ANSU Journal of Language and Literary Studies (AJLLS)

Vol. 1 No. 2 December, 2015

© Department of English Chukwuemeka Odomegwu Ojukwu University, Anambra State.

i OBJECTIVES ANSU Journal of Language and Literary Studies (AJLLS) is a peer reviewed Journal geared to sustaining progressive analytical and well researched papers in the studies of Language and Literature. It also publishes well written expository essays, reviews, poems and short stories in English and indigenous languages.

SUBMISSION OF MANUSCRIPT Manuscript should be submitted for peer reviewing to:[email protected]. The AJLLS adopts the Modern Language Association MLA document style 6th or 7th edition or the latest edition of APA. Any case of piracy is solely at the risk of the individual contributor so accused.

AJLLS is published twice a year June and December by the Department of English, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University.

ANSUJLLS ISSN 2465 - 7352

ii Editor-in-Chief Dr. Echezona Ifejirika Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam.

Editor Dr. Ngozi Chuma-Udeh Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam.

Associate Editor Dr. Ngozi Madu Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam.

Editorial Members Dr. Anthonia Ezeugo - Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam. Dr. Chukwueloka Christian Chukwuloo - Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam. Okeke Fidelia - Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam. Ofoegbu Cyril - Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam.

Editorial Secretary Dr. Asika Emmanuel Ikechukwu

Consulting Editors Professor Charles Ekwusiaga Nnolim - University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria Professor Chidi Maduka - University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria Professor Nicholas Akwanya - University of Nigeria, Nsukka Professor Damian Opata - University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

iii MISSION STATEMENT FROM THE DESK OF THE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

We in the ANSU Journal of English Language and Literary Studies are perfectly aware that from the classical period (Greek-Roma era) to the Mediaeval (Dark Age) through the Renaissance, down to the Neo-Classical period to the Romantic era, through the Realist/Nationalist age to the Modern period, a lot has been written by professional and amateur novelists, playwrights and poets, and critics. Similarly, from Ferdinand de Saussure’s Structuralism to Noam Chomsky Transformational Generative Grammar (TG) to this day, linguist and language experts have written so much on Language and Linguistics. Therefore, for lazy and complacent academics, all that needs to be written has been written by experts and nothing worthy of academic attention has not been written.

One of our mission statements is that although a lot has been written, much more is yet to be written. This is based on the premise that the human brain has not been developed up to one third of its potential capacity. Therefore, through ANSEJELL, very well researched, original and socially relevant articles would be published to add significantly to the pull of existing knowledge in the areas of language and literature. Through these publications, researchers would be assisted to rise professionally and their quota to the ever growing knowledge in the relevant areas.

In ANSUJLL, we do not believe in “Art for Art’s” sake (what Chinua Achebe called “deodorized shit”) and publication for promotion's sake. To this end, great emphasis is placed on the articles’ originality, currency and social cum academic relevance.

Guidelines to Researchers The inconsistencies and unprofessionalism noticed in some of the articles sent in for publication by some researchers have necessitated the giving of some guidelines to our contributors. First and foremost, researchers must ensure that the topics they choose for their study are not only very well restricted in scope but must also be researchable. Writing on unrestricted topics is similar to playing football in an unmarked field without any goal post. Secondly, in the course of editorial work, it was discovered that some researchers did not do justice to the issue of Abstracts for their topics.

It is important to re-emphasize that Abstract, which should not exceed two hundred to two hundred and fifty words, should include, the research topic, method(s) of investigation, findings, conclusion and recommendations, if any, and is usually written in the past and not in the future tense. The logic is that the action of investigation has been started and completed before the report is given.

Furthermore, in the body of the study, there is a great need for researchers to have sub-headings on which the topic of the research is systematically broken and treated for a comprehensive and comprehensible reading.

In addition to the above, it is imperative that researchers must show sufficient evidence of their familiarity with the in-text and final citation methods used in the Language and literature studies. While researchers in Language prefer to adhere to the American Psychological Association (APA) citation method, investigators in the literature area often adopt the Modern Language Association (MLA) for in text and final citation of their work. Contributors are to be aware of this and apply same in their articles for publications.

