Bats in Captivity Is the Only Manual of Its Kind, Detailing the Captive Care of Both Native and Exotic Bat Species

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ABOUT THE BOOK

A manual intended for all bat-care personnel, Bats in Captivity is the only manual of its kind, detailing the captive care of both native and exotic bat species. Material presented in this text is compiled from many years of experience in the captive care of over a dozen species of bats, from assistance to the zoological community and wildlife rehabilitators nationwide, and from published sources. The book includes successful methods for hand raising infant fruit, vampire and insectivorous bats. Also included is information on bat rehabilitation, transport, exhibition, environment, housing, nutrition, medical and necropsy considerations, plus much more.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Susan M. Barnard holds a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of the State of New York. She founded Basically Bats - Wildlife Conservation Society, Inc. in 1993, and served as Executive Director until 2008. Currently retired from her position as Assistant Curator of Herpetology at Zoo Atlanta, Ms. Barnard has authored over 25 scientific papers in refereed journals and 2 book chapters. She also co-authored books on reptilian parasites and reptilian husbandry, and has appeared in numerous magazines and on television, including the National Geographic special, "Keepers of the Wild".

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Sue with her first handraised bat, Egore. Egore, a big brown bat, lived 9 1/2 years, during which time she helped educate thousands of people about the benefits of these misunderstood animals (photo courtesy of Dr. Merlin D. Tuttle, Bat Conservation International).

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My deepest appreciation to Tom and Joann Johnson for their incredible friendship and assistance in constructing bat cages, shipping boxes, and bat houses, Michelle Connor for printing the cover of this book, and to my mother, Kathleen O. Muller, who not only illustrated the soft-sided cage instructions, but also fabricated them for testing.

A very special thanks to Dr. Debra Forthman for her helpful comments in reviewing the book manuscript, Grier Holifield and staff at Holifield Farms for their patience and assistance during the many years I collected blood to feed vampire bats, Dr. Ellen Dierenfeld and Gloria Hamor for evaluating the fruit bat diet, Debbie Hoffmann and the other employees at Pet Ag who helped develop infant formulas used for handraising bats, the many people who took their time to help with photographs, illustrations, and translations of foreign manuscripts, and to all the zoo keepers, wildlife rehabilitators and university associates for sharing their experiences in bat care.

This acknowledgment would not be complete without recognizing the deep commitment of the many men and women who have helped handraise orphaned bats in the Atlanta, Georgia area. It is through their dedication that animal facilities throughout the United States and Canada have benefited from using these bats in their educational programs.

The illustrations and photographs are by the author unless otherwise credited.

A PERSONAL NOTE TO THE READER

Dear Reader:

If you have useful information concerning the care of captive bats, or instructive photographs you are willing to share, please send them to me at the address listed on the title page of this book. With your permission, material suitable for publication will appear in one or more editions of BATS IN CAPTIVITY.

For your convenience, APPENDIX I of this book contains names of suppliers of products used for bat care; however, the mention of these products and their availability does not imply endorsement. Occasionally, suppliers discontinue certain products. If you have trouble obtaining necessary supplies, please feel free to contact me so I may help you find a new supplier, and can update the appendix for future readers.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org To order educational materials, such as pamphlets, slide programs and video tapes, contact Bat Conservation International, P.O. Box 162603, Austin, TX, 78716; (512) 327-9721. This organization was founded to meet the urgent and increasing need to prevent extinction of bat species, to insure survival of viable bat populations, and to inform the public about the value of bats.

If you have a previous edition of this book, please share it with a friend or send it to Zoo Outreach Organization, c/o Sally Walker, Box 1683, Peelamedu, Coimbatore 641 004, India.

Sincerely,

Susan M. Barnard

INTRODUCTION

Incredible ignorance and superstition still surround the image of bats, but bat biologists, conservation groups, and the community of spelunkers are slowly changing public perception. This change, to a more positive attitude by the public, is reflected in the increasing frequency with which rehabilitators are being asked to care for injured and orphaned bats. Unfortunately, few animal- care professionals are familiar with bats, and the literature on their captive maintenance is scarce. Therefore, I hope this manual will continue to serve as a forum for sharing new concepts, recent advances, and persistent problems in bat husbandry.

Earlier editions of this manual emphasized the care and maintenance of insectivorous bats, with the rehabilitator as the primary caretaker. Many inquiries by staff in zoological gardens and universities have created a need to expand the text to include both New and Old World fruit bats, and the common vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus. Considering that the order Chiroptera is distributed worldwide, feeds on a wide variety of fauna and flora, and is comprised of approximately 850 species, information in this manual is limited to bats frequently encountered by rehabilitators, or routinely maintained in zoos and research facilities.

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Chapter One

ABOUT BATS

Bats are members of the order Chiroptera, a Greek word meaning "hand wing". The order is divided into two suborders, Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera. Bat biologists, however, commonly shorten these names to megabats and microbats. Only one family of bats, Pteropodidae, comprises the suborder Megachiroptera, with all other families found in the suborder Microchiroptera. This nomenclature can be confusing because some of the megabats are smaller than some of the microbats.

Bats are the only true flying mammals. Their adaptations for flight, and their ability to navigate with echolocation (biosonar), have resulted in their unique appearance. The bat's wing (FIG. 1) is a modified hand, comparable to the arm and hand of a human; flight is made possible by a flexible membrane of skin stretched around and between the skeletal framework. The thumb is short, free, and possesses a claw that helps the bat cling to surfaces such as trees and walls. The other four digits have lost their claws and only serve to give rigidity to the flight apparatus.

Figure 1. Structure of a bat wing.

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Bats, like most other mammals, have fur or hair, give birth to live young, and feed their infants milk. The baby bat's first set of teeth are the milk teeth (FIG. 2), used for clinging to its mother's teat or fur while she carries it in flight. The milk teeth are tiny and sharply pointed. They erupt in the bat's mouth either prior to, or shortly after birth. As the infant bat matures, they are replaced by permanent teeth (FIG. 3). These teeth are differentiated and include incisors, canines, premolars and molars. All except the molars are deciduous (replaced once).

Figure 2. Illustration of infant bat milk teeth (from Kowalski, 1995 Figure 3. Illustration of deciduous teeth of bats (from Kowalski, 1955).

Although bats are not blind, insect-eating bats navigate by a well-developed auditory sense known as echolocation, similar to a sonar navigation system. Ultrasonic sounds, defined as those above the range of human hearing (20,000 plus vibrations per second), are generated in the bat's larynx. When these sounds are emitted by

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org bats, they bounce off of surrounding objects and return as echos to the bats' ears (FIG. 4). Those species that have the ability to echolocate, can avoid dangerous obstacles and hunt insects even in total darkness. In addition to producing ultrasonic sounds, these animals also produce lower-frequency vocalizations that are within the range of human hearing. These sounds are associated with social interaction, however, and not navigation in flight.

Figure 4. To hunt prey, bats emit ultrasonic sounds which are reflected by surrounding objects. The sounds return to the bat as echos.

Among the Microchiroptera, temperate-zone bats are heterothermic. That is to say, these bats vary between acting like an ectotherm ("cold-blooded" animal) and an endotherm ("warm-blooded" animal). To conserve energy, heterothermic bats allow their body temperatures to decrease to ambient temperatures when at rest. When they awaken from torpor, they are able to raise their body temperatures again in order to fly and hunt. In contrast to this interesting thermoregulatory behavior, members of the order Megachiroptera (flying foxes) are like other mammals, obligatory endotherms; they maintain a constant body temperature through homeostatic mechanisms.

Collectively, bats eat a wide variety of foods. In addition to insects, they eat fruit, nectar, pollen, flowers, blood, mice, lizards, frogs, fish, birds, and even other bats. They also differ widely in physical appearance. Some bats have plain faces resembling dogs (FIG. 5), while others are elaborately adorned with leaflike structures (FIG. 6); moreover, the sizes and shapes of their ears are equally diverse. Bats exhibit different social behavior; while some species are solitary, others form enormous social groups. Perhaps one of the most amazing features about these small mammals is their incredible longevity. Representative longevity records are summarized in TABLE 1.

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Figure 5. This flying fox, and many other bats, have plain faces. Figure 6. Some bats have faces adorned elaborately with leaflike structures.

Worldwide, a wide variety of animals prey on bats, including predatory birds, snakes, lizards, large frogs, spiders, and mammals. Nevertheless, the predatory activities of all these animals combined do not have a significant effect on bat populations. Rather, it is the limitless global expansion of humans, with their ignorance, superstition, fear and greed, that threaten the very existence not only of bats, but all life.

Table 1

LONGEVITY RECORDS OF WILD BATS LIVING 1 TEN OR MORE YEARS

BAT AGES SEX

MEGACHIROPTERANS

Family Pteropodidae 9

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Eidolon helvum 21.8 (Straw-colored Fruit Bat) Pteropus giganteus 17.2 F (Giant Indian Fruit Bat) Rousettus leachi 19.8 F (African Rousette Bat) R. leschenaulti 14.0 2 (Indian Rousette Bat)

MICROCHIROPTERANS

Family Desmodontidae Desmodus rotundus 18.0 (Common Vampire Bat)

Family Megadermatidae Megaderma lyra 14.0 2 (Indian False Vampire Bat)

Family Phyllostomidae Macrotus californicus 10.4 F (California Leaf-nosed Bat)

Family Rhinolophidae Rhinolophus ferrumequinum 26.0 (Greater Horseshoe Bat) R. hipposideros 18.0 (Lesser Horseshoe Bat)

Family Vespertilionidae Barbastella barbastellus 18.0 (Barbastelle) Eptesicus fuscus 20.0 3 (Big Brown Bat) Miniopterus schreibersii 15.5 F 10

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org (Common Bent-wing Bat) Myotis brandti 13.0 (Brandt's Bat) M.dasycneme 15.5 F (Pond Bat) M. daubentoni 18.0 (Daubenton's Bat) M. emarginatus 14.5 M (Geoffroy's Bat) M. evotis 22.0 M (Long-eared Myotis) M. grisescens 16.5 F (Grey Bat) M. keenii 18.5 (Keen's Myotis) M. leibii 12.0 F (Small-footed Bat) M. lucifugus 31.0 4 M (Little Brown Bat) M. myotis 18.0 (Mouse-eared Bat) M. mystacinus 13.5 M (Whiskered Bat) M. nattereri 14.5 F (Natterer's Bat) M. sodalis 13.8 M (Indiana Bat) M. thysanodes 18.3 M (Fringed Myotis) M. velifer 11.3 F (Cave Myotis) M. vivesi 10.0 (Mexican Fishing Bat) M. volans 21.0 M (Long-legged Myotis) 11

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Pipistrellus pipistrellus 11.0 (Pipistrelle) P. subflavus 14.8 M (Eastern Pipistrelle Bat) Plecotus auritus 13.8 M (Brown Long-eared Bat) P. austriacus 12.0 (Grey Long-eared Bat) P. rafinesyuii 10.1 F (Rafinesquie's Long-eared Bat P. townsendii 16.4 F (Western Big-eared Bat)

1Tuttle and Stevenson, 1982 2Badwaik, 1992 3Davis, 1986 4 Sommers et al., 1993

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Chapter Two

ASPECTS OF REHABILITATION AND CONSIDERATIONS FOR RELEASE

ASPECTS OF REHABILITATION Bats are highly specialized animals with complex lives. Many species learn "bat life" from their mothers (Barclay, 1982; Bateman and Vaughan, 1974; Bradbury, 1977; Brigham and Brigham, 1989; Vaughan, 1976; Vaughan and Vaughan, 1987). Young bats observe and mimic their mothers and/or conspecifics to learn how, what and where to hunt, but a high percentage of them still die during their first year of life. Survival requires adequate hunting skills, identification of appropriate shelters (e.g., day and night roosts, hibernacula), knowledge of migratory routes, avoidance of predators and appropriate social skills with conspecifics. Bats must also be in excellent condition, both physically and behaviorally, or their chances for survival are limited.

Captive-reared, insectivorous bats have been taught to catch insects in flight within the confines of a building. Such bug-catching abilities, however, may not translate into survival in the wild. Rehabilitators must hold themselves accountable when releasing handraised or captive-born bats by making every effort to evaluate the success or failure of their release programs. This might be achieved with the use of implanted electromagnetic transponders (Barnard, 1989) in combination with identification bands (FIG. 7) and radiotracking devices (Adkins and Wasserman, 1993; Albrecht and Helverson, 1994; Dicke, 1994). Until

Figure 7. Although banding can cause injury to bats, this band style is the least harmful. Note the proper area for its application (modified from Kowalski, 1955). affordable and workable release programs can be developed for captive-reared, insectivorous bats, they should remain in captivity. Rehabilitators who handraise insectivorous bats, and who are not working on bona fide release studies, may wish to consider the 13

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org following options:

1) Some bats, such as those in the genera Eptesicus, Lasionycteris, Nycticeius and Tadarida, adapt well to captivity and can be sent to appropriate institutions for use in education and conservation programs. Anyone not able to care for a hand-reared bat for the duration of its natural life (see TABLE 1), should make every effort to find it a permanent home at a zoological park, museum, nature center, etc.

2) Species that do not adapt well to captive conditions, such as Lasiurus and Mormoops, might have a better chance of living if displayed to the public in relatively large, naturalistic exhibits.

3) Another option is euthanasia (see Chapter 9, HEALTH, MEDICAL AND NECROPSY CONSIDERATIONS), preferably before the handraising process begins.

Rehabilitation considerations proposed for human-raised orphaned bats also apply to those born in captivity to wild, releasable mothers. Wild, insectivorous bats who give birth in captivity may abandon their pups when released. Any wild animal suddenly taken captive, regardless of the reason, must perceive the situation as "dangerous." Lactating females, therefore, increase their chance of surviving, and reproducing again, by lightening their burden with the abandonment of their young.

Isolate pregnant bats in a quiet area while administering health care. Handle them minimally, and release them as quickly as possible. If a pregnant bat bears young before the targeted release time, feed and house her as described in Chapter 5, ENVIRONMENT AND HOUSING FOR ADULT BATS and Chapter 7, FEEDING ADULT BATS. Avoid interfering with the female's efforts to care for her young, and if she is not injured, release her immediately after the young are weaned. If the female dies or rejects her pups, handraise them according to the information discussed in Chapter 8, HANDRAISING INFANT BATS.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR RELEASE Bats that are not handreared or injured should be returned to the wild as soon as possible (weather permitting). Check long-range weather forecasts, especially during fall and spring.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Prior to releasing a healthy wild bat, consider feeding it for a few days to a week, especially in the spring and fall. In the spring, bats require fat reserves to sustain them until insects become plentiful. In fall, they also require fat reserves to sustain them during hibernation.

Be certain that bats scheduled for release are able to fly well and with reasonable endurance, especially those that have been held for more than a month or two. A wild bat that can remain in flight (FIG. 8) indoors for about 5 to 10 consecutive minutes is probably ready for release (also see Chapter 12, EXERCISING).

Figure 8. "Fang's" last flight before release. To insure a bat is ready for release, be sure it is able to fly for 5 to 10 consecutive minutes indoors (photo courtesy of Jay Zuspann, Warner Robins, GA)

Bats will have a better chance of surviving if they are released in the area where they were found originally because they are familiar with these surroundings. A carefully planned release allows them the continued use of their established drinking sites, feeding grounds, roosts and hibernacula. Furthermore, these animals will not expend unnecessary energy, or lose their lives, by attempting to return "home" when released in a new area.

The best time of day to release bats is just before sundown. First check the release area to insure it is free of children and predators such as cats and dogs, then place the bat on a tree trunk about 6 ft. off the ground. Move far enough away from the animal so as not to interfere with its ability to orient itself to the changed environment. Also be sure that there are no obstacles, such as branches, to interfere with a "clean" takeoff. Some bats will orient themselves quickly and fly away within a few minutes. Other bats, however, may require several hours. Always return to the release site the following morning to insure the bat is gone. A bat that does not leave by the following morning should be retrieved. If this problem occurs after several attempts at release, consider one of the options presented above for orphaned and captive-born baby bats.

RELEASE STUDIES Perhaps the first bona fide release projects recorded in the United States were conducted by Adkins and Wasserman (1993) and Dicke (1994). Adkins and Wasserman released a captive-reared big brown bat, Eptesicus fuscus, and Dicke released a prevolant, juvenile pallid bat, Antrozous pallidus: both bats survived. Factors that may have contributed to the success of Dicke's project was twofold: 1) the animal "knew" it was a pallid bat, being familiar with the appearance, social sounds and biosonar of pallid bats,

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org because it spent up to 6 weeks with its dam and conspecifics; and, 2) the bat was returned to a colony of pallid bats, posibly the one from which it was orphaned. Although these projects each included only one individual, representing only one species, the techniques used by the investigators provided valuable information for future release studies.

In Europe, Gebhard (1988) reported successful releases of juvenile noctule bats, Nyctalus noctula, as part of a larger project encompassing their habits. The following year, Helversen (1989) modified Gebhard's technique to release bats as part of his work on social calls. He placed the study bats in a release box similar to the one shown in FIGURE 9 a-c. The release box was divided into two compartments by a mesh wall to insure contact between unreleasable mother bats and self-feeding, volant juveniles. The mothers were placed in the closed compartment; the juveniles in the one with the exit hole. In 1994, Albrecht and Helversen used the same technique to study the development of foraging behavior of 14 captive-born, mother-reared noctule bats. The behavior of 4 of the 14 bats was recorded by radiotracking them. After leaving the roost, the young bats went through a period of flight practice. As they gained flight experience, feeding strategies improved, allowing them time to explore new feeding grounds. The bats returned to their mothers in the release box after foraging. During the day, the investigators placed the juveniles in the closed compartment with their mothers to reinforce their bonds. Gebhard (1988) showed that juveniles of this bat species could learn to hunt by observing each other, and the works of Helversen (1989) and Albrecht and Helversen (1994) support this theory.

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Figure 9. Release box. A) showing access door; B) showing two-compartment interior. Mothers, which cannot be released, are placed in the closed right compartment, and the juveniles to be released are placed in the compartment with the exit hole (left); C) mounted box. Boxes should be placed in areas that allow the rehabilitator easy access (photos courtesy of Johanna Arnold-Rinehart, Frankfort, KY).

In June, 1986, I undertook what turned out to be an unsucessful release project when over 90 big brown bats were removed from an attic. Fifty-eight orphans were presented to me for hand raising; 47 survived. After the pups became self-feeding and could fly, they were placed in a release habitat shown in FIGURES 10 and 11. The release project had to be discontinued. Nevertheless, the much information was produced about the captive care and social behavior of a captive colony of big brown bats, and the foundation for the original edition of this book (Barnard, 1987a).

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Although the work described by Albrecht and Helversen (1994) and Dicke (1994) concerned only the releases of mother-reared juveniles, the concepts can be expanded to rehabilitating handreared infants as was shown by Adkins and Wasserman (1993). For example, we know that it is possible to have successful releases if handraised bats are exposed to their species during the handrearing period. Where a colony of bats (of the species being handreared) is readily available, an infant may be placed in a "Howdy" cage near it. As the infant develops, and becomes self-feeding, the bat can be banded, fitted with a radio, and tracked. Where no wild colony is available, infants may be exposed to unreleasable bats of their own kind, during the handrearing period. In situations like this, either the release box shown in FIGURE 9 a-c can be used, or the release habitat depicted in FIGURES 10 and 11 might be employed.

The discussion on rehabilitation so far has included only colonial insectivorous bats. There is no scientific work published on the release of solitary-dwelling, insectivorous species. At this writing, however, Barbara French in Austin, Texas, has been recording annecdotal information surrounding release possibilities for handreared red bats, Lasiurus borealis.

For information on radiotelemetry, the rehabilitator may wish to read Brigham (1992), Mech (1983), and Wilkinson and Bradbury (1988).

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HANDLING

INSECTIVOROUS BATS Besides illness or injury, there are numerous reasons for bats becoming grounded. They can be confused by rapid expulsion from destroyed roosting sites in forests and buildings. Neonates may be found after falling from their mothers or nursery roosts. Stormy weather can also cause bats to become grounded.

Whenever a bat is found grounded, it is usually assumed to be rabid. In common with other mammals, bats are susceptible to infection; however, less than one-half of one percent contract rabies. Although bats are not asymptomatic carriers of the rabies virus (Constantine, 1986a), it may be present in a bat's saliva for several days before the disease becomes clinically apparent (Constantine, 1988). It is therefore necessary to exercise care when handling wild bats.

Generally, hand protection is not necessary when manipulating suckling bats, but contrary to popular opinion, even small adult bats, such as the size of Pipistrellus spp., can deliver a painful bite. For the purposes of examination, most insectivorous bats can be manipulated safely with lightweight, soft material (FIG. 12) such as a hand towel or T-shirt.

Figure 12. Using a cloth for handling bats helps prevent bites to the handler, and injuries to the bat (photo courtesy of Gregory C. Greer, Marietta, GA).

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FRUGIVOROUS AND NECTARIVOROUS BATS All fruit- and nectar-eating bats should be handled with gloves. I prefer lightweight, oversized cotton work gloves, even when handling large flying foxes because they allow manipulation of the animal without injuring it, and the excess material protects the hands from bites. However, bats often bite onto excess glove material which can or cannot be advantageous, depending on the procedure. If it is necessary to have the bat release its grip, blow gently in its face. Alternatively, Rasweiller (1986) reported a preference for using stainless-steel mesh gloves when working with [Phyllostomus] bats.

Flying foxes may be removed from their perches by pinning their wings to the sides of their bodies. The body, including the feet, is then wrapped in a cloth to prevent the bat from tearing at its wings with its sharp claws. Rearrange the cloth to expose any part of the animal which needs to be examined.

Some microchiropterans can maneuver skillfully within small areas, easily avoiding capture. Because they require a darkened hiding area, their roost box can be closed off while they occupy it during the daylight hours, and a net placed over the opening. When the door is opened, the bats can be coaxed into it by tapping on the box. From there they are removed for procedures. As with other small chiropterans, it is important to avoid damaging their wings.

SANGUIVOROUS BATS Because vampire bats' teeth are razor-sharp, it is advisable to wear loose-fitting gloves when handling them. They should be pliable enough to allow the handler to manipulate the bat without injuring it. Stainless-steel mesh gloves may also prove useful for manipulating these animals.

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TRANSPORTING AND TEMPORARY HOLDING

TRANSPORTING Bats are transported for a variety of reasons. For example, educators transport bats to show when giving wildlife programs. Rehabilitators, who are handraising infant bats, may have to transport them between home and a job, and sometimes bats must be shipped from one facility to another. There is no single best method for transporting all bats, but they should be moved in such a way that stress and injury are minimized. This is achieved by knowing the behavior of the species being shipped, by taking the time to construct appropriate transport containers, and by adhering to a few basic "transport rules" as follows:

Transport at the appropriate time of year for the species. Although the United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) requires shipment at temperatures between 45 F (7.2 C) and 85 F (29.5 C), bats may undergo less stress if they are shipped at temperatures corresponding to the particular species' thermal preference. When transporting bats via automobile, NEVER leave them in a parked vehicle when making rest stops.

Unnecessary transport delays may be avoided by checking long-range weather forecasts for all stops along the shipping route.

Transport only during regular working hours. Government officials worldwide usually do not work on weekends or holidays. If possible, check the holiday calender for all countries on the shipping route. Also be aware of time differences.

