposit, which followed variability associated with human societies and their change the abandonment of the early Holocene human occupation (see through time. Núnez~ et al., 2013). Furthermore, the aggregation, density and multiple occupations of certain locales could have produced the Acknowledgements patchy, yet dense, distribution of Archaic Period sites in Iroco. The fieldwork research in Iroco and later laboratory analyses 9. Conclusions were facilitated by a number of organizations, including the Boli- vian Ministry of Cultures and Tourism, Inti Raymi Mining Company, Recent archaeological and paleoenvironmental research from FactumX Srl, Fundacion Bartolome de las Casas, Universidad Mayor southern Peru, northern Chile, and northwest Argentina, has sub- de San Andres, Universidad Tecnica de Oruro, and Universidad de stantially expanded our knowledge of early human adaptation to Tarapaca. We appreciate support received from the National Sci- the Andean highlands (Aldenderfer and Flores Blanco, 2011; Baker ence Foundation DDIG BCS# 0737793 and CONICYT projects FON- and Fritz, 2015; Haas et al., 2017; Latorre et al., 2013; Rademaker DECYT 3140008, PCI PII20150081, and PIA Anillo SOC1405. We et al., 2014; Santoro et al., 2017). In this paper, we aim to would also like to thank the reviewers and editors of Quaternary contribute to this regional research. High intensity, full-coverage International including Cesar Mendez, Rafael Suarez, Florent Rivals,

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