Finally, the editorial team wishes to use this medium to appreciate all the contributors from far and near, for without your articles, our project would have remained a mirage. Similarly, we thank our peer-reviewers, who professionally and dispassionately read through the manuscripts and made useful comments and criticisms that enhanced the quality of this edition. - Editor-in-Chief.

iv CONTENTS

Section A: LANGUAGE

Chapter 1 The Power of Reading; Insight into Reading Culture of the Igbo in Nigeria 1 - Akabuike, Grace Chapter 2 Knowledge Enhancement Through Reading for National Development 9 - Okeke, F.A. Chapter 3 English for Academic Purpose: The Nigerian Experience 19 - Akpan, Godwin F. (Ph.D) Chapter 4 Binding the Devil: A Speech Act Reading of Selected Prayer Points 25 in Daniel Olukoya's Prayer Rain - Olumola, VictoriIyabo. Chapter 5 A Linguistic Discourse on the Nature of Sound Production. 33 - Akpan, Godwin F. (Ph.D) Chapter 6 English and Hausa Loan Words in Tiv. 39 - Usar, Ignatius Lomenge Ofoegbu Cyril Chapter 7 Discourse Techniques in Chief Willie Obiano's Inaugural Address, 46 “Expanding the Frontiers of Excellence” - Ofoegbu, Cyril O. and Ume Rose Amaechi Chapter 8 Towards a Pragmatic Approach to Understanding Modern Advertising 54 - Pam, Keziah Jonah and Dakart Blessing Vou. Chapter 9 A Lexicostatistic Analysis of English and Igbo One Hundred Basic Vocabulary. 59 - Agu, Margaret Nonyerem. (Ph.D) Chapter10 A Pragmatic Analysis of Leadership Cartoons in Selected Nigerian Dailies. 64 - Agu, Margaret Nonyerem (Ph.D) Chapter11 Language Use in Communication: A Semiotic Perspective on Selected 71 Igbo Cultural Symbolic Objects - Okeke, F.A.

Section B: LITERATURE

Chapter12 Beyond the Tragic Abyss: Transcending Absurdist Limits in Camus’ Fiction 83 - Abba A. Abba (Ph.D) Chapter 13 Colonial Perception and Re-imaging the African Identity in Chinua Achebe's 91 Things Fall Apart - Abel, Joseph Chapter 14 Beyond Pardon in Niger-Delta Politics: Exploitation and 100 Disillusionment in Chimeka Garrick's Tomorrow Died yYesterday and Tanure Ojaide's The Activist - Ujowundu Cornel Onyemaechi (Ph.D)