When shipping, inform colleagues along the shipping route of flight plans and species of bat(s) being transported. If shipping problems arise, they can lend assistance. Call the airlines periodically to check for delays or reroutings.

Plan shipments around bats' feeding times, being sure to feed just prior to shipping.

Depending on the bat species, and mode and duration of transport, provide bats with the necessary requirements such as food and/or water. Remember, this does not apply to short, local trips.

Use the appropriate style of shipping box for the species.

Never transport mixed species in the same container. 23

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Never place aromatic bedding, such as pine bark or cedar chips, in transport containers. This material may cause the occupants respiratory distress.

When transporting bats directly from the wild, ship them without delay. If a delay is unavoidable, hold them for several days to weeks to allow them time to recover from the stress of capture.

Whenever possible, transport bats as carry-on luggage, and do not allow them to pass through the X-ray machine.

Be sure the shipping container is large enough to allow certain bat species to feed and void, but small enough to prevent injuries by limiting their movement appropriately.

Obey the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Animal Welfare Act regulations. To obtain a copy, call the USDA Animal Care Division nearest you. Registrars in major zoos should also have this information.

Described below are ideas that have proven successful for transporting various bat species both long and short distances. The bat carriers shown only in FIGURES 14, 17 and 18 meet the specifications of the USDA Animal Welfare Act, the International Air Transport Association's (IATA) animal regulations, and the United States Department of Interior's (USDI) Fish and Wildlife Injurious Animal regulations. All other containers described in this chapter do not meet those regulations and therefore cannot be used to transport bats via the airlines.

Crevice-dwelling Bats Cloth bags are excellent for transporting crevice-dwelling bats (e.g., Eptesicus, Myotis); however, be sure to run a finger along the seams to check for holes. The bagged bat can then be placed in a styrofoam cooler. Infants, or bats that have lost their ability to fly, may be placed directly in a styrofoam container, although even these may be strong enough to push open the top. This problem is easily prevented

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org by taping tops closed as shown in FIGURE 13. Because tape tends to dry out, it should be changed each time a bat is transported. If more than one bat is being transported, a separate container should be used for each animal if they are incompatible, or of different species. Bats should not be transported with water in styrofoam containers because it can spill, causing the animal and other contents to become wet. On the other hand, it is often necessary to transport bats with water in the carriers when they are being shipped long distances.

Figure 13. All styrofoam coolers must be taped to prevent the bats from escaping. It is also advisable to label the container, LIVE ANIMALS.

Large, styrofoam containers can also serve as temporary housing for bats that must remain at a veterinary clinic for observation and treatment (see TEMPORARY HOLDING below). When maintaining a bat overnight, away from its permanent enclosure, have an adequate supply of food on hand. An occasional bat will be a "chewer"; these should never be kept in styrofoam containers overnight.

To insure adequate ventilation, punch one or two rows of holes in the box from the inside to the outside. If pieces of styrofoam break away from the box, the damage will be on the outside of the box where a bat cannot enlarge the hole and escape. Holes must be small enough to prevent a containerized bat from escaping.

Crevice-dwelling bats are the easiest to ship long distances. Over a 10-year period, I have shipped hundreds of big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) throughout the United States and Canada without a fatality. The bats are placed individually in small flour sacks, then in the box (FIG. 14). To prevent sliding during transport, surround the sacks containing the bats with empty ones. Do not, however, place anything on top of the sacked bats.

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Figure 14. Transport container appropriate for shipping crevice-dwelling bats. This design meets the approval of all regulatory agencies governing animal transport. A) plastic tool box; B) interior box constructed of wood veneer to reduce weight - it must lock and fit tightly inside the outer box; C) flour sacks - use one bag per bat, tie them securely, and position them in such a way that they do not slide around inside the interior box.

Tree-dwelling Bats Small tree-dwelling bats (e.g., Lasiurus spp.) also may be transported in styrofoam coolers as shown in FIGURE 13, but with one modification. A sturdy branch, preferably with leaves, should be wedged diagonally across the cooler to serve as a perch (Fig. 15), especially when transporting red bats (L. borealis). Red bats have extremely tender skin which is easily damaged, and many of these bats thrash violently when confined. Never place these animals in sacks, as even there they can suffer considerable injury (Constantine, 1986b). Red bats also may be transported in containers used for "flighty" species as described below.

Figure 15. When transporting red bats (L. borealis) short distances, or caging them temporarily in styrofoam containers, either wedge a branch inside the container as shown here or affix mesh to the container top. Red bats must hang freely to prevent them from soiling themselves with their own excrement (illustration from Barnard, 1992).

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org For short-distance transport of large tree-dwelling bats (e.g., many flying foxes), the carrier design shown in FIGURE 16 works well. It has been used to transported Bat Conservation International's (Austin, TX) flying foxes for approximately 15 or more years, and I have used this design to transport flying foxes for over 6 years.

Figure 16. Container used to transport flying foxes locally, or as airlines' carry-on luggage. This container is NOT suitable for holding a flying fox for more than approximately 8 hours. When transporting foxes on overnight trips, see FIGURE 21 for temporary caging. A) box constructed of wood veneer for lightness; B) one of two doors open showing mesh-lined top - the two wide sides also should be lined with mesh; C) box showing latching device which can be padlocked to prevent accidental escapes. (Figure 16B and C: transport container photographed from model provided by Bat Conservation International, Austin, TX).

The transport carrier design shown in FIGURE 17 is similar to the ones used to ship 12 Malayan flying foxes (Pteropus vampyrus), 42 Island flying foxes (P. hypomelanus) and 12 Malaysian short-nosed fruit bats (Cynopterus brachyotis) from Indonesia to Gainesville, Florida. This design proved so successful that all of the bats survived. This design incorporates the isolation concept used by many researchers, but at the same time permits bats to have close contact with roost mates (FIG. 17b. Other features of this carrier include a sloping side with a smooth surface (FIG. 17c) to prevent bats from hanging over and contaminating their food, and a raised mesh floor (FIG. 17d) to protect bats from direct contact with contaminated or moist bedding.

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Figure 17. Shipping container suitable for species other than crevice-dwellers. This design meets the approval of all regulatory agencies governing animal transport. For construction plans, either write to me or to Dale L. Anderson, Publisher, Handbook of Live Animal Transport, P.O. Box 441110, Fort Washington, MD, USA 20749-0653. A) Exterior box made of lightweight wood; B) two interior, mesh units which can house from one to many bats, depending on size; C) food drawer allows personnel to change water/food enroute, and the sloping, smooth door prevents bats from hanging over the food/water tray when the drawer is closed; D) mesh flooring prevents bats from making contact with soiled bedding, while at the same time allows excrement and fluids to pass through.

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"Flighty" Bats Many bats (e.g., Pteronotus, Carollia, Macroderma) take flight quickly, and can evade capture easily. Such evasive maneuvering in captivity has caused injuries and deaths. For short-distance transport, these bats may be placed in a polyethylene mesh cage (which must be constructed) within a styrofoam cooler. If an appropriately sized styrofoam cooler is unavailable, a lightweight wood box can be constructed. Containers used to transport flightly bats should be just large enough to allow the animal to extend its wings fully.

Although many workers isolate flighty bats for shipping, others prefer to group them together. Vampire and short-tailed fruit bats have been shipped successfully in modified pet carriers (FIG. 18). This type of carrier works well for bats that naturally hang from horizontal surfaces.

Figure 18. When lined with mesh, pet carriers make excellent shipping containers for bats. With a separate mesh cage placed inside the pet carrier, such a container meets the approval of all regulatory agencies governing animal transport. A) assembled; B) disassembled showing mesh lining - use Goop™ to adhere mesh to carrier.

The carrier design (FIG. 17) used to ship the flying foxes from Indonesia to Florida also was used to ship 30 vampire bats from Atlanta, Georgia to Yokohama, Japan. As with the flying foxes, all of the vampire bats survived the trip. Construction plans and further information concerning this design can be found in the Handbook of Live Animal Transport, Supplement #30, (P.O. Box 441110, Fort Washington, MD, USA 20749-0653).

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org TEMPORARY HOLDING Rehabilitators should house each arrival in separate housing to control disease, parasites, injuries from fighting (especially among males), stress, and competition for food. Large styrofoam coolers can be modified to house temporarily a wide variety of small bats (e.g., up to 80 g). They should not be used to house bats for extended periods (i.e., for more than a couple of weeks). Bats that must be held for extended periods should be transferred to a permanent cage designed for the particular species (see Chapter 5, ENVIRONMENT AND HOUSING FOR ADULT BATS).

For housing temporarily crevice-dwelling bats, place a clean pillowcase or T-shirt (without frayed edges) in one corner of a styrofoam cooler to serve as a perch (FIG. 19). Red bats require drapes fixed to the cooler sides (FIG. 20) with Velcro®, NOT tape. Also place a sturdy branch in the container, as shown in FIGURE 15, to serve as a perch. Lining a cooler with polyethylene mesh, as was done with the airlines kennel shown in FIGURE 18, is an excellent alternative to drapes.

Figure 19. T-shirts, pillowcases, or similar items make ideal perches for crevice-dwelling bats. Be sure to Figure 20. Red bats (Lasiurus borealis) require caging with soft sides. This is easily leave enough space for food and water containers (from Barnard, 1992). achieved by attaching soft drapery to the interior sides with Velcro®, NOT tape.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org A cage to hold temporarily flying foxes (family Pteropodidae) can be constructed with fiberglass mesh and PVC pipe as shown in FIGURE 21. This design is also suitable for housing red bats (L. borealis) for short periods. This design can be made as a portable unit, making it especially useful when having to house flying foxes in hotel rooms, or similar facilities. For construction of the three-way joints, see Chapter 5, FIGURE 36.

Figure 21. Portable cage constructed of fiberglass mesh and PVC pipe (photographed from model provided by Bat Conservation International, Austin, TX).

Flighty bats MUST be housed in mesh-lined containers. Mesh-lined styrofoam coolers work well for small species. To prevent escapes while cleaning and feeding, fit the cooler with a sleeve. This is achieved by cutting a hole in the cooler side large enough to pass a hand through. Tape a shirt sleeve around the hole, and tie off the other end with a rubberband. Use of a sleeve also works well with small mesh caging. Flighty bats should be transferred to the universal cage, described in Chapter 5, when holding them for extended periods.

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ENVIRONMENT AND HOUSING FOR ADULT BATS

LIGHTING Whether a bat roosts under intense natural light or deep within the recess of a cave, light plays a significant role in many aspects of its life cycle (i.e., circadian rhythms). Light quality and photoperiods have been connected with the reproductive biology in a variety of animals (Farner and Lewis, 1971; Sadleir, 1969; Wurtman and Weisel, 1969; van Tienhoven, 1961; 1968), and temperate-zone species may be reproductively compromised without regulated photoperiods. Photoperiods are best provided by placing cages in rooms with natural sunlight. Light intensities and photoperiods can also be controlled with full-spectrum, fluorescent lights set on timers. Full-spectrum lighting (many brands available) is especially important when maintaining tree-dwelling bats such as lasiurines and most pteropodids. These animals roost naturally in sunlight, and may require ultraviolet wavelengths for vitamin D production. Nevertheless, all captive bats should be given the option of avoiding light during the daylight hours by providing them with appropriately designed roosts (discussed further under CAGING below).

Because bats are nocturnal, zoos often exhibit them on a regime of reversed light cycles. This allows the public to view the animals during their active period. For this purpose, a combination of blue and red bulbs works well to simulate moonlight. When maintaining bats under natural light/dark cycles, it is best to set timers so lights come on an hour after sunup and go off an hour before sundown. In this way, the change in lighting is gradual. When housing bats in rooms without windows, consider installing a dimmer switch or rheostat to effect gradual light changes. Bats must never be maintained in an evironment of constant light or dark.

TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY Depending on the species and time of year, ambient temperatures and relative humidities for temperate-zone bats should be: winter - 72-74F (22-23C), 50-65%; and, summer - 78-82F (25-28C), 50-80%. Tropical bats should be maintained all year at temperatures ranging between 78F and 82F (25C and 28C), with a relative humidity of 55-90%. Use the low end of the temperature range during the animals' active periods.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org To provide bats with appropriate temperatures and humidities, it may be necessary to house them in a separate room with a space heater and humidifier (fine mist humidifiers are best). This is particularly true when housing tropical species in the northern hemisphere. Additionally, bats should be maintained in cages that provide them with a temperature gradient so they may seek out their thermal preference. This is the temperature an animal selects voluntarily when a range of temperatures is available and, unless temperate-zone species are being hibernated artificially, they must always be given voluntary access to it. Cool retreats must also be provided. Never expose bats to drafts.

During the evening hours, red-colored lightbulbs can be employed to provide bats with a choice of temperatures. For example, a 250-W lamp can be mounted at one end of a flight cage (FIG. 22), and a 25-W lamp can be mounted on small cages (FIG. 23). Keep all heating devices on the cage exterior to prevent accidental burns. Because of the differences in ambient temperature and humidity requirements for tropical and temperate-zone species, avoid housing them in the same room.

Figure 22. To provide bats in flight cages with a choice of temperatures, place a 250-W Figure 23. A 25-W lamp with a red-bulb can serve as an added heat source for small cages (photo lamp, with a red bulb, overhead. courtesy of the Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, KS).

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org CAGING Bats should never be housed in cages with ceilings so low that their heads are on or near the floor when roosting. Carpenter (1986) reported problems with flying foxes maintained in short cages. Their ears became covered with food and excrement which led to tissue necrosis.

The best cage substrate for all species is newspaper; however, paper with colored inks should be avoided as it may be toxic. Fruit bats and vampire bats produce soft, sticky feces, and products like sawdust, wood shavings, dried clay chips or corncob can adhere to wings and bodies if the bats crawl on the cage floor. Therefore, such products should be avoided. Insectivorous bats produce dry pellets, but they either catch their food in flight or glean insects from various substrates. To prevent them from accidently ingesting foreign particles, their feeding area should also be free of litter. Generally speaking, newspaper is the best substrate for indoor housing, and grass is ideal in outdoor enclosures.

Crevice-dwelling Bats Longterm captive crevice-dwelling bats do not have to be housed in cages that allow sustained flight. Furthermore, if they have adequate room to exercise, and to stretch their wings without hitting the cage walls, they do not require flight time outside of their cages. In July, 1986, I placed approximately 30 big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) in an outdoor flight cage (FIG. 10) which contains two roost boxes measuring 2 X 2 X 2 ft. (61 X 61 X 61 cm) (FIG. 10, 11). During the first winter, many did not leave the roost boxes to feed during warm spells. After some died, I placed Petri dishes containing mealworms inside the roost boxes rather than in the flight-area feeding stations. After the second winter of being fed in the roost boxes, all of the bats confined themselves to the boxes permanently. Since then, they have not left the boxes even to visit back and forth between the two roosts.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org In the northern hemisphere, it is expensive to maintain hibernating bats outdoors. Roosts must be equipped with heating and cooling devices attached to thermostats to prevent the animals from freezing during winter and overheating during summer. It is therefore advisable to house these animals indoors. Cages should have solid walls constructed of wood (e.g., 3/4-in. plywood) with horizontally grooved sides (FIG. 24). The wood surfaces help bats to maintain short toenails, and the sides must be grooved because bats cannot traverse smooth surfaces. The grooves should be from 1/4 in. (0.6 cm) to 1/2 in. (1.3 cm) apart, but never farther apart than 1/2 in.

Figure 24. Because bats cannot climb on smooth surfaces, the sides of their cages must be grooved; also, wood cages prevent overgrowth of bats' toenails.

Depending on the species, for each bat I recommend a cage size of approximately 3 ft. (91 cm) high by 1Ѕ to 2 ft. (46 to 61 cm) wide by 1Ѕ to 2 ft. (46 to 61 cm) deep. Cages should open in the front with 1/4-in. polyethylene plastic mesh (FIG. 25a) attached to the door frame. Avoid the use of wire mesh, which is corroded by urine.

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Figure 25. "Universal Cages (Figure 28) can be constructed with mesh of appropriate size for the species (available from Internet, Inc.)

Mesh size is important: mesh smaller than 1/4 in. cannot be cleaned properly; mesh larger than 1/4 in. may permit a bat to escape or become wedged and injured. Cover all sharp edges to prevent wing damage. Also, to prevent bats from suddenly flying out of their cages when doors are opened, cages can be constructed with two doors (FIG. 26). To secure doors, window-sash locks are best. The cage interior should be sealed with a medium [battleship] gray, semi- gloss, water-based wood finish.

Figure 26. The "hard-sided" cage is ideal for a variety of genera including Eptesicus, Lasionycteris, Molossus, Nycticeius, Myotis, Pipistrellus, and Tadarida (photo courtesy of the Staten Island Zoo).

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org To provide crevice-dwelling bats with a place in which to hide, tilt a piece of cork bark in one corner of the cage (FIG. 27). Do not confuse cork bark with cork board; they are totally different products. Purchase a piece of bark that is nearly as long as the cage is high, or at least 2 or more feet (61+ cm) by approximately 10 to 12 in. (25 to 30 cm) wide. When cork bark cannot be obtained immediately, use lightweight, split firewood (hard, non-resinous wood only) or some other rough material, but remove splinters that can tear wing membranes. It is best to place the rough surface toward the cage wall. In this way the bat has a favorable perching site (e.g., a simulated crevice with an appropriate surface). When using bark stripped from a tree or log, rinse it with scalding hot water to kill any resident arthropods. Allow the bark to dry thoroughly before placing it in a bat's cage. To provide additional hiding places, drape a pillow case, laundry bag or T-shirt over the bark (FIG. 27). Even more hiding places can be created by hanging one or two pillowcases from the top of the cage (FIG. 27).

Figure 27. The types, and placement, of cage "furniture" is important in reducing environmental stress. The placement suggested here provides a wide variety of roosts. To prevent injuries to bats, attach pillowcases to the cage with Velcro®, NOT tape or other potentially dangerous items.

Lollar (1994) described the use and fabrication of "roosting caves" she designed for captive Mexican free-tailed bats, Tadarida braziliensis. Pillowcases and "roosting caves" can be fastened easily with Velcro®. Do NOT use tape, hooks or other potentially injurious items to secure roosts. Also, do not use pillowcases with frayed edges, or materials that can snag claws.

Hard-sided cages should be free of branches and twigs, which may injure bats when they stretch their wings. Cages should remain empty with the exception of the types of "furniture" described above: such items protect bats from bright lights and the noise of human activities. Be sure "furniture" is secured to prevent injuries. Injuries also occur when bats roost near the doorjambs of their cages. They become caught between the jamb and the door when the door is closed.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org The universal cage (FIG. 28) described below for tree-dwelling and flighty species is also suitable as a flight cage for crevice- dwelling bats. These bats, however, require a roost box with narrowly spaced compartments [e.g., ѕ-1Ѕ in. (2-4 cm) apart, depending on species].

Figure 28. Illustration of an off-display ["universal"] cage suitable for housing a variety of species. A) cage with interior drape to prevent bats from escaping when the door is opened; B) roost box.

SUGGESTED MINIMUM DIMENSIONS

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Tree-dwelling and "Flighty" Bats Species that normally hang from horizontal surfaces, or vegetation, cannot tolerate the type of confinement required by crevice- dwellers. Although cages for these animals do not have to be enormous, they must be large enough to allow the bats space to flap their wings (static flying), and to get airborne when flipping from one side of the cage to the other. For example, flying foxes kept in cages too small for static flight may lose their ability to fly, or even to extend their wings (Carpenter, 1986). The universal cage design depicted in FIGURE 28 has worked well for a variety of species, including Waterhouse's leaf-nosed bats (Macrotus waterhousii), short-tailed fruit bats (Carollia perspicillata), flying foxes (pteropodids), and all bats in the genus Lasiurus.

This cage design is suitable for bats ranging in size from less than an ounce (e.g., Carollia perspicillata) to about 2 lbs. (e.g., Pteropus vampyrus); albeit, the overall dimensions, mesh size, and roost-box design must vary to accommodate the particular species. Also, some bats (e.g., Carollia spp.) escape when the door is opened. The problem is solved easily by hanging an interior drape across the doorway (FIG. 28).

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Depending on its size, this design is functional with or without legs, and it may also be constructed as a walk-in cage (FIG. 29). Frame small cages with 1- by 2-in. stock and large cages with 2- by 4-in. stock. The best type of mesh for siding indoor cages is polyethylene (FIG. 25). This product does not corrode and is easy to clean. Because fruit bats are messy feeders, it is advisable to cover the cage sides with [clear] plastic. Do not, however, cover the top. It is important to allow rising heat to escape from the cage to avoid overheating the occupants.

Figure 29. Walk-in universal cage. The frame is 2x4-in. stock (pine). The floor is 3/4-in. plywood which was later tiled for hygienic reasons. Newspaper is placed over the tile floor, and it is changed daily. The mesh-size choice is 1 inch for large flying foxes (Pteropus giganteus). Polyethylene mesh has been selected over wire mesh because it does not corrode from contact with urine, and it is much easier to clean off fruit pulp which has been spat out by the bats.

Construct a roost box (FIG. 28b) of wood, tack polyethylene mesh tightly to the roof, and groove the sides to provide bats with a relatively irregular surface on which to climb. In addition to variations in cage and mesh sizes, the sizes of the roosting box compartments must also change with the type of bat resident. For example, species that may be expected to fly, not crawl, into the box require adequate space for this behavior.

Coat all wood surfaces with a non-toxic, waterproof substance. It is best to use water-based wood finishes because they do not emit strong odors as do the oil-based finishes. Regardless of the type of finish used, bats should not be placed in a cage until it has cured completely. Water-based paints cure in approximately two or three days. Although the use of non-toxic, oil-based paints are acceptable, they require one month or more to cure.

An alternative roost to a wooden box for flighty species was designed by Willard Wilson (in litt.) for mustached bats (Pteronotus sp.). This species roosts naturally in ceiling domes of limestone caves, and a similar roost can be constructed for them 40

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org in captivity, to insure their toenails do not overgrow. This structure (FIG. 30) can also be constructed in the top of most cages or exhibits as follows:

Figure 30. Construction of an artificial ceiling dome. Views A thru D depict the undersides: A) cut an appropriate-sized hole or holes in a section of 3/4-in. plywood and mount the plywood in the cage ceiling; B) form a dome or domes with 1/4-in. hardware cloth or lath, and C) attach the mesh over the entire plywood surface; D) apply plaster mortar on the wire mesh and, before the mortar dries, embed small-sized aquarium gravel or size 1a limestone particles; E and F) depict the top view of the ceiling dome (photos courtesy of Willard Wilson, Rochester, NY).

Cut an appropriately sized hole in a 3/4-in. section of plywood (FIG 30a), and attach the plywood to one end of the cage. Fabricate a dome from 1/4-in. hardware cloth or lath (FIGS. 30b, 30e). Apply plaster of Paris to the wire-mesh foundation, and before the mortar dries, embed small aquarium gravel or size 1a limestone particles in the surface (FIG. 30d). Allow the mortar to dry thoroughly, and then seal the surface with two coats of water-based, polyurethane finish.

When housing multiple males with females, unnecessary injuries and deaths can be avoided if several roost boxes or domes, or a combination thereof, are placed in the cage, and spaced as far apart as possible. 41

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org An all-mesh cage for tree-dwelling and flighty species maximizes the cage surface for climbing and landing, and the mesh ceiling allows bats to hang on a horizontal surface which is necessary to prevent them from soiling themselves with urine and feces.

Lasiurines may or may not enter roost boxes. They prefer to roost among leaves (FIG. 31). Attach vines or branches at the top of their cages (FIG. 32). Silk leafy vines can be entwined with natural branches to give them a proper surface for preventing overgrown toenails. When using natural products, however, rinse and shake them dry before placing them in a bat's cage.

Figure 31. Red bats (Lasiurus borealis) roost naturally in trees. Silk leaves, as shown here, work well as cage "furniture." Red bats are a solitary species; however, if a cage is large enough, leaves can provide visual barriers, allowing more than one bat [of the same sex] to occupy a cage (photo courtesy of Amanda Lollar, Minerals Wells, TX).

Figure 32. A) the proper placement of leaves in a "soft-sided" cage; B) leaves can be attached to the PVC pipe frame by drilling holes in it - NEVER attach leaves with tape (photos courtesy of Amanda Lollar, Mineral Wells, TX).

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Some bats, such as the red bat (Lasiurus borealis), have skin that is easily injured (discussed in Chapter 4). These "delicate" bats may be housed in a small, soft-sided cage (FIG. 33) constructed from any soft, sheer fabric (e.g., 100% polyester or nylon; FIG. 34). Avoid fabrics that block light when housing tree-dwelling species. In contrast, soft fabrics (e.g., Percale® cotton) that provide low light levels are appropriate for species that roost in mines, caves or buildings (e.g., Macrotus spp.). For multi-species use, a sheer fabric can be used, and strategic areas of the cage can be covered with a heavier fabric to satisfy the light preferences of the particular species. This, however, does not mean that multiple species should be housed simultaneously in one cage. (Click Figure 33 for larger view)

Figure 33. Instructions for fabricating a soft-sided cage cover (illustration courtesy of Kathleen O. Muller, Carlsbad, CA).

Figure 34. Because red bats (Lasiurus borealis) live in trees in sunlight, a soft-sided cage should be made with sheer material to allow light to filter into it; place such a cage under full- spectrum lighting. A) door zipped closed; B) door unzipped and pinned open. To prevent a bat from escaping when the door is unzipped, assemble the cage with the zippers closing at the lower right or left corners (see Figure 35).

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org For one bat, I recommend a minimum cage size of 24 in. (61 cm) high by 30 in. (76 cm) wide by 18 in. (46 cm) deep. Fabricate a door with two zippers, one running perpendicular to the cage floor and the other parallel. The zipper tabs should meet at either the LOWER right or left corners (FIG. 35). When using newly purchased fabrics for the construction of bat cages, wash out the sizing but do not launder them Figure 35. Illustration showing the tabs of the perpendicular & horizontal zippers meeting at the in aromatic products such as fabric softeners. lower right corner of the cage. Cut 1/2-in. PVC pipe (FIG. 36) to support the completed cage cover. Cut the pipe so that the cover does not fit too tightly. On the other hand, if the fabric fits too loosely, the bat may not find it suitable for roosting. The pipe frame is easily assembled inside the cover through the zipper door. The "three-ways" (FIG. 37) needed to connect the corners of the frame are not available commercially and must be hand crafted. Fabricate two cages simultaneously so that one can be laundered while the other is in use.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org * Cut No. 102 in half with a hacksaw. * With epoxy ribbon (No. 103), adhere on of the cut sections of No. 102 on No. 101 (at the area of the dotted lines). * Assemble against a right angle (e.g., where a table meets a wall).

Figure 36. Instructions for constructing a three-way joint assembly for PVC-pipe frames.

Figure 37. A) illustration of the PVC-pipe frame used to support a soft-sided cage; B) list of materials used in the frame construction (illustration courtesy of Kathleen O. Muller, Carlsbad, CA).

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org The purpose of the soft-sided cage would be defeated without an appropriate substrate. Cover the cage bottom with sheepskin (FIG. 38). Unlike the natural product, synthetic sheepskin is relatively inexpensive, and enough should be purchased so that one piece can be in use while another piece is being laundered. Use only those with cotton or cotton-like backs to prevent bats from snagging their claws.

Figure 38. Sheepskin placed on soft-sided cage floors reduces the chance of injuries to delicate bat species such as red bats (Lasiurus borealis). This material should also be used as a substrate when housing injured, crevice-dwelling species in hard-sided cages.

These cages are not trouble-free. If the cage covers are not changed regularly, urine will rot the fabric. Also, bats housed in these cages may require routine pedicures if they refuse to hang on the branches. Anyone who is unsure about caring for a bat's feet should consult someone expert in foot care of birds or dogs.

Vampire Bats Although common vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus) may be housed in the universal cage shown in FIGURE 28, the single most important point to keep in mind, with the exception of cage-carrying capacity, is ease of maintenance. Laboratory researchers have housed vampire bats in a variety of cage styles (Dickson and Green, 1970; Schmidt and Greenhall, 1972; Wimsatt and Guerriere, 1961; Wimsatt et al., 1973). The cage-module design in which I housed vampire bats is shown in FIGURE 39. Each module measures approximately 3 ft. (91 cm) high by 3 ft. (91 cm) wide by 2 ft. (61 cm) deep, with a shift/roost box measuring 8 X 8 X 8 in. (20 cm). The shift/roost box serves a twofold purpose: it minimizes the need to handle vampire bats and, when lined with plaster of Paris as discussed above, also provides an abrasive surface necessary for healthy feet. Provide one module per 15-20 vampire bats.

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Figure 39. A) vampire bat module with roost/shift box; B) detachable roost box can be cleaned easily, and it can be used to shift animals to another module or shipping crate; C) when lined with mortar, the roost box prevents overgrown toenails.

The vampire bat modules should open in the front with 1/4-in. polyethylene plastic mesh (FIG. 25) attached to the door frame. Plastic mesh should also be attached with Velcro® to laminated-plastic (e.g., Formica®) cage walls. As previously mentioned, it is preferable to use plastic mesh instead of hardware cloth because it does not corrode and is easier to clean. The only glue I have found suitable for adhering plastic mesh to laminated plastic is a product called Goop™ (FIG. 40). For a cage with the dimensions listed above, the frame can be constructed with 1-in. by 2-in. stock.

Figure 40. Plumbers Goop™ is satisfactory for attaching Velcro® to both laminated plastic surfaces & polyethylene plastic mesh, products used in the construction of vampire bat cage modules.

When housed properly, a colony of Desmodus breeds prolifically, and a cage can become overcrowded quickly. At the first sign of injury to females or juveniles, suspect overcrowding. As each module reaches capacity, add another. As shown in FIGURE 41, a

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org total of 4 modules can be attached together. The square configuration provides a circular flow of traffic, allowing subdominant animals to return to their own roost without becoming trapped and injured by dominant bats: avoid attaching modules together in a straight line, as such a configuration can lead to fatalities.

Figure 41. As a vampire bat colony grows in size, it can be kept intact by joining cage modules together with 4-in. PVC pipe. Up to 4 modules can be attached when using a square configuration. With the exception of the first two modules, NEVER attach them in a straight line because such a configuration can lead to fatalities. The square configuration provides a circular flow of traffic, allowing subdominant animals to return to their own roosts without becoming trapped and injured by dominant bats. Any one or all of the modules can be closed off by reaching inside the cage and screwing on the pipe cap(s). While workers perform this task, the bats will usually stay in their roosts.

Chapter Six

ENVIRONMENT AND HOUSING FOR INFANT BATS

LIGHTING The basic principles of lighting, as described in Chapter 5, also apply to infants. Whether baby bats are handraised at home or in a windowless office, they should be exposed to the same photoperiod as the person doing the handraising.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY Most pups should be maintained at temperatures between 80 and 85F (27 and 29C), and at relative humidities of 55 to 80%. Many zoos place baby bats in incubators; most however, die of dehydration when housed in these devices. Temperature and humidity levels appropriate for newborns are best maintained by placing them in a small cloth sack (or cloth "roosting cave" as described by Lollar, 1994), which is then pinned to a T-shirt worn by the surrogate parent; a second T-shirt may be worn over the first when temperatures are cool [e.g., below 80F (27C)]. Flying foxes should be wrapped in a cotton cloth (FIG. 42), such as a diaper, before being placed in a sack. To prevent a pup from escaping, sacks must be secured at the opening. Although this method is easy and extremely successful, the major problem is the potential for crushing a pup. For this reason, the pup must be transferred to a nursery container (described below under CAGING) during the night.

WRAPPING INSTRUCTIONS Fold a cloth diaper, or other appropriate material, to form a triangle. Center a piece of folded tissue so that it will fit easily between a flying fox pup's legs. Place the pup on the folded diaper and tissue as shown by the dotted lines in Step 1. Fold one corner of the diaper around the pup's body. Place the pup's feet in such a way that it can grip the diaper and, A) tuck the tissue between the pup's legs and underneath the diaper while, B) folding the bottom corner of the diaper to cover the pup's feet (Steps 2 and 3) Fold the remaining corner around the pup's body firmly (Step 3). Be sure to cover the back of the head as shown in Step 4. Place the wrapped pup, head down, in an appropriate carrier or incubator.

Figure 42. Procedure for wrapping flying fox pups (after George, 1990).

Heating pads work best for maintaining warmth in nursery containers. When handrearing pups of large flying fox species, place the heating pad inside the nursery container. The heating pad must be well insulated, and at a setting that will achieve the required temperature. Always monitor pads closely as they can malfunction, resulting in fatal burns.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Pups of small bat species can be kept warm by placing the nursery container (e.g., small styrofoam cooler) with the pup in a larger cooler with the heating pad wedged between the walls of the two coolers (FIG. 43). The insulating properties of the two coolers also protect the pup against rapid temperature changes when the heating pad has to be unplugged for short periods. If the two-cooler system is not used, then a heating pad can be placed between the nursery cooler containing the bat and a wall. Do not place a heating pad directly inside a small cooler because even at the lowest setting, the pad generates enough heat to produce hyperthermia in the pup.

Figure 43. To prevent overheating a pup with a heating pad, place the small cooler (a) containing the animal in a larger cooler (b). Wedge the heating pad between the two coolers as shown by the arrows above. If the two-cooler system is not used, then place the heating pad between a wall and the cooler containing the bat (illustration from Barnard, 1992).

Place nursery containers with pups in a room small enough that humidity can be regulated with a fine-mist humidifier (e.g., DuroTest®). Be sure to follow the manufacturer's instructions on the proper care of the humidifier.

CAGING Styrofoam coolers generally work best for handraising bat pups. They are readily obtained, inexpensive, come in a variety of sizes, provide excellent insulation against temperature fluctuations and drafts, are lightweight, and can be modified easily for a variety of species. However, I have had adverse reactions from contact with colored styrofoam coolers. Such adverse reactions may also occur to bats when housed in them; therefore, use only white ones.

Coolers can be ventilated by punching holes in them (from the inside to the outside) with a hot nail, ice pick, pencil or similar instrument. Holes should be placed about 3 or 4 in. (8 to 10 cm) from the top and around the entire container in one or two rows. Make the holes small enough to prevent a pup from escaping. Always keep the top of the styrofoam cooler taped securely when a bat is in it. A pup's claws are sharp enough to enable it to climb on the sides of the cooler, and as it grows it gains the strength necessary to push the top open.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org For proper growth, juveniles require room to exercise. Juveniles of crevice-dwelling species can be transferred to large styrofoam coolers temporarily while they are learning to self-feed, but it is preferable to place them in the cages typically used for housing crevice-dwelling adults (see Chapter 5). Small flighty species may be weaned in large styrofoam coolers that have been modified with a sleeve (FIG. 44). Flying fox juveniles require an intermediate step while they are learning to feed themselves. For example, cockatoo-sized bird cages are excellent for this purpose (Williams and George, 1984). Any weaned juvenile scheduled for release (see Chapter 2) MUST be housed in caging that permits sustained flight. Figure 44. Pups of "flighty" species can be weaned in large coolers modified with a hole and shirt-sleeve cover. In this way, the cage can be cleaned and bats handled with a minimal risk of escape. Click image for full view.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org BEHAVIORAL CONSIDERATIONS

Some newborn pups (e.g., those in the genera Desmodus, Eptesicus, Lasionycteris, Molossus, Nycticeius, Myotis, Tadarida) prefer relatively "tight" places in which to roost; therefore, place one or two pillowcases or T-shirts (without frayed edges) inside the nursery container. Some pups, such as those in the genera Artibeus, Carollia and Lasiurus, must have at least one small tree branch mounted in the cooler (FIG. 45). Still others (e.g., Pipistrellus spp., Macrotus spp.) prefer to roost on the vertical surfaces of their nursery containers, in the open areas, and therefore it is not necessary to place "furniture" in coolers housing them. Although newborn flying fox

Figure 45. Pups of species that roost naturally on horizontal surfaces require a branch on which to roost (or mesh-lined container top) to prevent them from soiling themselves with their own excrement. pups should be wrapped in a diaper or other appropriate item (FIG. 42) before placing them in a nursery container, this is unnecessary after they reach 3 weeks of age. At that time they should be transferred to a larger container, such as a mesh-lined pet carrier (FIG. 18) or wire cage. This is the age where they begin wing flapping. Pups at this age still require a security cloth, hung inside the carrier, to provide them a place in which to sleep (Williams and George, 1984). When rearing more than one pup at a time, separate them if they begin sucking and/or urinating on each other. Most species should remain solitary until they are about three weeks of age, or until they are weaned (see Chapter 8, TABLE 9). Vampire bats and flying foxes should remain solitary until they are about 12 weeks old, or until they self-feed.

REINTRODUCTION Captive-born, handraised bats, such as those in zoos, may be returned to the captive colony under close supervision. Young (1987) gave an account of the reintegration of an orphaned Rodriques fruit bat (Pteropus rodricensis). Occasionally, a colonial bat (e.g., Eptesicus fuscus), may not adapt to living with others after being human-reared. These bats may be less stressed if housed alone. Such bats are excellent resources for educational programs. It is best that solitary-dwelling species not be placed with companions.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Rehabilitators who are raising wild orphans, other than fruit bats, should not consider reintroducing them into WILD colonies unless the rehabilitator is involved in legitimate release studies (see Chapter 2, ASPECTS OF REHABILITATION AND CONSIDERATIONS FOR RELEASE). For appropriate procedures for releasing flying foxes, see George (1990). When a handraised flying fox cannot be reintroduced into its colony (captive or wild), it should be housed with at least one companion of its own species and same sex whenever possible. Such bats should also be provided "toys" with which to play. "Toys" may include draped towels, woven hanging baskets (FIG. 46; these also serve as holders for food and water bowls), and cardboard centers from paper towel and toilet paper rolls.

Figure 46. Behavioral stimulation is necessary for flying foxes, beginning at the time of weaning. A variety of items can be placed in their cages to satisfy their need for "play" including wicker baskets which also serve as holders for food and water bowls (photo courtesy of Sean Sanders, Montevallo, AL).

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Chapter Seven

FEEDING ADULT BATS

FEEDING NEWLY TRANSPORTED BATS

Insectivorous Species Bats from the wild or from captivity will be stressed from the trauma of transport and sudden changes in environment. On arrival at a new facility, bats should be isolated (quarantined) in a quiet area, and at the appropriate temperature and humidity ranges for the species. A bat scheduled for rehabilitation must be identified by genus and species as quickly as possible, and the animal's normal weight determined by researching the literature, in order to estimate the amount of food it will require. For information about native bat identification and approximate weights and sizes, refer to Barbour and Davis (1969), Burt and Grossenheider (1964) and Tuttle (1988).

Wild bats can be taught to feed themselves from a dish (FIG. 47) in a relatively short period of time. The speed at which different species achieve this skill differs. I can usually train big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) to eat mealworms from a dish in a few minutes. Hoary bats (Lasiurus cinereus), on the other hand, may take up to a week or more; consequently, the methods vary slightly as follows: Figure 47. Insectivorous bats should be fed and watered in shallow, accessible containers such as Petri dishes or culture dishes. Glass dishes are preferable to plastic because mealworms can climb out of plastic ones when the plastic dishes become scratched (photo courtesy of C.J. Marris, Atlanta, GA).

1) Big brown bats - set a Petri dish containing an evening's ration of food on a table or other surface. With the bat resting in a cloth with its head exposed, offer it a decapitated mealworm from the end of a pair of forceps (FIG. 48) as it bares its teeth. Not all wild bats display this defensive behavior, and it may become necessary to smear the larva's viscera over the animal's lips. Allow the bat to consume the mealworm, then rapidly place the next one in its mouth with the head intact. As the bat is eating it, place the

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org animal's head in close proximity to the larvae in the dish (FIG. 49). While the bat scans the larvae, raise one of the worms slightly above the others and hold it there until the bat takes it. This step may have to be repeated once or twice more before the bat picks up one of the larvae on its own. While the bat remains preoccupied with the dish of larvae, set both into its cage with as little disturbance as possible.

Figure 48. The proper procedure for hand-feeding insects to bats (photo courtesy of Figure 49. The proper handling technique to teach bats to self-feed (photo courtesy of Gregory C. Greer, Marietta, GA). Wild Birds Unlimited, Inc., Colorado Springs, CO).

2) Hoary bats - if the big brown bat technique fails, I use a technique similar to that described by Nellis (1969): place the bat in a container such as an uncovered, 21-cup Rubbermaid® canister with the day's ration. It is likely that the bat will become so agitated by the larvae crawling over it, that it will snap at them and begin eating. I usually try to get the bat to accept decapitated worms during this time.

Regardless of the method used, or the degree of difficulty one has in training bats to eat, it is necessary to insure that the animal has a Petri dish of mealworms in its cage throughout its nightly active period. Wilson (1988) emphasized the importance of maintaining the same feeding routine during the training process. He wrote, "Everything should be done exactly the same way, with the same daily routine, so that bats become conditioned to meal time. Quiet surroundings with a minimum of disturbance will increase the chance of successful feeding."

Not all insectivorous bats will accept food from the flooring of cages. Racey (1987) reported that bats which hang free, such as horseshoe bats (rhinolophids) and Old World leaf-nosed bats (hipposiderids), will not descend to a dish on the cage floor. Some, however, will eat from elevated dishes. I use coop cups (FIG. 50) for this purpose.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Figure 50. Some bats (e.g. rhinolophids, hipposiderids, mormoopids) refuse to feed from the floor of their cage. This problem is solved by using coop cups, typically used to feed and water birds. Cups can be hooked on the mesh sides of bat cages and are available in a variety of sizes.

Never hand-feed a bat that is willing to eat on its own; further, any bat that eats from a dish will probably drink water from one. Until a bat does master self-feeding, offer it water from an eye-dropper or syringe.

Bats that self-feed often refuse food when shipped from one facility to another. This problem is easily overcome by holding it in a soft cloth over a dish of mealworms (FIG. 49). Slowly stroke the animal to assure it that you mean it no harm, and hand-feed it 2 or 3 mealworms. Carefully remove your hands from the cloth, close the cage door, and leave the animal alone to focus on the dish of mealworms. Repeat this procedure until the bat feeds on its own, usually within a day or two after arrival.

Frugivorous Species Rarely will fruit bats refuse to eat after being transferred from another facility, or even directly from the wild. They accept small chunks of fruit, especially of the varieties they are normally accustomed to eating. If there are no distractions in the area, they will cautiously approach food that has been left in their cage. Small species of wild fruit bats may feed from dishes (e.g., coop cups hooked over the cage mesh; FIG. 50) when confined to small cages during the initial acclimation. Small cages increase the encounters bats will have with their food. If it becomes necessary to hand-feed a small fruit bat, place liquified food from a blender in its mouth with an eyedropper or syringe for at least one night. Allow it an opportunity to feed on its own the next evening. If it does not, repeat the liquified diet procedure once again. Do not, however, routinely liquify diets for fruit bats. When possible, food and water should be presented to bats high off the floor. Place food on shelves (FIG. 51) or in baskets suspended from the cage top (FIG. 52).

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org

Figure 51. Instead of using coop cups (Figure 50) to feed bats that do not feed from cage flooring, food dishes Figure 52. Because their toilet habits can contaminate food with urine and feces, flying foxes should never be fed from can be placed on a shelf; for example, when a room is being converted to a flight area for species such as the floors of cages. Instead, hang woven baskets (A) to the cage top. The baskets serve as holders for food and water rhinolophids, hipposiderids and mormoopids (photo courtesy of Willard Wilson, Rochester NY.) bowls (B and C), and they provide the bats with hours of play as they swing on them.

Sanguivorous Species Feeding problems have not been reported in common vampire bats, Desmodus rotundus. They accept food readily from Petri dishes or ice cube trays. Feed them late in the day or early evening.

ROUTINE FEEDING OF INSECTIVOROUS BATS Insectivorous bats eat a variety of insects from night to night and season to season. Nevertheless, over the longterm, I have maintained successfully a wide variety of insectivorous bat species in captivity on an exclusive diet of fortified mealworms (Tenebrio molitor). This is achieved by maintaining the mealworms in an enriched medium (see MAINTENANCE OF INSECT COLONIES, Chapter 14), and by supplementing the bats' drinking water with appropriate vitamins and minerals (TABLE 2).

Table 2

VITAMIN/MINERAL MIXTURE FOR DRINKING WATER

MIX FRESH DAILY

Tap or distilled water ...... 25 ml Avitron® multivitamins (FIG. 57) ...... 1 drop (0.05 ml)

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Avimin® multiminerals (FIG. 58) ...... 2 drops (0.10 ml)

Fig. 57. Avitron® is an excellent multivitamin for supplementing bat Fig. 58. Avimin® MUST be used in combination with Avitron® to diets. Use in combination with Avimin®. supplement a bat's diet with minerals.

Ladisch et al. (1967) reported that mealworm beetles contain toxic quinones, and therefore should not be fed to bats. Additionally, these quinones are absorbed into the medium upon which the larvae feed and may be transferred to the bats when they eat them. The problem is solved easily by refrigerating the larvae, thereby arresting their development. This procedure is discussed further in Chapter 14.

The diet of insectivorous bats also can be varied during warm months by feeding them net-sweepings. Insects captured may include greenbottle and house flies, young grasshoppers, cicadas and June beetles. Also, moths and beetles can be attracted at night to a light. Many insects serve as intermediate hosts for parasites, making it necessary to perform fecal examinations on the bats about every 6 months. Also, wild-caught insects may contain residues of toxins used in weed and pest control. Sublethal levels of toxic residues may be ingested by the insects and concentrate in a bat's tissues. Finally, do not allow cockroaches, ants, or other undesirable pests to gain access to a bat's enclosure. I know of several instances in which bats died after ants gained access to caging.

Insectivorous bats are predators, not carrion-feeders. Frozen mealworms and other insects have not proven satisfactory foods (Wilson, 1988; pers. obs.). If a bat does not eat the defrosted mealworms soon after being placed in its cage, the decaying insects not only emit a foul order, but may lose essential nutrients.

Captive insectivorous bats have been fed a variety of artificial diets known as "bat glop". These are essentially mixtures of equal parts of a dairy product (such as cottage cheese or sour cream), egg yolk, banana and meat, such as strained baby beef, or canned dog or cat food. This diet effectively relieves the handler from the inconvenience and expense of purchasing or maintaining insect colonies. Unfortunately, such diets fed over long periods can cause hair loss, gastrointestinal disorders, and may ultimately result in death (Barnard, 1991; Constantine, 1986b; Wilson, 1988). 58

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org There is no definite rule as to the number of insects a bat should consume nightly. Variables include the size of the insects as well as the size of the bat, time of year, ambient temperature and the amount of nightly activity a bat receives. It is normal for temperate- zone species to increase in weight during the fall and winter in preparation for hibernation, and to lose this excess weight in spring and summer. For example, in the months of March through August, a captive big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) must consume about 20 to 30 medium-sized insects nightly in order to maintain a weight of 17 to 20 grams. During the months of September through February, the number of insects consumed have to be reduced to approximately 4 to 10 to prevent obesity. I weigh all incoming bats. If the animal appears to be emaciated, the bat is allowed to gain 1 to 3 grams, depending on the species, and is held at that weight by increasing or decreasing the number of mealworms. Bats should be weighed every week to 10 days. A triple-beam balance (FIG. 53), subdivided by 1/10th grams, is best; however, a postal scale will do (28.35 g = 1 oz.). A bat may be weighed safely by placing it in a small, lightweight container or a sock. The weight of the container or sock is subtracted from the total weight to obtain the weight of the bat.

Figure 53. Triple-beam balances work well for weighing bats. Because insectivorous bats can fluctuate drastically in weight, they should be weighed weekly.

Use shallow containers to feed and water insectivorous bats, Petri dishes (FIG. 54a) are excellent for this purpose. I use glass 100 X 20 mm Petri dishes for mealworms, and for water, either plastic or glass 60 X 15 mm Petri dishes, or 1Ѕ-in. culture dishes (FIG 54b). Avoid using plastic Petri dishes for mealworms. These scratch easily, and they provide footholds for the mealworms to climb out. Figure 54. Glass Petri dishes (A) provide ideal containers for feeding insectivorous bats, and either small Petri or culture dishes (B), work well for water.

In addition to the vitamins and minerals used to fortify mealworms, bats require additional supplements in their water. Dosages of vitamins and minerals listed in TABLE 2 were calculated specifically for mixing with a bat's drinking water. To prevent overdosing bats on dietary supplements, neither inject the supplements into insects prior to feeding them to bats, nor place them directly into the bat's mouth.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Feed bats at dusk or as close to that time as possible, as this is their natural feeding period. The following morning, discard the water and uneaten mealworms, which are contaminated routinely with feces and urine.

Torpid bats have difficulty feeding and digesting insects they consume. It is well known among herpetologists that failure to provide reptiles with an appropriate thermal environment results in reduced feeding and limited growth. Given that temperate-zone chiropterans are heterothermic, it seems reasonable that the same principle would apply to these animals. For example, Stones (1965) reported that the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) required 3 times as much food at 75 F (24 C) as it did at a thermoneutral temperature of 91 F (33 C); however, I do not advise maintaining bats at such a high ambient temperature. For appropriate environmental parameters, see Chapter 5, ENVIRONMENT AND HOUSING FOR ADULT BATS.

Occasionally, insectivorous bats stop feeding for no apparent reason. This problem appears to be more prevalent in spring and fall than in the summer and winter months. If a bat has not eaten in two or three evenings, the problem may be reversed by injecting the animal once with lactated Ringer's solution (see TABLE 13 (Chapter 9) for dosages). Also hand-feed the animal 1 or 2 mealworms. A word of caution: avoid hand-feeding a bat routinely or it may not eat again on its own.

ROUTINE FEEDING OF FRUGIVOROUS AND NECTARIVOROUS BATS

Frugivorous Species Bats that eat fruit ingest primarily the juice and digestible portion of the pulp. They manipulate carefully the fruit to remove undigestible components such as fiber and seeds.

Frugivorous bats require the same nutrients for growth as do other animals: what is not known are the amounts. To meet their protein requirements, some fruit bats, such as the New World leaf-nosed bats (phyllostomatids), supplement their diet with insects. Because flying foxes lack echolocation abilities to catch insects to meet their protein requirement, depending on the species, they must eat enormous amounts of fruit (Horst and Skutt, 1994), consume pollen, or passively ingest insects along with fruit, blossoms and leaves. Captive fruit bats, unfortunately, are usually fed excessively high amounts of dietary protein which can result in renal disease.

Because bats are not known to synthesize vitamin C (Birney and Jenness, 1978; Jacobsen and du Plessis, 1976), it must be obtained from their diet. Fruits provide sufficient amounts of this nutrient; additional supplementation may cause renal oxalosis from ascorbic acid metabolism. Although citrus fruits provide high levels of vitamin C, they should not be fed to fruit bats because the 60

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org acid may cause (unspecified) mouth problems (Luckhoff, pers. comm.; George, 1990); probably for this reason, they are not partial to these fruits.

It is not known how fruit- and nectar-eating bats acquire vitamin B12 in nature, as plants do not contain this nutrient. It is possible that they obtain B12 from ingesting insects, either actively or passively, and/or from drinking stagnant water which contains B12-producing microfauna (Robbins et al., 1975; Tuttle, 1974).

In addition to proper nutrition, diets should be palatable and offer behavioral stimulation. In the United States, nearly all diets formulated for fruit bats contain commercially prepared dry foods such as primate diet. Although it is much more convenient to mix such products in fruit bat diets, they are not natural diet components, provide no psychological stimulation and are formulated specifically for omnivorous animals. The diet presented in TABLE 3 lacks such products, and has over a 7-year period, provided nutrition adequate to maintain healthy pregnant and lactating female giant Indian fruit bats (Pteropus giganteus), and to support the growth of their offspring. The diet also has been used successfully to feed short-tailed fruit bats (Carollia perspcillata), Jamaican fruit bats (Artibeus jamaicensis) and Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus).

Table 3

FRUIT BAT DIET

MIX FRESH DAILY (PER 1000 g OF DIET)

10-30 g dried fruits, 1 or 2 types (e.g., apricots, dates, figs, prunes, raisins, etc.) 1-2 ripe bananas, peeled 1/2-1 apple 2-3 other fruits (e.g., apricots, blueberries, canteloupes, cherimoyas, grapes, guanabanas*, guavas*, honeydew, kiwis, mangos*, nectarines, papayas*, peaches, pears, plums, star fruits, raspberries, scuppernongs, strawberries, tomatoes, etc.) 30-50 g chopped fresh leafy greens and herbs, 1 or 2 types, WITHOUT stalks (e.g., basil, cabbage, cilantro, collard, mint, mustard, parsley, spinach, turnip, watercress, etc.) 5-10 g edible flowers (when available) 1/8 tsp. vitamin/mineral powder** 1-1/2 tsp. protein supplement (rotate regularly): Pro Fuel™, LPP Regular™, non-fat, vitamin A&D fortified powdered milk, strained baby meat (e.g., beef or chicken), raw egg, pollen 1/2-1 tsp. cholesterol-free oil, 1-2 times weekly, (e.g., olive, soy)

REMINDER - VARY DIET

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org * or substitute approximately 80 ml Goya®-brand juice. Limit juice substitution to one type. Pour the juice into a small container, and place it next to the other items in the food bowl (FIG. 59).

** Vitamin/mineral powder (mix ingredients thoroughly and store in brown bottle): 45 g bone meal (sterilized; 25% Ca, 12% P) (FIG. 60) 45 g pet multivitamin powder [e.g., Theralin® (FIG. 61)or Vionate®, but not Pervinal® because it contains vitamin D2 instead of vitamin D3] 10 g vitamin E powder, WITHOUT selenium (50 IU/g)

Fig. 59. When substituting fruit juice for whole fruit, place it Fig. 60. Bonemeal is used in a variety of animal diets to Fig. 61. Theralin® is an excellent dietary supplement for fruit next to the other foods in a container. provide supplemental calcium. bats, and for fortifying insects to feed to insectivorous bats.

Because some bats are normally more aggressive feeders than others and will select the choice pieces of fruit, the food should be dispersed throughout a cage to insure that all animals have an opportunity to receive adequate portions. Distribute several food dishes within caging so all bats have an opportunity to eat at the same time. To prevent food from becoming contaminated by feces and urine, food containers should never be placed on cage floors. It also may be necessary to feed more than once a day when housing large colonies such as those found in zoological institutions.

Fruit can be distributed more equally among a group of bats if it is cut into relatively small pieces. For example, if halved fruits are skewered on tree branches in the cage, aggressive feeders may defend preferred types, producing dietary imbalances among the group members. By cutting the fruit into cubes with sides ranging from 1/8 inch (3 mm) (FIG. 55a) to 1 inch (25 mm) (FIG. 55b) in size, depending on the species, and mixing dietary ingredients together very well, food may be distributed more evenly among the bats. It is important, however, not to mash or blend the diet, as the bats may not be able to remove indigestible portions. It is unnecessary to peel fruits, but they should be rinsed off in case the skins contain pesticides. Figure 55. Small fruit bats require smaller pieces of fruit than large bats. A) fruit cut into small pieces for Carollia perspicillata; B) fruit cut larger for Pteropus giganteus. Coop cups shown in the background are used to supply water for C. perspicillata; they are hung on the mesh of the bats' cage (also see Figure 50).

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org The total diet for large pteropodids should range between 50-100% of their body weight per day (as-fed basis), which is dependent on the activity level, age, physiological condition and environmental stress factors. Small fruit bats, such as Carollia spp., should be fed all they will eat.

Although fruit contains abundant water, it should still be provided ad libitum. Pye (1967) reported desiccation and cutaneous ulceration in bats kept in dry environments or given insufficient quantities of water. My fruit bats not only drink water, but also incorporate water in their play. Several nights each week, they travel back and forth between the newspaper-lined cage bottom and the cage top, where their water is located, making paper spitwads. It is not known why the spitwads are made, or what they do with them. In Australia, fruit bats have been observed to drink from the ocean in an apparent attempt to supplement their diet with minerals. To insure fruit bats receive adequate trace minerals, place a mineral wheel in their cages.

Nectarivorous Species Pollen collects on specialized hairs covering the bodies of nectarivorous bats as they extract nectar from flowers. After nectar forays, the bats gather at their roosts and ingest the pollen during grooming activites. Howell (1974b) reported that Sanborn's long- tongued bat (Leptonycteris sanborni) drank its urine, suggesting that this behavior might aid in the maintenance of water or mineral balance, or in the digestion of pollen proteins. It is important to mention here that although the crude protein of pollen is high, especially in "chiropterophilous" plants (20-43.7%; Howell, 1972, 1974a), nothing has been reported on its digestibility to bats. Also, no one knows for sure just how much protein frugivorous and nectarivorous bats consume in the form of insects because fruit- eating insect larvae are commonly soft-bodied, and they probably would not be conspicuous in a bat's stomach contents or feces. Also, those frugivores and nectarivores that do eat insects may follow the feeding pattern observed in Pallas' long-tongued bat (Glossophaga sorcinia) and the short-tailed fruit bat (Carollia perspicillata). These animals discard chitinous exoskeletons after consuming the soft parts of insects (Ayala and D'Alessandro, 1973).

Diets for nectarivorous bats have been published by Doherty and MacNamara (1977), Greenhall (1976, from pers. comm. by D.J. Howell), House and Doherty (1975), Rasweiler and de Bonilla (1972), and Rasweiler (1973, 1977a,b, 1986). Since the work of these authors, no other diets for captive nectarivores have been published. It would be interesting, however, to experiment with liquid diets (e.g., Nekton-tonic®) currently formulated for nectarivorous birds to see if such diets would also be successful with bats. The major drawback to Nekton® products, however, is their high cost.

ROUTINE FEEDING OF SANGUIVOROUS BATS Vampire bats are obligatory blood-eaters. Although the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) eats the blood of a variety of

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org animals, it prefers bovine blood. Other blood types offered have included pig, sheep and human. Vampire bats readily eat either fresh or frozen blood. Fresh blood has a refrigerated shelf-life of 5 to 7 days. Frozen blood remains safe to use for 4 to 6 weeks. To minimize trips to the slaughter house, freeze nightly rations of blood in appropriately sized, sterilized plastic bottles (FIG. 56). The blood must be either citrated or manually defibrinated at the time of collection to prevent it from clotting. I prefer to citrate the blood; the formula I use is presented in TABLE 4.

Figure 56. Depending on the number of vampire bats in a colony, blood can be divided into nightly portions and stored in the appropriately sized bottle. Use bottles that can be sterilized.

Table 4

CITRATED BLOOD

PER GALLON

Tap or distilled water ...... 2 cups (approx. 250 ml)

Sodium citrate (FIG. 62a) ...... 11 g

Citric acid (FIG. 62b) ...... 4 g

Add the ingredients listed above to an empty, plastic gallon jar. The blood must be added to the mixture at the slaughter house.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Figure 62. Sodium citrate (A) and citric acid (b) are used to prevent blood from cotting. Vampire bats cannot eat clotted blood.

There are many ways to present blood to vampire bats. One of the least expensive, most convenient and hygienic methods is to use ice cube trays. The multiple compartments not only allow several bats to eat simultaneously, but also prevent contamination of an entire meal if an animal defecates or urinates in the food. To insure that all bats get enough to eat, allow at least 25-35 ml of blood per bat per night.

Vampire bats do not require drinking water. For over 20 years, Wimsatt (1986) did not provide water for his vampire bats. After three years of maintaining these animals, I also stopped giving them water. It must be noted, however, that vampire bats require water during periods when food is unavailable temporarily. Vampire bats cannot fast for more than three days, after which time they become emaciated and die. During periods of brief fasting, water is critical for these animals, and Wimsatt (1986) suggested giving them 0.9% NaCl (saline) at such times to prevent clinical dehydration. It is also unknown whether vampire bats require supplemental vitamins and minerals. When I stopped offering water to my vampire bats, I also discontinued their dietary supplements; over a 1-year period, no ill effects were observed. When their diet was supplemented, however, 1/2 ml of Avitron® multivitamins and 1 ml of Avimin® multiminerals was added to each 250 ml of blood about 3 times a week. One-half ml of Linatone® was also added to each 250 ml of blood once a week.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Chapter Eight

HANDRAISING INFANT BATS

Bat milk varies in composition, not only among species (Jenness and Studier, 1976), but also during the course of lactation (Kunz, pers. comm.). TABLE 5 summarizes data on the composition of bat milk from the limited number of species which have been studied. Unfortunately, formulas currently available for handraising infant animals do not approximate the nutrient composition of bat milks, and therefore choices selected for rearing various species have been determined through trial and error. The nutrient composition of milk replacers commonly used in handrearing bat pups is summarized in TABLE 6.

Table 5 Table 6

MILK COMPOSITION OF SELECTED BAT SPECIES (AS FED BASIS) NUTRIENT CONTENT OF MILK REPLACERS (AS FED BASIS)* BAT %S* %F* %P* %C* REF.** RATIO OF MILK Artibeus cinereus 23.0 4.0 3.8 3 PRODUCT (M) TO WATER (W) (Gervais' Fruit Bat) MILK REPLACER (M:W) %S** %F** %P** %C** Zoologic 33/40® powder 1:1 27.5 12.2 9.8 4.3 Artibeus jamaicensis 18.6 4.7 7.3 3 Unilact® powder 3:4 22.0 9.8 7.7 3.4 (Jamaican Fruit Bat) 1:2 16.0 7.1 5.7 2.5 1:3 12.6 5.6 4.5 2.0 Carollia perspicillata Ca. 7.0 4.1 3 (Short-tailed Fruit Bat) Evaporated milk Undiluted 19.4 6.5 5.2 7.7 (Carnation® brand) 1:1 10.7 3.6 2.9 4.3 Eptesicus fuscus 16.4 6.2 2.5 4 (Big Brown Bat) KMR® powder 1:1 28.6 7.7 12.7 6.5 3:4 23.0 6.2 10.2 5.2 Glossophaga soricina 5.2 1.9 3.9 3 1:2 16.7 4.5 7.4 3.8 (Pallas' Long-tongued Bat) 1:3 11.8 3.2 5.2 2.7

Leptonycteris sanborni 18.5 4.3 4.8 1,3 Multi-milk™ powder 1:1 25.0 13.8 7.5 nil (Sanborn's Long-tongued 3:4 20.0 11.0 6.0 nil Bat) 1:2 14.3 7.9 4.3 nil

1:3 10.0 5.7 3.1 nil Myotis lucifugus 6.0-13.5 7.3-7.4 3.1-3.3 3,4

(Little Brown Bat) As directed on Similac® powder label 12.2 3.6 1.5 7.1 Myotis thysanodes 40.5 17.9 12.1 3.4 2 66

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org (Fringed Myotis) Wombaroo® flying fox As directed on milk replacer label 15.8 3.0 4.8 8.0 Tadarida braziliensis 34.4 16.3-18.9 11.1-16.2 2.8-3.7 1,3

(Mexican Free-tailed Bat) * Percentages calculated from manufacturers' data (products and manufacturers listed in APPENDIX I.

** S = solids Vampyrodes caraccioli 29.0 3.1 4.1 3 F = fat (White-lined Tailless Bat) P = protein C = carbohydrate

*S = solid F = fat P = protein C = carbohydrate

** 1) Huibregtse, 1966; 2) Jenness and Sloan, no date; 3) Jenness and Studier, 1976; 4) Kunz et al., 1983.

The nutrient components of milk replacers vary enough to affect growth rates. In order to evaluate a pup's growth, weigh it each morning before its first meal. Growth curves of various bat species are shown in FIGURES 63 through 75, and approximate stages of development are summarized in TABLE 7. If an individual infant fails to gain weight on the prescribed formula, it may become necessary to increase the fat content. This should be done conservatively because over-supplementing the diet causes diarrhea. Add heavy whipping cream in 1/2-ml increments to about 25 ml of prepared milk replacer. TABLE 8 summarizes feeding regimes for selected species.

Fig. 63. Growth curves for six handraised, straw- Fig. 64. Growth curve for a single mother-reared, grey- Fig. 65. Growth curves for two handraised Rodriques fruit Fig. 66. Growth curve for a single handraised Insular flying colored fruit bats, Eidolon helvum (data courtesy of headed flying fox, Pteropus poliocephalus (plotted from bats. Pteropus rodricensis (after Young, 1987). fox, Pteropus tonganus (plotted from data presented in Harmony Frazier-Taylor, Woodland Park Zoo, data presented in George, 1990). Rohrer, no date). Seattle, WA).

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Fig. 67. Growth curve for handraised Egyptian fruit bats, Fig. 68. Growth curve for a single handraised Jamaican Fig. 69. Growth curve for captive-reared short-tailed fruit Fig. 70. Average growth curve for sheath-tailed bats, Rousettus aegyptiacus (white symbols, after Larrow, fruit bat, Artibeus jamaicensis (plotted from data bats (after Kleiman and Davis, 1979). Taphozous georgianus (after Jolly, 1990). 1988; black symbols, data courtesy of Diane Devison, presented in Kahn, no date). Metropolitan Toronto Zoo, Toronto, Ont.).

Fig. 71. Average growth curve for pallid bats, Antrozous pallidus Fig. 72. Average growth curve for big brown bats, Eptesicus Fig. 73. Average growth curve for the cave bat, Myotis velifer (redrawn from data prsented in Kunz, 1987). fuscus (after Burnett and Kunz, 1982 and Davis, et al., 1968). (after Kunz, 1973).

Fig. 74. Average growth curve for pipistrelle bats, Pipistrellus Fig. 75. Growth curve for one mother-reared and two handraised pipistrellus (after Kunz, 1987). common vampire bats, Desmodus rotundus (from Jenness and Studier, 1976 and Barnard and Sachs, 1992).

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Table 7 Table 8

APPROXIMATE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF VARIOUS BAT SPECIES FEEDING REGIMES FOR HAND RAISING SELECTED BAT SPECIES AVERAGE AGES (Wks.) AGE DAILY INTAKE BAT (Wks.) (ml)* COMMENTS REF.** PERMANENT Artibeus jamaicensis 1 8 4 BAT DENTITION FUR FLIGHT REF.* (Jamaican Fruit Bat) 3 18 Start solids Megachiropterans 6 24

9 24 Family Pteropodidae 11 24 Born furred

except belly; Pteropus poliocephalus 12-16 belly at 3 wks. 12 4 Desmodus rotundus Birth 0.05 to 1 2 (Grey-headed Flying Fox) Start adding blood (see (Common Vampire Bat) 1 1 to 3 TABLE 12) Rousettus aegyptiacus 10 2 3 4 to 5 (Egyptian Fruit Bat) 8 4 to 6

10 6 to 8 Microchiropterans 11 6 to 8.5

13 8 to 10 Family Desmodontidae See text under Weaning Born sparsely 15 10 to 12 Process Desmodus rotundus furred. 8-10 6,9 24 10 to 15 (Common Vampire Bat) 29 15 to 20

Reintroduce to captive Family Emballonuridae 2-5 9 36 On demand colony Taphozous georgianus 3-4 5

(Common Sheath-tailed Bat) Insectivorous bats Birth to On demand All they can consume in 1 weaning 5 to 10 min., or Family Molossidae discontinue feeding when they show signs of losing Tadarida braziliensis 5 1 interest (Mexican Free-tailed Bat)

Pteropus poliocephalus Birth 15 3 Family Phyllostomidae (Grey-headed Flying Fox) 1 25 Many species 2 1/2-4 6 2 29 Born furred; 3 32 Artibeus spp. sparse on belly. 4 6 4 35 (New World Fruit Bats) 5 38 Born furred; Carollia perspicillata 4 sparse on belly 3-4 6 6 41 (Short-tailed or Leaf-nosed Fruit 7 44 Start solids Bats) 8 47 Born furred; 9 49 Glossophaga spp. sparse on belly 3-4 6 10 Refer to text (Long-tongued Bats)

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org

Family Rhinolophidae * Daily intake may vary with nutrient content of formula. Rhinolophus rouxi 6 9 ** 1) Barnard, 1990; 2) Barnard and Sachs, 1992; 3) George, 1990; 4) Kahn, no date. (Horseshoe Bat)

Family Vespertilionidae 2-8 (3-4 most) 9 Antrozous pallidus 5 5 6-7 8 (Pallid Bat) Eptesicus fuscus 3 1 (Big Brown Bat) Lasiurus borealis 3-4 1 (Red Bat) Myotis austroriparius 5-6 1 (Southeastern myotis) Myotis lucifugus 4 3 3 (Little Brown Bat) Myotis velifer 3-4 3-4 3 7 (Cave Myotis) Nycticeus humeralis 4 1 1/2 3 8 (Evening Bat) Pipistrellus subflavus 3-4 1 (Eastern Pipistrelle) Plecotus townsendii 2 1/2-3 1 (Western Big-eared Bat)

* 1) Barbour and Davis, 1969; 2) Devison, pers. comm; 3) Fenton, 1970; 4) George, 1990; 5) Jolly, 1990; 6) Kleiman and Davis, 1979; 7) Kunz, 1973; 8) Orr, 1970; 9) Tuttle and Stevenson, 1982.

The shelf-life of milk powders can be extended if they are kept in the freezer. Mixed formulas must be refrigerated. Discard unused portions of mixed formula after 24 hrs. When mixing a milk formula as directed by the manufacturer, avoid adding supplements such as syrups or vitamins because they may cause diarrhea, and lead to serious dehydration. However, when commercial milk replacers are diluted with heavy whipping cream, it may become necessary to add very small amounts (e.g., 1 or 2 drops per 100 ml) of vitamins and minerals.

Bats have been fed milk, with varying degrees of success, using paintbrushes, eyedroppers or syringes. Appropriately sized, modified feeding and urethral catheters (FIG. 76) can be attached to syringes to serve as substitute teats when feeding flying foxes, or for dropping milk accurately to the mouths of very small pups. Most pups lose weight or remain stable until they learn how to take formula from the substitute teat.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org

Figure 76. Milk can be delivered more accurately to the mouths of small pups by attaching catheters to syringes; A) feeding catheter; B) tom cat catheter.

Before feeding pups, warm the formula in a hot water bath (FIG. 77). Check for the desired temperature by placing a drop or two on the inside of the wrist, as one would do when feeding a human infant. Feed a pup on its belly or side, with its head lower than its feet (FIG. 78), to prevent it from aspirating fluids into its lungs.

Figure 78. The proper feeding technique for feeding a baby bat. Note how the pup is tilted slightly downward to prevent it from aspirating formula into its lungs. Also, excess formula can drip off the hand instead of pooling under the animal (photo courtesy of Forest Park Nature Center, Peoria Heights, IL).

Figure 77. A convenient method for warming a pup's formula is shown here.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org The presence or absence of lactase in various species has not been determined. To reduce or avoid potential problems with lactose- intolerance, it may be advisable to add Lactaid® (FIG. 79), or a similar product, to the formula. Figure 79. Adding lactase to milk reduces the possibility of lactose-related dietary disorders. Although most bats do not require such treatment, the presence or absence of lactase in various species could not be confirmed.

Maintaining adequate hydration is one of the most important factors in rearing bat pups. Experience has shown that many species dehydrate when offered oral electrolytes in combination with milk. Such solutions should neither be used when feeding bats a milk diet, nor as a substitute for water when mixing milk formulas. Clinically dehydrated pups being fed a milk diet should have fluids replaced by subcutaneous injections (FIG. 80; also see Chapter 9, FIG. 93). Dosages are listed in Chapter 9, TABLE 13.

Figure 80. It is best to give small bats subcutaneous injections on the dorsum. The arrow points to the small bubbles of lactated Ringer's solution under the pups' skin (photo courtesy of Lynda Moore, Jonesboro, GA).

It may be necessary to medicate pups with metoclopramide hydrochloride (Reglan®) syrup 5 to 10 days into the handraising period. Pups of some species, in particular vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus), sometimes red bats (Lasiurus borealis) and eastern pipistrelles (Pipistrellus subflavus), bloat until they adjust to the milk replacer. Mix 1 drop of Reglan® with 4 drops of tap or distilled water. Add 2 drops of this mixture to 1 ml of milk formula at every meal for 4 to 6 days.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org INSECTIVOROUS BATS In temperate regions of the United States and Europe, bats give birth primarily from May through July. Neonates are born with milk teeth (FIG. 2, Chapter 1) which allow them to cling to their mothers' teats. These teeth are useless for eating insects, so food should consist of a prepared milk diet. Powdered Esbilac® (FIG. 81) and Unilact®, mixed as directed on the label, have been used successfully to handraise insectivorous bats. [WARNING! SEE ALERT AT END OF CHAPTER]

Figure 81. Esbilac® WAS the milk replacer of choice. See ALERT at the end of this chapter for an explanation and what other milk replacers should be used.

WARNING! Do NOT use this product!

Pups should be warmed before they are fed. This can be accomplished by holding them gently in the palm of the hand. Insectivorous pups require frequent feedings (approximately every 2-3 hrs.). Feed approximately 0.05 cc per gram of body weight. If they reject food at 2-hr. feeding intervals, or if formula is still present in their stomachs (this is easily seen through the skin on the ventral surface), feed approximately every 3 hrs., or adjust the feeding schedule as necessary. Feed pups weighing 4 g or less at least one time during the night. For pups weighing over 4 g, feedings should begin around 6 A.M. (0600 hrs.) and can be discontinued at about 11 P.M. (2300 hrs.) to midnight (2400 hrs.).

Infant bats will accept milk readily, a drop at a time, from the palm of the hand or directly from an eye-dropper or syringe (FIG. 78). Avoid the use of nursing bottles, as these can cause fatal colic (Barnard, 1988). Before feeding a pup, wash hands thoroughly to prevent contaminating any formula that pups may lick from the palm of the hand. After each feeding, wet a cotton swab with lukewarm water and massage the pup's anus (FIG. 82) to stimulate defecation, although they may not defecate after every meal. Normal stools are firm and black. It is not unusual, however, for pups to have cream-colored stools for a day or two until they adjust to the milk replacer.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Figure 82. A cotton swab makes an excellent tool for massaging a pup's anus to stimulate defecation. Suckling bats, however, may not defecate after every meal (photo courtesy of Gregory C. Greer, Marietta, GA).

Most insectivorous pups are ready to be weaned at about 3 to 4 weeks of age (TABLE 9). This is also the age when they are ready to fly (they do not have to be taught; it is instinctive). Also, milk teeth have been replaced by permanent teeth, and the infant is ready to receive chitin in its diet. Chitin constitutes insect exoskeletons and is important to the bat for the continued formation of firm stools. To wean bats onto mealworms, cut off the insect's head and squeeze its viscera into the pups mouth as one would squeeze a tube of toothpaste. Whenever bats are willing, allow them to chew on the chitinous exoskeletons of the mealworms to strengthen their jaws.

Table 9

APPROXIMATE WEANING AGES OF VARIOUS BAT SPECIES*

AGES (Wks.) BAT START FINISH COMMENTS* REF.** Megachiropterans

Family Pteropodidae (Large species) 9-12 15-20 In nature 17 Eidolon helvum 4 14 In captivity (HR) 9 (Straw-colored Fruit Bat) Pteropus poliocephalus 7 24 In captivity (HR) 15 (Grey-headed Flying Fox) 10 24 In captivity (MR) 15 12 In nature 15, 17 Pteropus tonganus 8 14 In captivity (HR) 16 (Insular Flying Fox or Fruit Bat)

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Rousettus aegyptiacus 6 14 In captivity (HR) 8 (Egyptian Fruit Bat)

Microchiropterans

Family Desmodontidae Desmodus rotundus 1 36 In captivity (HR) 4 (Common Vampire Bat) 12 36 In captivity (MR) 13, 17

Family Emballonuridae 4 8 In nature 17 Taphozous georgianus 3-4 In nature 11 (Common Sheath-tailed Bat)

Family Phyllostomidae Artibeus jamaicensis 3 In captivity (HR) 5, 7, 12 (Jamaican Fruit Bat) 4 In nature 13 Carollia perspicillata 8 In captivity (MR) 13 (Short-tailed or Leaf-nosed Fruit Bats) 3-4 In nature 12 Leptonycteris spp. In nature 10 (Long-tongued Bats) Macrotus californicus 4 In nature 6 (California Leaf-nosed Bat)

Family Rhinolophidae Rhinolophus rouxi 6 8 In nature 17 (Horseshoe Bat)

Family Vespertilionidae 3-4 5-8 In nature 17 Eptesicus fuscus 3 6-8 In captivity (HR) 2 (Big Brown Bat) 3-4 In nature 1 Lasiurus borealis 3-4 5-6 In captivity (HR) 2 (Red Bat) 3-4 5-6 In nature 1 Myotis austroriparius 4-5 7-8 In captivity (HR) 3 (Southeastern myotis) 75

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Myotis velifer 3-4 7-8 In nature 14 (Cave Myotis) Pipistrellus subflavus 3-4 6-8 In captivity (HR) 2 (Eastern Pipistrelle) Plecotus townsendii 5-6 8 In nature 1 (Western Big-eared Bat)

* HR = Hand-reared MR = Mother-reared

** 1) Barbour and Davis, 1969; 2) Barnard, 1990; 3) Barnard, 1991; 4) Barnard and Sachs, 1992; 5) Boos, pers. comm.; 6) Bradshaw, 1962; 7) Buch, pers. comm.; 8) Devison, pers. comm.; 9) Frazier-Taylor, pers. comm.; 10) Jenness and Studier, 1976; 11) Jolly, 1990; 12) Kahn, no date; 13) Kleiman and Davis, 1979; 14) Kunz, 1973; 15) George, 1990; 16) Rohrer, no date; 17) Tuttle and Stevenson, 1982.

To teach a juvenile to associate food with a dish, feed it over one containing mealworms. To avoid unnecessary bites, and to condition a weanling to feed from a hard surface, always feed it from the end of a blunt forceps, not the fingers. After the bat has eaten all it desires, offer it a few drops of fresh water. After the bat feeds regularly on whole mealworms (about 10 to 40 or more, depending on the species) with their heads intact, it should be housed and fed as an adult (see Chapter 5, ENVIRONMENT AND HOUSING FOR ADULT BATS and Chapter 7, FEEDING ADULT BATS).

It is not known why some species fail to thrive on milk replacer. For example, red bats (Lasiurus borealis) and eastern pipistrelles (Pipistrellus subflavus) bloat and/or dehydrate when fed exclusively milk formula. This problem is sometimes overcome by offering these pups milk replacer once a day and a blended mealworm diet (TABLE 10) for the remaining meals.

Table 10

MEALWORM MILK-SUBSTITUTE INFANT BAT FORMULA

Blend together: Mealworms * ...... 3 g Soy Oil ...... 1 dp Vitamin/Mineral Water ** ...... 1.5 ml

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org * Large mealworms weigh approximately 0.10 g

** Tap or distilled water ...... 30 ml Avitron® multivitamins (FIG. 57, Chapt. 7) . . . .1 drop (0.05 ml) Avimin® multiminerals (FIG. 58, Chapt. 7) . . . 2 drops (0.10 ml)

Freeze surplus and defrost as needed.

Special attention must be paid to the roosting habit of lasiurine bats because it directly affects their hygiene. These infants will soil themselves if they are not allowed to hang from a thin rough branch, or mesh on a cage top (FIG. 83). Within a day or two, the soiled fur loses its insulating properties and the pup dies. When any pup becomes soiled, clean its fur immediately with a warm, damp item such as a swab stick, gauze pad or cloth handkerchief.

Figure 83. Many species hang freely from horizontal surfaces. If not provided an appropriate perch, such as a tree branch or the mesh of cage tops, they will soil themselves with urine and feces. This type of perch is critical to the well-being of infant red bats (photo courtesy of Barbara Schmidt French, Austin, TX).

FRUGIVOROUS BATS Good Start® milk replacer appears to be the most satisfactory product for handraising small fruit bat species, including the Egyptian flying fox (Rousettus aegyptiacus). Heavy whipping cream must be added to these milk replacers (as described above). In Australia, flying foxes are routinely handraised on Wombaroo® diet (for availability, see APPENDIX I). In the United States, several species of flying foxes have been handraised on equal parts of canned evaporated milk and nectar (Frazier-Taylor, pers. comm.; Moore, pers. comm.; Rohrer, no date). The nectar can be prepared by boiling together 1/4 cup each banana, melon, papaya, peeled grapes and apple with 1 cup of water. Dietary supplements may have to be added to this diet. Feedings can be decreased slowly when the pup shows less interest in eating formula. This occurs naturally as it receives increased amounts of solids in its diet. Avoid feeding soybean-based milks to flying foxes (Luckhoff, pers. comm.) as these have not been successful.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Unlike insectivorous bats, flying fox pups nurse best when offered milk through a nipple. Nipples can be mounted on glass bottles or syringes. Jamaican fruit bats (Artibeus jamaicensis) also have been fed milk replacer using latex nipples. Nipples can be handmade (Swieca and Dunn, 1988) or purchased (see APPENDIX I for availability).

Pups of small frugivorous bat species should be fed every two hours, beginning approximately at 6 A.M. (0600 hrs.) and ending at midnight (2400 hrs.). The number of feedings should be decreased gradually to five in twenty-four hours. Small flying foxes (e.g., Rousettus spp.) should be fed in the same manner as other fruit bats, but the large flying foxes (e.g.,Pteropus spp.) can be fed a total of four to five feedings in a day. As discussed in Chapter 7, FEEDING ADULT BATS, also avoid feeding fruit bat pups citrus juices (Luckhoff, pers. comm.; George, 1990).

Young flying foxes may contract aspiration pneumonia if they are torpid during feeding (George, 1990; Williams and George, 1984). It is essential that these animals be warm at the time they are fed. Until pups are about 3 weeks old, exercise them after each feeding by extending their wings gently.

Ages at which fruit bats can be weaned vary considerably (TABLE 9). The best technique is to introduce them to pureed fruits (especially apples) between milk feedings. Williams and George (1984) reported that the grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) loses weight when apples are removed from the diet. As the pups grow, begin dicing the fruits, and sprinkle the fruit daily with approximately 10 g of powdered formula. Continue to feed these pups a variety of diced fruits until they are old enough to be housed and fed as adults.

SANGUIVOROUS BATS Common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) pups should be fed with a syringe (FIG. 84); allow them to lick, not suck, from it. These bats do not digest their food as rapidly as many other species. For the first week of life they should be fed every three hours, commencing at 6 A.M. (0600 hrs.) and ending at midnight (2400 hrs.). The milk diet for these pups is listed in TABLE 11. The amount of water suggested should be reduced from 75 ml to 60 ml when the pup reaches 6 weeks of age. Individuals vary in the amount of formula they will consume, and the reader should consult TABLE 7 for specific feeding regimes.

Table 11

VAMPIRE BAT MILK-REPLACER FORMULA

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Yields approximately 13% solids, 7.5% fat, 4.1% protein and 2.3% carbohydrate.

MIX FRESH DAILY

Multi-Milk™ powder* (FIG. 86) ...... 10 g Dextrose powder (FIG. 87) ...... 2 g Tap or distilled water ...... 75 ml Avitron® multivitamins (FIG. 57, Chapt. 7) . . . . 2 drops (0.10 ml) Drops Avimin® multiminerals (FIG. 58, Chapt. 7) . . .4 drops (0.20 ml)

* Multi-milk™ does not dissolve instantly in water; therefore, push the lumps through a tea strainer. Figure 84. A 3-week old vampire bat. Such pups should be trained to lap, not suck, formula from a syringe. Note that the pup is unrestrained. These animals imprint strongly on the hand that feeds them, and they will not stray far away from it. Attempts to restrain a vampire bat pup may provoke a bite (photo courtesy of Dany Nieves, Decatur, GA). Figure 86. Multi-milk™ has been used successfully to Figure 87. When using Multi- handraise vampire bat pups. It is likely that Zoologic milk™ to handraise bats, add 33/40® may also be suitable. Regardless of the milk dextrose to increase the replacer used, however, vampire bat pups must be carbohydrate content of the treated for bloat approximately 5 to 10 days into the milk replacer (TABLE 11 handrearing period. above.)

It is not known if Desmodus rotundus requires feces in its diet in order to establish the appropriate intestinal flora for the digestion of blood. Barnard and Sachs (1992) handraised two infant vampire bats, and they felt it was necessary to add a vampire-bat-feces "cocktail" to the milk formula. The "cocktail" can be prepared by mixing together 1 pellet of fresh, adult vampire bat feces with 0.4 ml of tap or distilled water. When the bats are between the ages of one week and three months, add 0.1 ml of this mixture to the formula for one feeding twice weekly; between three and five months of age, add 0.2 ml to the formula for one feeding once a week. Discontinue the feces cocktails after 5 months of age.

Vampire pups are weaned by decreasing their intake of milk replacer while increasing the volume of blood, over a period of nine months. Because vampire bats will not eat clotted blood, it must be either citrated or defibrinated at the time it is collected. Blood is naturally palatable to vampire bats, and they may refuse the milk replacer by the time they reach the age of two or three weeks. This problem is easily solved by flavoring the formula with 1 part blood to 10 parts of milk replacer. For approximate ages of pups, and blood to milk replacer ratios, see TABLE 12.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Table 12

APPROXIMATE BLOOD TO MILK REPLACER RATIOS FED TO YOUNG COMMON VAMPIRE BATS*

RATIO OF BLOOD TOTAL (B) TO MILK FEEDINGS FEEDINGS WITH REPLACER (M) AGE (Wks.) PER DAY BLOOD PER DAY (B:M) COMMENTS Birth to 1 5 0 0:1 From syringe 1 to 3 5 1 1:10 " 3 to 4 5 2 1:7 " 4 to 5 5 3 1:4 " 5 to 6 5 4 1:4 " 6 to 7 5 5 1:4 " 7 to 11 4 4 1:4 - 1:3:3 " 11 to 12 3 3 1:3:3 " 12 to 13 3 3 1:2 " 13 to 15 2 2 1:2 - 1:1 From small dish 15 to 18 2 2 1:1 " 18 to 21 2 2 1st - 1:1 " 2nd - 1:0 Leave dish in cage 6 to 8 hrs. See SANGUIVOROUS BATS, this chapter 21 to 22 1 1 2:1 " 22 to 23 1 1 3:1 " 23 to 24 1 1 4:1 " 24 to 36 1 1 1:0 " Reintroduce to captive 36 to adult colony

* Barnard and Sachs, 1992

When a vampire pup reaches the age of 13 weeks, it should be taught to eat from a dish (FIG. 85). I prefer using a 1Ѕ-in. (3.8 cm) glass culture dish. Occasionally, frozen (citrated or defibrinated) blood coagulates when mixed with milk. If this occurs, fill the dish 80

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org several times during the feeding session or use fresh (citrated or defibrinated) blood. At about 18 to 21 weeks of age, the two feedings (see TABLE 12) should be split, with one dish containing a mixture of milk replacer and blood, and the other pure blood. Leave the dish of pure blood in the pup's cage for about 6 to 8 hours to encourage it to feed on its own. Until a pup learns to self- feed, handfeed (FIG. 85) the milk/blood mixture because it spoils rapidly.

Figure 85. Vampire bat at 3 months of age learning to feed from a dish (photo courtesy of Dany Nieves, Decatur, GA).

Do not remove milk from Desmodus pup diets until they are 24 weeks of age (TABLE 12). Joermann (1988) reported that mother- reared juveniles in captivity often die at 16 to 20 weeks of age. I have also observed this problem within my colony. Workers, therefore, should handfeed milk replacer to orphaned young during this critical period.

*ALERT ALERT ALERT ALERT*

In 13 years of handraising bats, I have observed only one case of bloat in a big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus), but during the spring of 1995, all of the bats being handraised bloated, including big brown bats. The sick bats were also hyperactive and many drew up into the fetal position. Very few pups were saved. Two days before the Bats in Captivity manuscript was sent to the publisher, it was discovered that the milk-replacer, Esbilac®, caused the illness and high mortality. Pet-Ag, Inc., the manufacturers of Esbilac®, recently changed the formula to include butterfat, replacing vegetable and coconut oils as the dietary fat.

Unfortunately, this problem was discovered too late to make the necessary text corrections, and therefore readers are being advised, through this ALERT, to use only milk-replacers with vegetable-based oils. Milk replacers that have proven successful since discovering the problem with Esbilac® are Zoologic 33/40® (also made by Pet-Ag, Inc.) and Mother's Helper™ (Lambert Kay™). Also, a successful alternative to milk formula is listed in Table 10, this chapter.

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Chapter Nine

HEALTH, MEDICAL AND NECROPSY CONSIDERATONS

PUBLIC HEALTH CONCERNS The common misconception that bats are asymptomatic carriers of rabies persists, even within the veterinary profession. This misconception typically results in veterinary practitioners refusing to assist wildlife rehabilitators in treating bats. It is true that rabies is an extremely serious disease, but it is rarely encountered. Less than one half of 1 percent of bats contract the virus (Tuttle, 1988).

House bats, and most other bats in the United States, do not experience outbreaks of rabies; instead, only an occasional animal becomes infected (Constantine, quoted in Tuttle, 1988). By practicing appropriate handling techniques and maintaining high quarantine standards, there is no reason why veterinarians cannot safely treat bats and other rabies-susceptible mammals. The following are bat-related health problems of public concern:

Rabies Rabies and rabies-related viruses are in the genus Lyssavirus, family Rhabdoviridae. Although viruses within this family have been isolated from vertebrates, invertebrates and plants, only those from mammals are pathogenic to humans. Several known mammalian lyssaviral categories, hosts, and relevant diagnostic and prophylactic problems were summarized by Constantine (1993).

The virus typically enters the body via the bite of an infected animal. Other modes of infection occur rarely; for example, via ingestion of infected food (Bell and Moore, 1971), inhalation of virus-saturated air (Constantine, 1967), or through contact with mucous membranes, open wounds or abrasions (Constantine, 1988). It is essential therefore, that veterinarians who are performing surgery or necropsies, wear gloves to prevent exposure to potentially infected tissues or fluids.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Behaviorally normal bats may incubate rabies for a year or more before clinical signs manifest. Moore and Raymond (1970) reported an incubation period in the big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) of 209 days after capture, and it died 4 days after the disease was clinically apparent. The virus, however, is not transmitted via a bite until it is present in the saliva. Constantine (1988) reported that rabies virus is often present in the host's saliva for one to several days before the appearance of clinical symptoms. Baer and Bales (1967) reported that a bat had the virus in its saliva 12 days before clinical signs became apparent. Because the incubation period for rabies in bats can be long, appropriate quarantine procedures should be practiced for a duration of at least 6 months.

In bats, the symptoms of rabies may be characterized by several or all of the following: anorexia, dehydration, restlessness, disorientation, sensitivity to light, sound and touch, and paralysis (especially of the muscles of the throat and hind limbs). I have observed rabies infection in one red bat (Lasiurus borealis) and 6 big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus). Dehydration and paralysis were observed in the red bat and one big brown bat. The other big brown bats exhibited dehydration as well as hypersensitivity to touch, whereby they furiously chewed at the cloth in which they were being handled. Appetite loss reported in the literature actually may be caused by dehydration. All of the rabid bats in my care also exhibited anorexia, but after rehydration with lactated Ringer's solution, ate well until approximately the last 24 hours of life.

Rabies protection with pre-exposure immunization is essential for all handlers of animals in the orders Chiroptera and Carnivora. Constantine (1993) reported that a minimum antibody titer of 1:5 was sufficient for protection against rabies, but because it is thought that the current rabies vaccines may be less effective against bat rabies, a higher titer may be preferable; how much higher was not suggested. It must be cautioned, however, that the work of Fekadu et al. (1988) and Schneider et al. (1986) demonstrated that protection against infection may be partial, or not at all, with the use of current vaccines and globulins against some lyssaviruses.

For more detailed information on rabies and rabies-related viruses, the reader should consult Constantine (1988, 1993), Baer (1991), and Brass (1994).

Histoplasmosis Histoplasmosis is a mammalian pulmonary disease caused by the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum. It occurs in many [humid] parts of the world, growing in soils enriched by bird or bat droppings.

Infection occurs by inhaling the fungal spores. The severity of the disease is determined by the number of the spores inhaled. In severe cases, symptoms may mimic tuberculosis, but many infections are asymptomatic. Normally, symptoms approximate a slight chest cold.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org To prevent histoplasmosis, avoid stirring up and breathing dust where bird or bat droppings have accumulated. When in an environment where such dust becomes or will become airborne, use a properly fitting mask capable of filtering particles as small as 2. It is also advisable to wet guano deposits to minimize airborne dust particles.

Diagnosis is by histoplasmin skin testing. However, false positives may result if the infected person has been exposed to other mycotic agents. A more reliable diagnosis is by isolation of the fungus in sputum, blood, urine, or pulmonary lesions.

Constantine (1988) reported that severe cases of human histoplasmosis were treated with amphotericin B, but surgery is often indicated.

Parasites Bats are no different from other animals in that they harbor a wide variety of parasites, especially ectoparasites, including fleas, mites and ticks. Bat ectoparasites, however, are highly host-specific and rarely, if ever, bite people or their pets. No human diseases have been linked to bat ectoparasites (Constantine, 1988).

ANIMAL HYGIENE

Quarantine All incoming wild bats should be isolated from other animals. If they are to remain in captivity, the quarantine period should be at least 6 months. During this time, conduct a thorough physical examination, paying particular attention to the likelihood of dehydration. Chemical erradication of ectoparasites is not necessary. If enclosures are cleaned daily, the parasites eventually disappear (also see Parasites below, discussed under MEDICAL PROBLEMS).

Enclosure Maintenance To control pathogens, clean cages daily. Change the substrate and remove uneaten food and drinking water. To prevent the spread of infectious diseases or parasites, avoid transferring cage contents from one cage to another, and clean cages, glassware, and instruments of sick animals last. Cages should always be cleaned and disinfected following the illnes or death of a bat, and before new animals are placed in them. Keep extra clean cages be available to hold animals during scheduled cage cleaning.

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Cleaning and Disinfecting One of the most effective and inexpensive disinfectants is household bleach. Bleach, however, is difficult to rinse away and, if not diluted properly, can cause eye and skin irritation. A 1% solution of household bleach is sufficient to help reduce unpleasant odors from accumulated urine. Many animal facilities use pressurized steam for cleaning cages. When practical, scalding hot water is also effective for this purpose. Small cages then may be dried under natural sunlight for two or three days.

MEDICAL PROBLEMS

Dehydration Virtually all sick, injured or orphaned bats become dehydrated. Mortalities may be reduced substantially by rehydrating bats immediately, and before further treatment, with lactated Ringer's solution, subcutaneously, one to three times a day (see TABLE 13 for dosages). A bat will rehydrate within one to three days depending on its medical problem. It will usually accept food after the second or third injection of lactated Ringer's solution, and food must be offered by hand to insure it receives adequate nutrition. A dehydrated bat probably has not fed voluntarily because it produces little or no saliva, making it difficult for the animal to swallow.

Table 13

DOSAGES: LACTATED RINGER'S SOLUTION (LRS)

No. injections in a 24-hr. period, or Weight Of Bat in g Dosages LRS in ml (cc)* as needed** 1.0 - 1.1 0.03 - 0.04 3 - 5 1.2 - 1.5 0.04 - 0.05 3 - 5 1.6 - 1.9 0.05 - 0.06 3 - 5 2.0 - 2.4 0.06 - 0.07 3 - 4 2.5 - 2.9 0.07 - 0.08 3 - 4 3.0 - 3.4 0.08 - 0.09 3 - 4 3.5 - 3.6 0.09 - 0.10 3 - 4 4.0 - 4.4 0.10 - 0.15 3 - 4 4.5 - 4.9 0.15 - 0.20 2 - 3

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org 5.0 - 5.4 0.20 - 0.25 2 - 3 5.5 - 5.9 0.25 - 0.30 1 - 2 6.0 - 6.4 0.25 - 0.30 1 - 2 6.5 - 6.9 0.30 - 0.35 1 - 2 7.0 - 7.4 0.35 - 0.40 1 - 2 7.5 - 7.9 0.40 - 0.45 1 - 2 8.0 - 8.4 0.45 - 0.50 1 - 2 Calculate using worksheet in 8.5+ 0.50 Appendix II

* The higher dosage is also the maximum safe amount of fluids that can be delivered in one injection. ** It is not necessary to inject bats throughout the night. Injections can begin at 6 A.M. and end at midnight.

Diarrhea Diarrhea in captive bats is usually associated with diet and/or stress. Dietary causes include the feeding of spoiled food, especially when feeding nectarivorous and sanguivorous bats, or "bat glop" as a substitute for insects. Other dietary causes of diarrhea include over-feeding or over-supplementing the diet with multivitamins. Causes of stress-induced diarrhea include shipping, change in caging, over-handling, incompatible cage mates, a noisy environment and, depending on the species, exposure to inappropriate lighting and/or prolonged exposure to humidities below 30% and above 80%. Viruses, bacteria and endoparasites can also cause diarrhea in bats.

Injuries Among wild bats, most injuries include broken bones and/or tears in wing membranes, primarily from cat attacks. Simple fractures and minor wing tears usually heal within a month with little or no medical assistance. Wallach and Boever (1983) reported using disposable syringe barrels to fashion splints. They also warned against using products containing procaine. Because the webbing of bats' wings is highly vascularized, too much procaine is absored, with the consequence of severe depression.

Lollar (1994) gave detailed instructions on gluing wing fractures, but failed to explain how to maintain blood flow across the fracture- line through the glue. She also did not report the number of successful treatments achieved.

It is virtually impossible to repair compound fractures in small bats, much less to expect the animal to regain normal flight. The most sophisticated attempts have been made using intramedullary pins fashioned from appropriately sized hypodermic needles or 86

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org stainless steel wires. The following case is typical of such surgical attempts: a little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) was presented at a veterinary clinic with a 2-week-old compound fracture of the left wing, just below the elbow. An intramedullary pin was fashioned from a 20-gauge hypodermic needle. The surgical site was bandaged for approximately 6 weeks with biweekly changes. Each change of bandages required general anesthesia. The fracture failed to heal, but surgery was repeated successfully. Since the surgery, however, the bat's wing membrane sloughed away (FIG. 88), he chewed off his dessicated fourth and fifth fingers, and is unable to extend or flex his second and third fingers. Additionally, the bat broke off his left thumb as it protruded from the bandages, and for unknown reasons also lost the claw on his right thumb. Although the bat is permanently handicapped, he is otherwise healthy and being used in educational programs.

Figure 88. Little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) with healed wing injury (photo courtesy of Patrick Matheny, Moose, WY).

French (1994) gave an account of red bats (Lasiurus borealis) dying of infection if injured wings were not surgically amputated. Unfortunately, she failed to report on the survival rates and durations of bats which underwent surgical amputations. Nevertheless, amputation is indicated in cases of life-threatening infection. It must be emphasized that red bats are highly susceptible to infection and septicemia. These animals have extremely delicate tissues, and they can be fatally injured if they are not housed in a cage with soft sides and a sheepskin substrate.

Because of the many surgical failures routinely reported to me, I previously advocated euthanasia for most bats presented with compound fractures. Recently, however, I received a confiscated big brown bat that has changed my thinking in favor of allowing most compound fractures to heal without surgical intervention. FIGURE 89 depicts the animal's condition upon delivery. Except for routine wound cleaning, the bat received no veterinary care. On arrival at my facility, the bat was placed in a hard-sided cage (FIG. 26, Chapter 5) typically used for housing crevice-dwelling bats. To prevent skin

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org abrasions, sheepskin was placed on the cage floor. The bat's humerus shattered approximately 1 month after she was received; nevertheless, she quickly learned to maneuver by stabilizing her left side with her shoulder, and she is now being used in educational programs.

Figure 89. Big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) with healed wing injury.

The decision to perform surgery, or to allow natural healing of compound bone fractures must be weighed against several factors such as the species of bat, condition and age of the wound, and the amount of additional stress one is willing to place on an injured animal.

Respiratory Disease Respiratory disease is a general diagnosis, encompassing a variety of causes including parasites, fungi, bacteria, viruses, chemical inhalation, and fluid aspiration. Symptoms include nasal and oral discharge, gaping, audible and labored breathing, depression, anorexia and emaciation. Treatment for respiratory problems in bats is basically the same as it is for other mammals.

Parasites Bats worldwide support microbes and parasites similar to those found in other mammals. In captivity, mites are the most troublesome to control when strict quarantine is not observed. Of particular interest is the fact that bat parasites usually disappear after several weeks when caging and bedding are cleaned daily. When chemical erradication is required, however, the treatment of choice is insecticidal no-pest strip (dichlorvous vapor). Avoid the use of other products; Constantine (1986b) warns that bats are highly susceptible to the adverse effects of chlorinated hydrocarbons such as DDT (dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane), which is still available in many countries, Chlordane, Lindane, Toxaphene, Strobane, Endrin, Heptachlor (epoxide), Methoxychlor, Aldrine and Dieldrin.

Individuals who rehabilitate bats in their homes should isolate these animals from household pets, as bats may become infested with their pets' ectoparasites. On several occasions, I have heard that bats had to be treated for mange, ear mites and fleas

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org acquired from pets. Treatment for bats in these situations is the same as it is for other mammals, but dosages must be reduced considerably.

The treatment of choice for coccidiosis in bats is the same as it is for other mammals. Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole suspension (under many trade names) has proven successful at a dosage of 15 mg/kg of body weight (concentration of 40 mg of trimethoprim and 200 mg of sulfamethoxazole per 5 cc) twice daily for 8 to 10 days. For example, to treat bats weighing approximately 20 g, mix 2 drops (0.10 cc) of suspension in 0.4 cc of tap or distilled water. Administer 0.25 cc of the solution in the morning and again in the evening. I have also used fenbendazole (Panacur®) in the treatment of intestinal nematodes at a dosage of 50 mg/kg of body weight once daily for 3 days. Repeat in 3 weeks if necessary.

Poisoning Accidental poisoning can occur when pesticides and disinfectants are used indiscriminantly. Frugivorous bats may be poisoned by ingesting fruits from trees, shrubs or vines overhanging or growing into enclosures, or from potted plants.

Also, bat workers who are eager to provide a natural diet for frugivorous bats may accidentally include poisonous plants in their salads. For a listing of edible flowers and plants, see TABLE 14.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Table 14

SELECTED EDIBLE FLOWERS

FLOWER SHELF-LIFE Approx. Days Bachelor Buttons 7 Carnations 4 Cilantro 3 Chive Blossoms 7 Daisies 7 Garlic 7 Lemon Geraniums 7 Lavender 7 Lemon & Tangerine Marigolds 7 Nasturtiums 3 Baby Organic Orchids 7 Pineapple Sage 3 Baby Roses 7 Snapdragons 5 Violas 5

*For availability, see Appendix I

The major cause of poisoning in insectivorous species is from ingesting pesticides sprayed in the environment. Typical symptoms of poisoning include a hunched back, drawn-up legs, excessive salivation, rapid respiration, increased, irregular or slow respiration, tremors, incoordination, hindquarter weakness and/or stiffness, and lethargy.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org When poisoning is suspected, administer supportive therapy. Treatments include activated charcoal, calcium gluconate, atropine sulfate, diuretics and fluids. Follow dosages directed on package labelling; fluid dosages are presented in TABLE 13. Controlling central nervous system stimulation with diazepam or barbiturates may be indicated.

Of particular interest is the potential for poisoning insectivorous bats by feeding mealworms (Tenebrio molitor). Ladisch et al. (1967) reported on the occurrence of quinones in grain, flour, and fungus beetles in the family Tenebrionidae. Flour exposed to quinone vapors binds 350 ppm of it within 1 hour. Although further studies are necessary, it can be theorized that quinone secretions from mealworm beetles can contaminate the food-bedding in which larvae grow. The contaminated Tenebrio larvae are then fed to captive bats, with possible toxic effects. For example, larvae purchased from a dealer may contain toxic levels of quinones. Assuming this is true, it is not known how long the larvae remain toxic after being placed in fresh medium. One such incident occurred in a captive big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus). The principal diet of the bat was fortified mealworms that had been maintained in fresh medium for two weeks prior to feeding them to the bat. Depigmentation of the the bat's membranes (FIG. 90) was noticed first, and the problem worsened with time. The bat also exhibited dry, flaky skin, hair loss (FIG. 91), dehydration, loss of appetite and cessation of self-grooming. Three months later, the bat was presented for necropsy. Unfortunately, all tissues were autolyzed. The only diagnostic lesion was hemorrhagic lungs. Bacteriology produced beta hemolytic Streptococcus in lung tissues, and the spleen contained Bacillussp., Escherichia coli (non-hemolytic), Proteus sp., as well as beta hemolytic Streptococcus. Chemical analysis of the viscera was positive for hydroquinone at an estimated concentration of 10-20 ppm.

Figure 90. Big brown bat (E. fuscus) showing clinical symptoms of hydroquinone poisoning. Arrows point to depigmented areas of the skin (photo courtesy of Lynn Sage, Museum of Discovery and Science, Ft. Lauderdale, FL).

Until further information becomes available, do not allow mealworms to metamorphose. This is easily achieved by maintaining them in the refrigerator. With no beetles to secrete quinones in the food-bedding (also referred to as medium), larval contamination to bats can be minimized. Furthermore, maintain newly purchased mealworms in fresh medium, as described in Chapter 14, page, for a minimum of 2 weeks before feeding them to bats. For additional information on caring for mealworm larvae, refer to Chapter 14, MAINTENANCE OF INSECT COLONIES.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Bats may become seriously ill after ingesting mealworms which have ingested styrofoam. When bats are held in styrofoam coolers, all container contents must be removed daily to search for and eliminate any mealworms that may have adhered to bedding.

Petroleum Contamination Whitman (no date) reported the use of Whisk® Adhesive Remover Pads to remove a common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) from a mouse glueboard trap. To prevent the bat from resticking to the glueboard during the removal process, flour was dusted on it. The bat was then rinsed, presumably in water (author failed to say), to rid the fur of the adhesive remover. The bat was warmed with a heat lamp and fluids were administered subcutaneously. It may take several applications, over an equal number of days, to eliminate all of the product.

Lollar (1994) described using dishwashing detergent to remove No Roost® from Mexican free-tailed bats. As with the technique described above, it may take several applications and rinses to remove the adhevsive.

Roofing tar and oil may be removed with WD-40® (Lollar, 1994). WD-40®, however, is extremely toxic, so every effort must be made to wash it off a bat's fur, presumably with soap and water (author failed to say).

Hair Loss Unnatural hair loss can be caused by dietary deficiencies, disease, or poisoning (FIG. 91). Loss of hair, however, occurs naturally in bats during their spring molt. Female bats maintained in a captive breeding colony may lose hair behind their heads when males cling to this area while copulating with them.

Figure 91. Arrows point to hair loss across neck region of a big brown bat (E. fuscus) from hydroquinone poisoning (photo courtesy of Lynn Sage, Museum of Discovery and Science, Ft. Lauderdale, FL).

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org PHYSICAL EXAMINATION Racey (1987) suggested examining bats only while they are torpid, as bats at active temperatures may become agitated, and suffer further injuries. If necessary, refrigerate a bat (heterothermic species only) for approximately 30 minutes before examination. Quickly check for broken or dislocated bones, open wounds, torn or pierced membranes, and symptoms of respiratory disorders. If a bat appears uninjured, assess its ability to hang and to fly. Be aware that dehydration (see discussion above) and starvation usually render a bat too weak to fly. One other cause preventing a bat from taking flight in captivity is space. Some bats (e.g., those with narrow wingspans) require a large area in which to become airborne.

CLINIC ENVIRONMENT All bats, especially heterothermic species (discussed in Chapter 1), must be maintained at ambient temperatures of 80-85 F (27-29 C) when anesthesia is being administered, or when treating them with antibiotics or other drugs. Regardless of the species, if a sick bat does not respond to treatment with lactated Ringer's solution within 24 to 72 hours, begin administering the appropriate medication(s) while continuing hydration.

Sick or injured bats, weighing 4 g to approximately 100 g, can be placed temporarily in appropriately sized styrofoam containers that measure approximately 24 in. (61 cm) wide X 16 in. (41 cm) deep X 16 in. (41 cm) high). Lollar (1994) suggested the use of a similar-sized Rubbermaid® plastic tub. In either case, cut a relatively large opening in the top of the container and tape a piece of metal screen (FIG. 92a) over the opening on the OUTSIDE of the container. Be sure to use tape that will not lift up (e.g., strapping tape). Place a lamp over the container with a 25 W red-colored bulb. If the animal is a red bat, be sure to line the interior with drapery (FIG. 92b), using Velcro®. Bats weighing over 100 g can be placed in appropriately sized plastic pet carriers with mesh- lined top and sides (FIG. 18, Chapter 4). Depending on the medical situation, warmth can be provided with either a carefully monitored heating pad or with a 250 W lamp with a red-colored bulb. Never place heating pads on the cage bottom. Bats generally seek out the highest point in a cage, and forcing them to the bottom for warmth may be stressful. Also, heating pads on cage bottoms cause a bat to lie horizontally, rather than in the normal upside down position which, over an extended period of time, may result in swollen joints.

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Figure 92. Styrofoam coolers can be modified to house temporarily sick and injured bats weighing up to approximately 100 g. A 25W lamp, with a REDbulb, is sufficient to maintain temperatures at 80-85 F (approximately 27-29 C). A) cooler exterior showing modification of top and placement of lamp (use metal screening); B) modification necessary for red bats (also include a branch or attach mesh to the cooler top); C) cooler interior showing "furniture" for crevice-dwelling species (illustration from Barnard, 1992; photo courtesy of Gregory C. Greer, Marietta, GA).

Provide food and water ad libitum. To prevent a bat from becoming wet, be sure the water is placed as far away from the perch as possible. Add 0.3% by volume vitamin B complex either to the lactated Ringer's solution for injections, or to the sick bat's drinking water.

FLUID ADMINISTRATION FIGURE 93a illustrates the proper injection site for small bats. When injecting bats, they should be restrained in a soft cloth with the injection site exposed (FIG. 93b). It may be necessary to wear gloves when handling vampire bats and large species of fruit bats, although many workers wear gloves with all species. For fluid dosages, see TABLE 13. Evans (no date) recommends 0.05 cc/g/day of fluid. This dosage is also the maximum comfortable stomach capacity of most mammals.

Figure 93. A) injection site for small bats (photo courtesy of Lee Gilman, Charlotte, NC); B) proper procedure for injecting small bats (photo courtesy of Gregory C. Greer, Marietta, GA).

ANTIBIOTICS Most care givers are quick to use systemic antibiotics when faced with an injured bat. Helliwell (in litt.) reminds us that dosages and toxicity of antibiotics to bats are unknown, so antibiotics are not recommended for routine treatment; rather, only in cases of severe 94

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org illness, and then preferably after culture and sensitivity tests. The following antibiotics have been used in bats (dosages have been derived empirically): Helliwell (in litt.) reported that ampicillin daily was successful when used either orally or injected subcutaneously, at 10 mg/Kg. Helliwell also reported that lincomycin, given orally, was successful at a dosage of 0.5 ml/Kg, twice daily. I have had success with Bactrim™ (see Parasites above for dosage), and Baytril®. Baytril® injectable solution (2.27% concentration) at a dosage of 2.5 mg/Kg may be diluted as follows: mix 0.04 ml Baytril® with 0.96 ml sterile dilutent. Deliver 0.10 ml/10g body weight, twice daily, for 8-10 days. The first two treatments should be delivered subcutaneously and the balance orally. For oral doses, mix the diluted Baytril® with an equal part of sweet nectar such as banana or guava.

ANESTHESIA The literature contains several methods for anesthetizing various bat species (Beck, 1976; Dickson and Green, 1970; Green, 1979; Grinnell, 1963; Henson, 1969; Hime, 1967; Ladhani and Thies, 1968; Longnecker et al., 1974; Pye, 1967; Racey, 1987; Suga, 1964; Wallach and Boever, 1983). Today, however, the anesthesia of choice for all bats is isoflurane. Helliwell (in litt.) does not recommend injectable anesthetics for bats, as their small size offers a very low margin of safety.

Hypothermy has been used to immobilize bats for surgical procedures; hypothermy does not induce analgesia, and therefore should be avoided for surgery.

SELECTED PATHOLOGICAL DIAGNOSES 1986 - Big Brown Bat (Eptesicus fuscus) - handraised pup, captive 7 wks. - died - urinary calculus; chronic ulcerative cystitis; chronic interstitial nephritis.

1986 - Evening Bat (Nycticeius humeralis) - handraised pup, captive 3 yrs., 2 mos. - died - lymphosarcoma.

1987 - Big Brown Bat (E. fuscus) - handraised pup, captive 9 yrs. - surgery at 4 months of age - calcinosis cutis circumscripta (FIG. 94).

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Figure 94. Calcinosis cutis circumscripta (arrow) on the wing of a big brown bat (E. fuscus) (photo courtesy of Gwen C. Choi-Roesel, Cold Spring, KY).

1987 - Big Brown Bat (E. fuscus) - handraised pup, captive 1 yr., 3 mos. - died - generalized vascular mineralizations; chronic interstitial nephritis.

1987 - Hoary Bat (Lasiurus cinereus) - wild caught adult, captive 2 wks. - died - acute pneumonitis.

1987 - Red Bat (L. borealis) - wild caught adult, captive 10 days - died - rabies; pulmonary congestion.

1987 - Red Bat (L. borealis) - handraised pup, captive 9 mos. - died - chronic diffuse interstitial pneumonia; hepatic lipidosis; acute mild multifocal necrotizing hepatitis.

1988 - Black Velvety Mastiff Bat (Molossus ater ater) - wild caught adult, captive 2 yrs., 3 mos. - died - glomerulotubular nephropathy; monocytic enteritis; purulent stomatitis.

1989 - Red Bat (L. borealis) - wild caught adult, captive 3 days - died - severe intestinal coccidiosis; focal hemorrhagic pneumonia; intestinal parasitism (cestodes).

1991 - Short-tailed Fruit Bat (Carollia perspicillata) - captive born, age unknown - died - lymphoid peribronchiolitis; focal myocardial hemorrhage.

1991 - Yellow Bat (L. intermedius) - handraised pup, captive 3 wks. - died - purulent necrotizing hepatitis; chronic purulent osteoarthritis.

1991 - Big Brown Bat (E. fuscus) - handraised pup, captive 9 yrs. - died - multifocal granulomatous pneumonia (undetermined etiology); mild diffuse interstitial nephritis.

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org 1991 - Red Bat (L. borealis) - handraised pup, captive 1 yr. - died - epidermal hyperkeratosis; diffuse hepatocellular glycogen loading.

1993 - Red Bat (L. borealis) - mother-raised pup, captive 25 days - died - multifocal myocardial mineralization.

1993 - Red Bat (L. borealis) - handraised pup, captive 2Ѕ mos. - died - mild multifocal nonsuppurative interstitial nephritis and tubular necrosis with intratubular coccidian parasites.

1993 - Big Brown Bat (E. fuscus) - handraised pup, captive 1 yr. - died - early hydronephrosis; interstitial pyelonephritis; purulent cystitis; purulent sinusitis.

1993 - Big Brown Bat (E. fuscus) - handraised pup, captive 4 yrs. - died - oxalate toxicosis.

1994 - Big Brown Bat (E. fuscus) - wild caught adult, captive 9 yrs., 6 mos. - died - moderate hepatic lipidosis; acute multifocal subcutaneous hemorrhage.

1994 - Big Brown Bat (E. fuscus) - handraised pup, captive 3 yrs. - surgery at 3 years of age - focal severe chronic periostitis and periosteal cartilagenous/connective tissue proliferation (FIG. 95); chronic necrohemorrhagic cellulitis.

Figure 95. A) bat wing before surgery; B) bat wing after surgery. Diagnosis was focal severe chronic periostitis and periosteal cartilagenous/connective tissue proliferation, and chronic necrohemorrhagic cellulitis (photo courtesy of Allpets Clinic, Boulder, CO).

1995 - Red Bat (L. borealis) - handraised pup, captive 1 yr. 6 mos. - died - chronic necrotizing cellulitis with intralesional bacterial cocci; multifocal lymphoplasmacytic cholangiohepatitis and interstitial nephritis.

EUTHANASIA 97

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org The word "euthanasia" is a combination of two Greek words meaning "good death." Euthanasia is the procedure of killing rapidly and painlessly. The killing techniques, therefore, should result in rapid loss of brain function, or more specifically, central nervous system (CNS) depression and insensitivity to pain.

Lollar (1994) and other workers (as reported by Routh, 1991) advocate putting bats in a refrigerator until torpid and then transferring them to a freezer. Stebbings (pers. comm. to Routh, 1991) states that this method is inhumane; a view shared by the American Veterinary Medical Association. As the bat's body temperature approaches freezing, the animal awakes from torpor in an attempt to find a warmer environment (Davis and Reite, 1967; Hock, 1960; Mumford, 1958). Bats placed in freezers are, of course, trapped and ultimately freeze to death.

The euthanasia method used to kill bats depends on several factors, including the number being killed, reason for killing, and effects on the person performing the act. Any technique, must result in death without anxiety, panic or pain. Thus, any prior restraint techniques, also must not precipitate anxiety, panic or pain. The technique must insure rapid loss of consciousness and death. Methods of euthanasia must be safe for the operator and other personnel, simple, and maintenance free (i.e., minimizes sanitation problems and environmental contamination). For the purpose of this book, the euthanasia techniques discussed below will encompass practical, humane, and relatively safe (to the handler) methods of killing bats, using acceptable methods published by the American Veterinary Medical Association's (AVMA) 1993 Panel on Euthanasia.

Inhalants Gaseous anesthetics and carbon dioxide (CO2) gas are acceptable inhalants for euthanizing small mammals. Preferred gaseous anesthetics include halothane and isoflurane. Unacceptable gaseous methods include cyanide because of extreme toxicity to humans, and chloroform, which due to known hepatotoxicity and suspected carcinogenic properties, is also hazardous to humans. Air embolism is also unacceptable because it may produce convulsions, opisthotonos, and vocalization. Decompression, as a means of euthanasia, should be avoided (see AVMA, 1993). Gaseous anesthetics may be unsuitable if toxicological studies are to be undertaken.

Carbon dioxide at a concentration of 60-70%, with a 5-minute exposure time, appears to be generally optimal for euthanasia (Glen and Scott, 1973; Jaksch, 1981). CO2 is inexpensive, nonflammable, and poses minimal hazard to personnel when used with properly designed equipment. Additionally, it does not distort cellular structure (Feldman and Gupta, 1976). A disadvantage of

CO2 is that some animals have an extraordinary tolerance for it. Hansen et al. (1991) reported that 70% CO2 induced unconsiousness in mink, but did not kill them. Bats also may have a high tolerance for CO2. Although Lollar (1994) stated that

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org CO2 does not kill bats, Racey (1987) reported it successful. In the event carbon dioxide gas does not kill a bat, it may be used to induce unconsciousness prior to cervical dislocation, cranial concussion, or decaptitation to insure death.

Euthanizing with CO2 is best done with compressed gas from a cylinder, rather than other sources such as dry ice or CO2 from a fire extinguisher because the rate of flow to a gas chamber can be regulated: the flow-rate should displace at least 20% of the chamber volume per minute.

Non-inhalant Pharmaceuticals All barbituric acid derivatives used for anesthesia are appropriate drugs for euthanizing bats, although these anesthetics may leave the body unsuitable for toxicological studies. Unacceptable injectable agents include strychnine because it produces violent convulsions and presumably painful muscle contractions, nicotine, magnesium sulfate, potassium chloride, and all neuromuscular blocking agents such as tubocurarine, gallamine, decamethonium and succinylcholine; when used alone, these drugs all cause respiratory arrest before unconsciousness, so the bat may perceive pain after it is immobilized.

Injectable agents can be administered intraperitoneally. I have also euthanized bats humanely by delivering injectable agents subcutaneously.

Physical Methods Although stunning alone is an unacceptable method of euthanasia (AVMA, 1993), it is suitable in combination with cervical dislocation, cranial concussion or decapitation. Rather than stunning, hibernating bats may be refrigerated to induce torpor, then the relatively immobile bat can be killed by one of these methods. For cervical dislocation, Walsh and Stebbings (1988) suggested laying the bat in question on a hard surface, then placing a pencil across the neck and firmly pressing down. If decapitation is employed after hypothermia, the AVMA recommends placing the severed head immediately in liquid nitrogen. Where the intact head is required for rabies testing, cranial concussion is unsuitable.

Unacceptable physical methods published by the AVMA include drowning, exsanguination and freezing.

NECROPSY PROCEDURES The concepts of acceptable veterinary and husbandry practices do not end with the death of a bat. Even if a veterinarian is not

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org immediately available to perform a necropsy, one can still preserve tissues for histological examination. FIGURE 96 shows the necessary materials to perform a necropsy. In preparation for such

emergencies, have on hand 1 gal. or more of 10% formalin (mix 1 part 37% formaldehyde with 9 parts water) and as many pint-sized jars as there are captive bats. Upon discovering a dead bat, place it on its back and with a razor blade or sharp-pointed scissors make a midline incision through the skin from the animal's neck to its genitalia, and move the skin away from the midline to expose the internal organs. Place the bat into a pint jar and fill the jar with 10% formalin. Secure the jar cap with tape and place it in a zip-lock plastic bag. Deliver the formalin-fixed tissues, with the following information, to a veterinarian.

Figure 96. Materials necessary for performing a necropsy on a bat (photo courtesy of Gregory C. Greer, Marietta, GA).

* Owner's name, address and telephone number. * Bat's given name, species, age and sex. * Number of bats in same cage (or exhibit). * The number affected and/or lost. * Feeding history. * Date and time of death if known, or date and time bat was found dead in cage. * Date and time animal was fixed in 10% formalin. * Treatment and response if applicable. * Behavior of animal prior to dying. * Other important information.

Never freeze a dead bat unless otherwise instructed by the veterinary practitioner performing the necropsy. Freezing causes the body's cells to rupture and vital histological information will be lost in the process. Postmortem examinations should be performed immediately after the death of a bat to minimize autolysis (self-destruction of tissues).

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Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Taxidermic specimens (FIG. 102, Chapter 11) and articulated skeletons can enhance educational programs. To protect the artisan preparing a specimen, brain tissue can be withdrawn through the foramen magnum via a hypodermic needle and a sterile syringe (Greenhall, 1965). The brain tissue then may either be left in the syringe or transferred to a sterile vial and delivered to a laboratory for rabies testing. Store the bat in a freezer while awaiting laboratory results.

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ARTIFICIAL HIBERNATION

In temperate regions, wild adult bats in healthy condition are occasionally found away from their hibernaculum during late fall, and winter. Hibernating them in a refrigerator is a good way to maintain such animals until spring. Many people, however, attempt to hibernate bats in basements or spare rooms. Such situations are ideal only if the ambient temperature remains constant, or fluctuates no more than 5 degrees above or below 42 F; this rarely occurs in such large spaces and few bats, in these situations, survive the winter.

Before starting the hibernating process, be sure the bat is feeding and consuming water regularly at room temperature (approximately 72-74 F; 22-23 C) for about 4-7 days. On the evening before artificial hibernation begins, allow the bat to digest its last meal overnight (water must always be available). Early the following morning, place the bat into a covered, styrofoam container (FIG. 19, Chapter 4) (approximately 11 in. wide x 8 in. deep x 11 in. high) with a shallow dish of water; occasionally, bats awake during hibernation to drink. Do not add vitamin and mineral supplements to the hibernaculum drinking water because they serve as media for bacterial growth. Also, an attempt to change the water can cause the bat to awaken and waste valuable energy.

For a perch, place a small piece of cork bark and/or a pillowcase or T-shirt into the container, but do not allow the water to spill on the container's contents. Be sure there are adequate airholes. Refrigerate the container and bat for 10 days at a temperature of 42 F (6 C). On the 10th day, and during the evening hours, remove the containerized animal from the refrigerator, transfer it to its cage (which might be a larger cooler as described in Chapter 4 under Temporary Holding), and allow it to adjust to room temperature over a 2 or 3-hour period. Feed the bat for 2 or 3 nights, then repeat the procedure.

Refrigerator interiors are very DRY (e.g., approx. 5 to 15% relative humidity). To prevent a bat from dehydrating, do not refrigerate it longer than 10 days. During this time, it may lose about 1 g of body weight. Feeding it for 2 or 3 nights prior to refrigerating it again will help it to regain the lost weight. Repeat this procedure until flying insects become plentiful in your area, and release the bat where it was found originally.

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The following is a list of important "DO NOTS":

1) Never fly bats during the hibernating period. It is important that they conserve energy for spring foraging (also see Chapter 2, ASPECTS OF REHABILITATION AND CONSIDERATIONS FOR RELEASE).

2) Never refrigerate a bat during its active time of year (spring and summer) except to render it torpid for physical examination.

3) Never hibernate artificially injured, dehydrated or thin bats.

4) Never refrigerate infants.

5) Never refrigerate tropical species.

When bats are under refrigeration, unscrew the refrigerator lightbulb to maintain darkness when the door is opened. When removing items from the refrigerator, try to be as quiet as possible to prevent the bat from awakening. As a reminder, one can use signs such as Do Not Disturb, or This is a Westinghouse - I'm Westing.

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BATS ON PUBLIC DISPLAY

Although television is an excellent medium for wildlife education, it cannot replace a personal encounter with a living creature. When the animal is a bat, such experiences help people overcome their fear of these beneficial creatures, and other wildlife as well.

CONDITIONING BATS FOR PUBLIC DEMONSTRATIONS Whether a bat is wild, handraised or born in captivity, it will bite. Wild bats bite in self-defense, and handraised bats bite for a variety of reasons. For example, they may become frightened when handled by someone with whom they are unfamiliar, or when they are restrained for long periods. Large species of fruit bats (e.g., Pteropus) are also capable of inflicting deep scratches with their claws. Most bats, however, tame easily. They must be allowed the opportunity to adjust to handlers before they are used in animal demonstrations. More importantly, handlers should never demonstrate a bat until they feel confident in their ability to maintain control over the animal. FIGURES 97 and 98 show the proper methods for holding bats during demonstrations.

Figure 97. An easy method to secure a small bat while showing it to an audience. A) front view; B) back view (photos courtesy of Gregory C. Greer, Marietta, GA)

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Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Figure 98. The best way to support the weight of a large flying fox (photo courtesy of Catherine Strenbergh, Atlanta, GA)

Some lecturers avoid handling bats altogether. They incorporate the animal(s) into educational displays (FIGS. 99-101). Although this method is less "thrilling" to the audience, it is also less stressful to the animal, and the chance of animal injury is reduced considerably.

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Figure 100. An example of a mobile educational display that incorporates living and taxidermic specimens. A) front view; top left arrow shows where live bats roost during programs - the clear plastic, guillotine door can be locked to prevent escapes; top right arrow shows the mounted specimens - they include an adult with two pups, and at the bottom of the bat box, a specimen is mounted taking flight; bottom left arrow shows the graphics board. B) side view; left arrow shows the graphics board, and right arrow a box that holds educational material for distribution. C) back view; arrow shows full Figure 99. An example of an educational display that does not use a live bat. view of box holding distribution material. Although an individual may wish to educate the public about bats, he or she may not want to commit to caring for one (photo courtesy of Mark R. Barletta, North Haven, CT)

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Figure 101. Combination transport carrier/exhibit. This is a modification of the transport container shown in Figure 16, Chapter 4. A) two small carrier-top doors, rather than one large one, allows the worker better control over the bats when manipulating them in and out of the carrier; B) shows how the audience may view the bats without them being handled (photo courtesy of Chewonkee Foundation, Wiscasset, ME).

When conditioning bats for demonstrations, handle them twice daily in a quiet, safe area. Opportune times include the morning during cage cleaning, and in the evening just beforethey are fed. Each taming or calming session should last from 5 to 30 minutes, depending on the individual bat's tolerance for handling.

When taming [heterothermic] bats, place the palm of the hand against the animal's body while it is resting on its perch. In this way the bat will not be awakened suddenly, causing it to bite in fear. Allow the bat to wiggle freely under the hand until it is warm to the touch. With a soft cloth, remove the bat slowly from its perch. Do not jerk the feet free of the perch and be sure the wings are folded properly under the cloth; bats are very delicate animals and their bones break easily. Once the bat is under control in the cloth, maintain that control while stroking it with an ungloved hand.

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Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Avoid holding a bat while delivering a lecture. Rather, concentrate on maintaining control over the animal. First complete the program, then show the audience the living specimen. It is inappropriate to allow anyone from the audience to handle a bat. NEVER allow a bat to fly during a programunless, of course, it is secured in an appropriate flight cage or exhibit booth (FIG. 102) for the species. To minimize stress to the bat, limit its demonstration time to 5 or 10 minutes daily. If more than one bat is available for demonstrations, rotate them.

Figure 102. Exhibit booth for handling and displaying live bats outdoors (photo courtesy of Dave Davenport, Talking Talons, Albuquerque, NM).

People are very curious about the wings of bats. Rarely will a demonstration be completed without one or more individuals asking to see the animal's wings. Although spreading a bat's wing is not injurious to the animal, it so intensely dislikes having this done that it may become a "biter." To prevent this, either obtain a taxidermist's mounted specimen (FIG. 103), or use a photograph to show this feature.

Occasionally, bats react adversely to hand creams, perfumes, shaving lotions or other aromatic products. Avoid their use when handling any wild animal.

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Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Figure 103. Close-up of the bat box, shown in Figure 100 , containing taxidermic specimens

EXHIBITING If displays are designed poorly, small, secretive bats cannot be seen by the public. The ideal exhibit minimizes stress for the animals by providing adequate flight distance from viewers, yet it also allows the animals to be seen. Exhibits should be sound- proofed with glass fronts. Provide conspicuous graphics instructing, "Do Not Tap on Glass". An exhibit design which has proven successful for big brown bats is depicted in FIGURES 104 to 105. This exhibit is also suitable for other species that roost in bat houses.

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Figure 104. Components of a bat house exhibit/off-display cage: 1) bat house portion of cage viewable by the public, with removable glass front for easy cleaning; 2) guillotine access door to off-display, exercise/feeding area; 3) access doors to back of bat house display; 4) fiberglass cage floor with drain; 5) exercise/feeding area; 6) stand for exhibit/cage. A) front/ right-side view;; B) front/left-side view; C) back view of bat house display from off-display; exercise/feeding area with doors closed; D) same as (C) with doors open (photos and illustration courtesy of Panola Mountain State Conservation Park, Stockbridge, GA).

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Figure 105. Components of a bat house exhibit/off-display cage continued: A) suggested minimum dimensions; B) fiberglass floor with drain (illustration and photo courtesy of Panola Mountain State Conservation Park, Stockbridge, GA).

It is not uncommon for fighting to occur between males of many bat species. The ideal sex ratio for compatible coexistence among most captive colonial bats is one male to approximately 8 to 12 females. To prevent injuries, provide an appropriate number of retreats for subdominant animals, or remove them entirely from the exhibit. Off-display caging can be constructed as described in Chapter 5, ENVIRONMENT AND HOUSING FOR ADULT BATS.

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Figure 106. Components of a bat house exhibit/off-display cage continued: 7) exterior exhibit glass on door to off-display area; 8A) back side of door to off- display area; 8B & C) front side of door to off-display area, painted artistically for public viewing; 9) front of a bat house constructed on door to off-display area. A) exhibit/cage in off-display area with access door open; B) access door to off-display area closed, showing public's view; C) public opens bat house door to view bats - door is spring-loaded to ensure closing, and a rubber stop prevents it from making noise when it closes to reduce stress to the bats (photos courtesy of Stone Mountain Conservation State Park, Stockbridge, GA).

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Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Chapter Twelve

EXERCISING

Not all cages suggested in Chapter 5 (ENVIRONMENT AND HOUSING FOR ADULT BATS) permit flight, but they do provide enough space for adequate exercise. Although Racey (1987) reported that rhinolophids (horseshoe bats) develop swollen wrists within a few days when they are deprived of exercise, I have not found it necessary to actually fly bats to maintain good health (also see Hediger, 1964).

For those caretakers who must fly their bats for one reason or another, the following information is offered. When flying a bat, do so during its active time of year. Temperate-zone bats are active during the spring and summer months, and tropical bats are active all year.

Never fly an obese animal or expose it to predators such as cats and dogs. Cover aquaria and air vents, and fly bats over carpeted floors to protect them against injuries. Bats that are unaccustomed to confined spaces, or those that are obese, may crash into walls, floors, or other obstacles. Some bat genera (e.g., Eumops and Molossus) have relatively narrow wings designed for speed, and some species require as much as a 6-ft. drop in order to become airborne. Such bats should not be allowed to fly indoors or they may suffer injury.

If more than one bat is to be exercised, fly only one individual at a time. Because of their small size, many microchiropterans have the ability to disappear quickly, and so they should be supervised closely during exercise periods. NEVER fly a captive-raised bat outdoors.

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MARKING BATS FOR IDENTIFICATION

There are several reasons to mark bats for identification. Banding has provided investigators with a method to study bat migration, longevity, homing ability, and diseases including rabies. Various methods have been used to identify bats. For example, zoological institutions identify them with tattooes, bleaching of fur, wing notching and/or colored/numbered arm bands. Bands are traditionally made of lightweight metals or plastics. Although several types of designs have been used (Hassell, 1967; Herreid et al., 1960; Hill and Smigh, 1986; Hitchcock, 1957; Kowalski, 1955), all are injurious to varying degrees. There is only one method, however, that is permanent and does not disfigure the animal. The system uses electromagnetic transponders implanted under the skin (FIG. 107).

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Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org I implanted 20 big brown bats (Barnard, 1989) under "field" conditions, and all animals remained free of infection. Furthermore, seven years later the implanted transponders have not migrated from the site of insertion.

The use of transponders not only provides a humane way in which to identify bats in captivity, but should prove useful to biologists who are studying newly released, captive-reared individuals, or wild populations. As with radio-tracking devices, however, this technology is relatively expensive. Prices vary according to the supplier (see APPENDIX I for availability).

Figure 107. A) a sterilized electromagnetic transponder (arrow) being loaded into a 12-GA, 1Ѕ-in. needle; B) a transponder being implanted into a big brown bat (E. fuscus) (photos courtesy of Gregory C. Greer, Marietta, GA).

Chapter Fourteen

MAINTENANCE OF INSECT COLONIES

For cost-effectiveness, commercial dealers must sell insects in relatively large quantities; therefore, it may be less expensive to culture them when maintaining only one or two bats. Unfortunately, insect cultures often become contaminated with arthropod pests 115

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org such as grain mites (Tyrophagus spp.). While the mites are not usually harmful to bats, they do compete with them for nutrients that would otherwise be available to the bats. These mites also have occasionally caused unspecified dermatitis in bats housed adjacent to a [tenebrionid] culture. Of recent concern, however, is the possibility of hydroquinone poisoning from bedding that may become contaminated from secretions by adult tenebrionid (mealworm) beetles. The reader is directed to the discussion on Poisoning in Chapter 9.

For workers who keep more than one or two bats, it is much less labor-intensive to purchase food insects. These can be refrigerated for varying time periods. For example, mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) can survive 1 to 2 months under refrigeration, waxworms (Galleria mellonella) about 1 to 3 weeks and crickets (Acheta domestica) approximately 24 to 60 hours. Avoid freezing insects because bats may refuse to eat them. Also, dead insects begin decaying immediately after they have been defrosted, and the potentially spoiled food could cause a bat to become sick.

Although dealers suggest that insects be refrigerated in the container in which they are shipped, to do so over a prolonged period of time may produce dietary deficiencies in bats (also see Chapter 7, FEEDING ADULT BATS). I have found that mealworms eat significant amounts of food even under refrigeration, and for this reason, newly purchased mealworms should be removed from the shipping box as soon as possible, and placed into a vegetable crisper or similar container (FIG. 108). To each container of 2,500 mealworms, add the following ingredients:

Oat bran ...... 1 cup

Wheat bran ...... 1 cup

Powdered multivitamins containing vitamin D3 (e.g., Theralin®) (FIG. 61, Chapt. 7) ...... Ѕ cup

Bone meal powder (sterilized) (FIG. 60, Chapt. 7) . . Ѕ cup

Leafy greens, unchopped (e.g., collards, spinach, cabbage,

Mustard greens, kale, etc.) ...... 1 cup

Potato or apple ...... Ѕ

Fig. 108. A refrigerator crisper is an ideal container for storing between 10,000 and 20,000 116

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org mealworms (Tenibrio molitor).

Mix the mealworms and additives thoroughly. This recipe can be adjusted accordingly to the number of mealworms purchased. Do not cover the container, as mealworms require plenty of oxygen. Replace leafy greens when they dry out.

When purchasing large quantities of mealworms, hand-sorting them from the substrate, shed skins, and dead mealworms, can be time-consuming. Instead, place the approximate number of mealworms to be fed off in a large strainer. Sift Fig. 109. A) mealworms (T. molitor) can be sorted from growing medium and other debris if they are out the fine particles, then pour the mealworms and coarse debris onto a clean, placed on loosely woven fabric such as a dishcloth. B) mealworms sort more easily if the dishcloth is loosely woven dishcloth, laid flat on a paint grid, within a [kitty-litter] pan (FIG. placed on a paint grid. 109). Set the pan 1-2 feet from a 60 W lamp. The live mealworms will migrate under the dishcloth to avoid the light, leaving the debris on the surface of the cloth where it can be discarded easily. The live mealworms can then be counted and fed to the bats.

For anyone wishing to culture insects, the following can be maintained as food sources for all species of captive, insect-eating animals. When fed in combination, they offer a reasonably diverse diet.

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MEALWORM (Tenebrio molitor) COLONY

Materials:

1,000 mealworms (FIG. 110) (preferably of mixed sizes)

Fig. 110. Mealworms (T. molitor). Inexperienced people caring for wildlife may confuse mealworms with earthworms when receiving instructions on 1 wide-mouth gallon jar or other appropriate-sized their care. Bats do not eat earthworms (photo courtesy of Gregory C. container (FIG. 111a) Greer, Marietta, GA)

Cheesecloth

String or rubberband

Mite trap (bowl of water) (FIG. 111b)

10-inch forceps

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Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Fig. 111. Wide-mouth gallon jars (A) make suitable containers for culturing mealworms (T. molitor). It is, however, advisable to place them in a dish of water (B) to serve as a mite trap (from Barnard, 1986)..

Medium:

Enough Quaker® oats to fill jar half-way

ј cup bone meal powder (sterilized brand) (FIG. 60, Chapter 7)

ј cup multivitamin powder (e.g., Theralin®) (FIG. 61, Chapter 7)

Ѕ potato or apple (necessary for moisture)

Thoroughly mix the oats, bone meal and multivitamin powders in the jar. Add the mealworms and gently swirl them into the medium. Place Ѕ potato on top of the medium and secure the cheesecloth cover with a piece of string or a rubberband. For reasons explained below, place the jar in a bowl of water.

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Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Ground monkey chow, dry dog food, laboratory rodent chow, and chick starter, have all been used for growing mealworms, but these commercial animal diets often contain arthropod pests that can contaminate the culture. A medium intended for human consumption is less likely to contain such contaminants. Nevertheless, grain mites (Tyrophagus spp.), commonly found in stored food, are always a potential problem because their eggs may adhere to the mealworms purchased. When these mites infest an insect culture, they can develop large populations. Placing the mealworm jar in a bowl of water prevents mites from dispersing into the surrounding area. If mites or other pests are observed, discard the infected colony.

A mealworm colony should be changed several times a year to fresh medium. First pour ALL contents from the old jar into a clean one, discarding only the moist, hard sediment on the bottom. Add enough fresh oats to fill the clean jar half-way. Mix in cup multivitamin powder and cup bone meal. Place Ѕ fresh potato or apple on top of the new medium, but never discard old potatoes or apples because mealworms lay their eggs in them.

To prevent hydroquinone poisoning, never feed bats mealworms taken directly from a culture. Always refrigerate them for approximately 2 weeks, in the medium discussed on page. Mealworms are removed easily from the jar with 10-in. forceps. An appropriate number should be placed in a 100 x 20 mm glass Petri dish when feeding bats (see Chapter 7 under ROUTINE FEEDING OF INSECTIVOROUS BATS).

WAXMOTH (Galleria mellonella) COLONY

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1 starter-culture of waxmoth larvae (FIG. 112) (see APPENDIX I for availability)

1 5-gal. plastic container with tightly sealing lid (cut hole in lid and cover with metal screen) (FIG. 113a) Fig. 112 Waxmouth larvae (Galleria mellonella), also called waxworms, are Mite trap (pan of water; FIG. 113b) parasites of beehives and must not be released into the wild (photo courtesy of Lee Gilman, Lamp with 60-100 W incandescent bulb Charlotte, N.C.)

Ѕ lb. medium*

* Medium (modified from Dutky et al., 1962):

1-lb. box mixed Gerber's® baby cereal

ѕ cup glycerine

Ѕ cup sugar

Ѕ cup tap water

12 drops Avitron® multivitamins (FIG. 57, Chapter 7)

2 Tbsp. bone meal powder (FIG. 60, Chapter 7)

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Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Fig. 113A & B. A five-gallon plastic bucket (A) makes a suitable container for culturing waxworms (from Barnard, 1986). To prevent larvae, or their parasites, from escaping into the environment, place the bucket in a pan of water (B).

Place the larval starter-culture on the bottom of the container with the medium. Cover the container and place it in a pan of water to prevent pest infestation (as discussed above), and also to prevent any waxmoth larvae, also called waxworms, from migrating outside the container. Set the lamp about 6 to 8 in. from the pan (be careful that the lamp does not melt the plastic container or pan). Waxworms develop most rapidly at temperatures between 80-90 F (26.7-32 C).

Check the culture periodically for appropriate-sized larvae to feed to bats. Do not feed bats too many moths, both because they are necessary to continue the culture, and they are not as nourishing as the larvae. Add more food when the medium appears to be riddled with larvae and cocoons. If portions of the contents become moldy, remove them immediately. Surplus waxmoth food can be stored in the refrigerator for several months if sealed tightly in a plastic bag. 122

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org IMPORTANT NOTE: excess waxmoths should never be released because they parasitize bee hives. When a waxmoth culture becomes too large, part of it can be given to owners of insect-eating pets, or unwanted portions may be destroyed under scalding hot water.

CRICKET (Acheta domestica) COLONY

Fig. 114. Crickets may be intermediate hosts for bat endoparasites. Only feed those that are available commercially. A) heat lamp; B) wild bird food; C) egg carton; D) poultry water dispenser (also see Figure 115).

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Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Materials:

Fig. 115. A plywood box with a screened, metal lid, can 1,000 or more crickets for large culture* be constructed for housing crickets (from Barnard, 1986).

1 or 2 doz. crickets for small culture*

1 wooden bin (approx. 2 ft. wide X 2 ft. high X 1 ft. deep) with screen lid (FIG. 115)

Enough peat moss to cover bottom, about 2 to 3 in. deep

Chick starter or game-bird chow in any type of flat dish

Fresh greens (collards, clover or grass, etc., that are free of toxic chemicals)

1-pt. poultry water dispenser (FIG. 116; also see FIG. 114) Fig. 116. A poultry water dispenser can be used for providing moisture to crickets. To prevent the insects from drowning, place paper towels in the base (from Paper towels Barnard, 1986).

Cardboard egg containers (these are usually shipped with the crickets)

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Lamp with 60-100 W incandescent bulb (FIG. 117)

Appropriate-sized collecting jar and funnel

*See FIG. 118 (bottom of page) for available sizes of crickets.

Fig. 117. Clamp-on lamp used frequently in zoological institutions for auxillary heat (illustration courtesy of Cathy Taibbi, Jonesboro, GA).

When housing 1,000 or more crickets, the bin can be made of Ѕ-in. plywood. Carefully sand the inside walls smooth to within 4 in. of the top of the container and apply glossy paint (crickets cannot climb on this surface). Spread dry peat moss over the bottom of the box and place the chick starter, water and greens in the center. The poultry water dispenser should be lined with 2 or 3 paper towels to prevent the crickets from drowning; they will drink from the soaked towels. Add the crickets to the bin and cover with a metal screened top. Place the lamp over the screened top to provide warmth (approx. 75 F; 24 C). To prevent the cricket bin from becoming infested with pests, it may be necessary to place each leg of the bin in a container of water, or to ring each leg generously with vasoline.

The water dispenser should be cleaned and paper towels replaced when necessary. Remove old greens and replace with fresh material every 2 to 3 days, and replenish the chow as needed. The peat-moss bedding should be kept dry and changed every 1 to 2 weeks. To do this, remove the water, greens and chow. Place the egg cartons at one end of the bin and wait until the crickets have migrated to the cartons. Change one half of the bedding; place the egg cartons at the opposite end of the bin, and repeat. Replace the water, greens and chow when finished. When collecting crickets from the bin, insert a funnel into a collecting jar and shake the crickets from the cardboard egg containers. Because adult crickets live about 2 weeks, use them as soon as possible. Before feeding crickets to bats, remove their jumping legs to assist the bats in catching them. For a diverse diet, feed in combination with mealworms and waxworms.

125

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org The ["feed-off"] bin is solely for cricket storage, as they cannot be refrigerated for more than 24-60 hours. Therefore, to breed and raise crickets, it will be necessary to have on hand the following additional supplies:

2 10-gal. aquariums (1 for breeders; 1 for hatchlings)

Misting bottle (FIG. 119)

2 lamps with 25-40 W incandescent bulbs

4 jar lids or Petri dishes Fig. 119. Misting bottle used for maintaining moisture in 2 cardboard egg containers substrate containing cricket eggs (illustration courtesy of Cathy A. Taibbi, Jonesboro, GA). Potting soil or peat moss

Newspaper

2 small sponges

1 appropriate-sized bowl

Line the bottom of one aquarium with newspaper and the other with about 1 to 2 inches of potting soil or peat moss. Into the aquarium lined with newspaper, place about 2 to 3 dozen crickets at a sex ratio of approximately 1:6 males to females (females have long ovipositors protruding posteriorly from their abdomens). This will be the breeding aquarium. Also place a cardboard egg container and two Petri dishes in each aquarium. Two Petri dishes are for food (feed with diet discussed above) and in the other two, place well-soaked sponges. In a corner of the breeding aquarium, place a bowl filled with potting soil or peat moss. Be sure the soil or moss is kept damp, not wet. This can be done with the misting bottle. Cover the aquarium with a lid, and place it next to the lamp to maintain the temperature at 80 F (26.7 C). Remove moistened soil or moss containing the eggs from the bowl weekly, and add it to the other aquarium reserved for raising the hatchlings.

126

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org After the first eggs have been placed in the second aquarium, maintain the aquarium in the same manner as the feed-off and breeding containers. The substrate containing eggs must be kept damp. It is important not to mix the hatchlings with adults, as the adults may eat them.

Eggs require 3 to 4 weeks to hatch, and young mature within 3 to 4 months. Additional aquaria can be used to separate hatchlings according to size. When hatchlings approach adult size, they can be placed into the feed-off bin.

127

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org

Fig. 118. Cricket sizes that are available commercially. A) pin-head, 1/8 in. (~0.3 cm); B) one week old, 3/16 in. (~0.5 cm); C) two weeks old, 1/4 in. (~0.6 cm); D) three weeks old, 3/8 in. (~0.95 cm); E) four weeks old, 1/2 in. (~1.3 cm); F) five weeks old, 3/4. (~2 cm); G) adult, 1 in. (~2.5 cm) (from Barnard, 1986).

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Vaughan, T.A. 1976. Nocturnal behavior of the African false vampire bat (Cardioderma cor). J. Mammal., 57:227-248.

Vaughan, T.A. and Vaughan, R.P. 1987. Parental behavior in the African yellow-winged bat. J. Mammal., 68:217-223.

Walker, E.P. 1942. Care of Captive animals. Smithsonian Ann. Rept., 3664:305-366.

Wallach, J.D. and Boever, W.J. 1983. DISEASES OF EXOTIC ANIMALS. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA.

Walsh, S.T. and Stebbings, R.E. 1988. CARE AND REHABILITATION OF WILD BATS. Privately published, Peterborough, Cambridgeshire.

Whitman, K. (no date). A sticky situation at the zoo. In: BAT CHAT, Vol. 2, No. 1. Bats Unlimited, PA.

Wilkinson, G.S. and Bradbury, J.W. 1988. Radiotelemetry: Techniques and analysis. In: Kunz T.H. (Ed.), ECOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL METHODS FOR THE STUDY OF BATS. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 105-124.

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Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Williams, R. and George, H. 1984. Hand-rearing grey-headed fruit bats and observations on growth of captive bred animals. In: Hunter, S.Q. (Ed.), PROCEEDINGS OF THE 4th ANNUAL A.S.Z.K. CONFERENCE. pp. 64-72.

Wilson, D.E. 1988. Maintaining bats for captive studies. In: Kunz T.H. (Ed.), ECOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL METHODS FOR THE STUDY OF BATS. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 247-264.

Wilson, W. 1990. Personal correspondence, Rochester, N.Y.

Wimsatt, W.A. (Ed.). 1970, 1970, 1977. BIOLOGY OF BATS, Vols. 1, 2, 3. Academic Press, New York, NY.

Wimsatt, W.A. 1986. Vampire bats. In: Fowler, M.E. (Ed.), ZOO AND WILD ANIMAL MEDICINE, 2nd Ed., W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA. pp. 644-649.

Wimsatt, W.A. and Guerriere, A. 1961. Care and maintenance of the common vampire bat in captivity. J. Mammal., 42:449-455.

Wimsatt, W.A., Guerriere, A. and Horst, R. 1973. An improved cage design for maintaining vampires (Desmodus) and other bats for experimental purposes. J. Mammal., 54:251-254.

Wurtman, R.J. and Weisel, J. 1969. Environmental lighting and neuroendocrine function: Relationship between spectrum of light source and gonadal growth. Endocrinology, 85:1218-1221.

Yalden, D.W. and Morris, P.A. 1975. THE LIVES OF BATS. Quadrangle - New York Times Press, London.

Young, J.A. 1987. A note on the hand-rearing and reintegration of an infant Rodrigues fruit bat Pteropus rodicensis at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust. Dodo, 24:82-86.

Appendix I

PRODUCTS MENTIONED IN TEXT

PRODUCT AVAILABLE/COMMENTS

140

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Ampicillin Many suppliers, including Biocraft Laboratories, Inc. 18-01 River Road Fair Lawn, NJ 07410 Tel. (201) 703-0400

Avimin® multiminerals Pet Warehouse, P.O. Box 310 Xenia, OH 45385 Tel. (800) 443-1160

United Pharmacal Co., Inc. 3705 Pear St., Box 969 St. Joseph, MO 64502 Tel. (800) 254-8726

R.C. Steele® Wholesale Pet Equipment and Kennel Supplies 1989 Transit Way, Box 910 Brockport, NY 14420-0910 Tel. (800) 872-3773

Also available at some pet stores.

Avitron® multivitamins Pet Warehouse (see Avimin® above for address and telephone number)

United Pharmacal Co., Inc., (see Avimin® above for address and telephone number)

Also available at some pet stores.

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Bactrim® Roche Chemical Div. Hoffmann-LaRoche, Inc. Nutley, NJ 07110 Tel. (201) 235-5000

Also available by prescription.

Bands (lipped) The Robert Stebbings Consultancy Limited 74 Alexandra Road Peterborough, Cambridgeshire England PE1 3DG Tel. 0733 340318 FAX 0733 897018

Baytril® Miles Inc. Agriculture Division, Animal Health Products 12707 West 63rd Street Suwanee Mission, KS 66201 Tel. (800) 255-6517 (913) 631-4800 (Local)

Also available by prescription.

Bone meal United Pharmacal Co., Inc. (see Avimin® above for address and telephone number)

Also available at most pet stores.

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Catheters (Sovereign® feeding tube or tom cat) Veterinary clinics.

Cheesecloth Carolina Biological Supply Co. Burlington, NC 27215 Tel. (919) 584-0381 (800) 632-1231 (NC customers) (800) 334-5551 (outside NC)

Carolina Biological Supply Co. Gladstone, OR 97027 Tel. (503) 656-1641 (OR customers call collect) (800) 547-1733 (outside OR)

Chick starter (Purina®) Feed and seed stores.

Citric acid Spectrum Chemical Mfg. Corp. 14422 South San Pedro St. Gardena, CA 90248-9985 Tel. (800) 772-8786

Also available at Wine Art Stores and some pharmacies.

Coop cups

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Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Pets International, Ltd. Arlington Heights, IL 60005

Also available at most pet stores.

Cork bark Glades Herp, P.O. Box 3207 North Fort Myers, FL 33918 Tel. (813) 543-6100

Hogtown Herpetological Supply, Inc. 1801 N.E. 23rd Ave. Gainesville, FL 32609 Tel. (352) 338-0504

O.F.E. International Inc. P.O. Box 163256 Miami, FL 33116 Tel. (305) 253-7080

Van Dyke's Taxidermy Catalog Woonsocket, SD 57385 (800) 843-3320

Also available at some florists, taxidermists and pet stores.

Crickets Fluker Farms, Inc., P.O. Box 378 Baton Rouge, LA 70821 Tel. (800) 735-8537

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Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Grubco, Inc. Box 15001 Hamilton, OH 45015 (800) 222-3562 (OH customers), (800) 222-3563 (outside OH)

Nature's Way, P.O. Box 7268 Hamilton, OH 45013-7268 Tel. (800) 318-2611 FAX (513) 737-5421

Rainbow Mealworms P.O. Box 4525 126 E. Spruce Street Compton, CA 90220 Tel. (800) 777-9676 (orders only) (310) 635-1494 (inquiries) FAX. (310) 635-1004

Also available at most bait and pet stores.

Culture dish (Item #74-0996) Carolina Biological Supply Co. (see Cheesecloth above for address and telephone number)

Dextrose (called corn sugar by beer and wine makers) Spectrum Chemical Mfg. Corp. (see Citric acid above for address and telephone number)

Also available at Wine Art Stores and some pharmacies.

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Electromagnetic transponders Request information from the author.

Fenbendazole (Panacur®) Veterinary clinics.

Forceps (10-inch, other sizes) Carolina Biological Supply Co. (see Cheesecloth above for addresses and telephone numbers).

Formalin (10%) Medical Supply Corporation of New Jersey 1900 Adams Ave. Toms River, NJ 08753 Tel. (201) 506-9020

Also available at veterinary clinics.

Game-bird Chow (Purina®) Feed and seed stores.

Glycerin Pharmacies.

Goop® (Plumber's) Builder's supply stores.

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Goya® fruit juices Goya de Puerto Rico, Inc. Bayamon, Puerto Rico 00621

Also available at some super markets.

Hardware cloth (1/4-inch) Hardware stores.

Humidifier (fine mist) Durocraft Corporation 490 Boston Post Road Sudbury, MA 01776-9102 Tel. (508) 443-1767

Hygrometer (Taylor® C-624) Alabama Poultry Supply Co., Inc. 1403 3rd Ave. SE P.O. Drawer 1027 Culman, AL 35056 Tel. (205) 734-0640

Carolina Biological Supply Co. (see Cheesecloth above for address and telephone number).

Hypodermic needles Medical Supply Corporation of New Jersey (see Formalin above for address and telephone number)

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Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Also available at veterinary clinics.

KMR® powder United Pharmacal Co., Inc. (see Avimin® above for address and telephone number)

Also available at some pet stores.

Lactated Ringer's solution Medical Supply Corporation of New Jersey see Formalin above for address and telephone number)

Also available at veterinary clinics.

Laminated plastic Builder's supply stores.

Lincomycin The Upjohn Company 7000 Portage Road Kalamazoo, MI 49001

LPP Regular™ Twin Laboratories, Inc. 2120 Smithtown Ave. Ronkonkoma, NY 11779 Tel. (516) 467-3140 (NY customers) (800) 645-5626 (outside NY)

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Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Also available at health food stores.

Mealworms Fluker Farms, Inc. (see Crickets above for address and telephone number)

Georgia Mealies P.O. Box 1854 Tifton, GA 31793-1854 Tel. (912) 382-8874

Grubco, Inc. (see Crickets above for address and telephone numbers)

Nature's Way (see Crickets above for address and telephone numbers)

Rainbow Mealworms (see Crickets above for address and telephone numbers)

Also available at most bait and pet stores.

Mesh (Polyethylene plastic) ADPI Enterprises, Inc. 3621 "B" St. Philadelphia, PA 19134 Tel. (800) 621-0275 (215) 425-8866 (Local)

InterNet Incorporated 2730 Nevada Ave., No. Minneapolis, MN 55427 149

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Tel. (612) 541-9690 (800) 328-8456

Naltex 220 East Elmo Austin, TX 78745 Tel. (800) 531-5112

Metoclopramide hydrochloride (Reglan®) Available by prescription.

Misting bottle Hardware stores, plant nurseries, and super markets.

Multi-Milk™ Pet-Ag, Inc. 30W432 Rt. 20 Elgin, IL. 60120 Tel. (708) 741-3131 (IL customers) (800) 323-0877 (outside IL).

No-Pest strip insecticide Available in some hardware stores

(manufactured by Kenco Chemical & Mfg. Corp. Jacksonville, FL 32205-6246)

Nursing nipples Helen's Fauna Nursing Service 150

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org 1255 Moss Vale Road Beaumont, New South Wales, 2577, Australia Tel./FAX (044) 651328

Oat bran Super markets.

Peat moss Plant nurseries.

Petri dishes (glass) Carolina Biological Supply Co. (see Cheesecloth above addresses and telephone numbers)

Plaster of Paris Builder's supply, hardware and hobby stores.

Pollen (Bee; Item #H3-K7) Jeffers Vet Supply Box 100 Dothan, AL 36302 Tel. (800) 633-7592

Potassium phosphate Spectrum Chemical Mfg. Corp. (see Citric acid above for address and telephone number)

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Poultry water dispenser G.Q.F. Manufacturing Co. P.O. Box 1552 Savannah, GA 31498 Tel. (912) 236-0651 Fax. (912) 234-9978

Jeffers Vet Supply (see Pollen above for address and telephone number)

Also available at feed and seed stores.

Pro Fuel™ Twin Laboratories, Inc. (see LPP Regular™ for address and telephone numbers)

Also available at health food stores.

Quaker Oats Super markets.

Radio transmitter (B2-B) Holohil Systems Limited 3387 Stonecrest, Woodlawn Ontario, Canada KOA 3MO Tel. (613) 832-3649.

Receiver (CE-12™ ) Custom Electronics of Urbana, Inc. 152

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org 20009 Silver Court W Urbana, IL; Tel. (217) 344-3460.

Rustoleum® finish for wood Hardware stores.

Similac® Super markets.

Sodium citrate Spectrum Chemical Mfg. Corp. (see Citric acid above for address and telephone number)

May be available at some pharmacies.

Surgical cement (Skin Bond™ ) Smith and Nephew United 11775 Starkey Largo FL, 34649 Tel. (800) 876-1261

Syringes (tuberculin) Medical Supply Corporation of New Jersey (see Formalin above for address and telephone number)

Also available at veterinary clinics.

Theralin® (regular powder) 153

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Piccadilly Pets (see Bone meal for address and telephone number)

United Pharmacal Co., Inc. (see Avimin® above for address and telephone number)

Jeffers Vet Supply (see Poultry water dispenser for address and telephone number)

Also available at pet stores.

Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole suspension (Bactrim™) Available by prescription.

Unilact® The Upjohn Company (see Lincomycin above for address)

Also available by prescription.

Velcro® Fabric shops and hardware stores.

Vitamin E powder (Item #H3-V8) Jeffers Vet Supply (see Poultry water dispenser for address and telephone number) do NOT use vitamin E powder containing selenium.

Waxmoth larvae (starter culture) 154

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Nasco 901 Janesville Ave. Fort Atkinson, WS 53538 Tel. (414) 563-2446 or,

1524 Princeton Ave. Modesto, CA 95352 Tel. (209) 529-6957

Grubco, Inc. (see Crickets above for address and telephone number)

Nature's Way (see Crickets for address and telephone number)

Rainbow Mealworms (see Crickets above for address and telephone number)

Also available at local bait stores.

Whisk Adhesive Remover Baxter Healthcare Corporation, Hospital Supply Division Deerfield, IL 60015

Wombaroo® flying fox milk replacer Helen's Fauna Nursing Service (see Nursing nipples above)

Zoologic 33/40® powder United Pharmacal Co., Inc. (see Avimin® above for address and telephone number) 155

Комплектовано от Хинко www.hinko.org Also available at veterinary clinics and some pet stores.

***Please note: some area codes have changed since original publication of Bats In Captivity. Please contact webmaster or author for any corrections you find to the above.

Appendix II

DOSAGE CALCULATIONS WORKSHEET: LACTATED RINGER'S SOLUTION*

Step 1 The amount of fluids required for the daily maintenance of a bat weighing 8.5+ g is 55 ml (cc) LRS per 1000 g (1 kg) of body weight, times the weight of the bat (in grams), or

55 ml/1000 g X wt. of bat = daily maintenance (ml)

Step 2 The amount of fluids required to make up the deficit incurred before fluid therapy is 8% of the bat's weight (in grams) divided by 2, or

0.08 X wt. of bat = fluid deficit (ml) 2

Step 3 Add the daily maintenance to the fluid deficit, then divide by the maximum amount of fluids that can be delivered in one injection (0.50 ml) to determine the number of injections to be given in 24 hours. daily maintenance + fluid deficit = ml/ 0.50 ml = no. of injections (distribute injections evenly between 6 A.M and midnight)

Step 4 Since injections can be distributed over 18 hours in each 24-hour period, divide 18 by the number of injections to be given, or

18/no. of injections = 0.50 ml administered every hours. 156

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Example:

An adult red bat (Lasiurus borealis) is admitted with a simple fracture of the left forearm. The animal weighs 10.2 grams. Before treating the bat for the fracture, administer the appropriate dosage of lactated Ringer's solution.

Step 1 First calculate the amount of fluids necessary for daily maintenance for a bat weighing 8.5+ g.

55 ml X 10.2 g = 0.561 ml 1000 g

Step 2 Then calculate the fluid deficit.

0.08 X 10.2 = 0.408 ml 2

Step 3 Add the two figures together, then divide by 0.50 ml to determine the number of injections to be given in 24 hours.

0.561 ml + 0.408 ml = 0.969 ml = 1.938 injections 0.50 ml

(round off 1.938 to 2 injections)

Step 4 Injections should be distributed over 18 hours in each 24-hour period.

18 = 0.50 ml administered every 9 hours 2

* Modified from Carpenter (1988)

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