v Chapter 15 Ridiculing Our Dark Practices: The Exploitation of Womanhood 113 in Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo's Trafficked and Ngozi Chuma-Udeh's Echoes of a New Dawn - Ujowundu, Cornel Onyemauche and Revd Onyeachulam, Sylvanus G.C. Chapter 16 Dislocation, Migration and Diasporic Experiences in Segun Afolabi's 121 Goodbye Lucille and A Life Elsewhere - Ugwuanyi, Dele Maxwell. Chapter 17 Women, Literacy in ElechiAmadi's Estrangement 131 - Eme, Gloria Woruji (Ph.D) Chapter 18 The Place of Literature in the Acquisition and Development 137 of Vocabularies in the English Language. - Ifejirika, Echezona (Ph.D) Chapter 19 Humour as an Effective Literary Device in Amu Djoleto's The Strange Man 145 - Asika, Emmanual (Ph.D) Chapter 20 Sexuality and the Politics of Exclusion in Jude Dibia'sWalking with Shadow 155 - Akujobi Remi Chapter 21 Rhetorical Strategies in Ngugi Wa Thiong O and Mugo'sThe Trial of Dedan Kimathic 165 - Olutoyin, Williams C. (Ph.D) Chapter 22 Aspects of African Oral Literature and Performance Aesthetics 172 - AbdullahiKadirAyinde (Ph.D) Chapter 23 African Caribbean Life in Bratharaite's Poetry: A Post-colonial Perspective 179 - Mustafa, Linda Jummai Chapter 24 Folktale as Catalyst for Moral Instruction in Selected Nigerian Movies. 189 - Usman Joshua Chapter 25 Themes and Techniques in the Nigerian Novel. A Review of Ngozi 196 ChmamandaAdichie's Half of a Yellow Sun - Mbah, Victor. Chapter 26 Authoritarianism in Nigerian Literature: An Analysis of Helon Habila's 204 Waiting for an Angel - Ngozi Chuma Udeh (Ph.D) Chapter 27 Power Structure and Inter-generational Struggle in Olu Obafemi's 213 The New Dawn and Suicide Syndrome - AbdulahiAbubakar (Ph.D) Chapter 28 Social Disparity and the Plight of the Common Man: A Marxist 221 Reading of Ezenwa Ohaeto's I Wan Bi President - Chukwueloka CC (Ph.D) Chapter 29 Attitude of Teachers to the Use of Literature in Teaching the 228 English Language Skills in Nigerian Classrooms: A Study of Ihiala Local Govt Area of Anambra State. - Emodi, Livina N. Chapter 30 Literature and Social Reality: The Relevance of Twfik Al-Hakaim's 236 Fate of a Cockroach and Ahmed Yerima's Igatibi - Ifejirika, Echezona (Ph.D) and Obumse, Amaechi Chiedu.

vi BRIEF NOTES ON THE CONTRIBUTORS IN THIS VOLUME

1. Mrs. Akabuike Grace teaches the English Language in the Department of English, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University (Formerly Anambra State University) Igbariam, Anambra State. 2. Mrs. Okeke, F.A. is a lecturer in the Department of English Language, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam. She is specializing in English Language. 3. Akpan, Godwin F. holds a Doctorate degree and he is a Lecturer with College of Education, Afaha Nsiti, Cross River State. 4. Olumola, Victoria Iyabo writes from Federal School of Statistics, Ibadan, Oyo State 5. Usar, Ignatius Iomenge is a Lecturer in the Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages, University of Jos. 6. Mr. Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu teaches Linguistics courses in the Department of English, Chukwuemeka OdumegwuOjukwu University, Igbariam. He is specializing in Linguistics. 7. Pam Keziah Jonah is a lecturer in the Department of English, University of Jos. 8. Dakat, Blessing Vou is a lecturer in the Department of English, University of Jos. 9. Agu Margaret Nonyerem holds a doctorate degree and teaches the English language in IBB University, Lapai, Niger State. 10. Dr. Abba A Abba is a lecturer in the English Language, Edwin Clark University, Kiagbodo-Ughelli. He specializes in Literature in English. 11. Abel, Joseph is a lecturer in the Department of English and Literary Studies, Federal University, Lokoja. 12. Ujowundu Cornel O. holds a doctorate degree in African Literature from the University of Nigeria Nsukka. He teaches Literature courses in the Department of English, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University Igbariam. 13. Ugwuanyi Dele Maxwell is of the Division of General Studies, Enugu State University of Science and Technology Enugu State. 14. Eme, Gloria Worugji holds a doctorate degree and teaches in the Department of English and Literary Studies, University of Calaba, Nigeria. 15. Ifejirika, Echezona holds a doctorate degree from Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka. He specializes in African Literature with greater inclination to literary criticism. He currently heads the Department of English, Chuwkuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University. He is the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal. 16. Dr. Asika, Emmanuel holds a doctorate degree in African literature from Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. He is an Alumnus of Anambra State University, (now Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University. He teaches Literature courses in the Department of English (COOU) and he is a creative writer.

vii 17. Dr. Akujobi, Remi is a lecturer in the Department of English and Literary Studies, Federal University, Lokoja Koji State. 18. Olutoyin, Williams Catherine is a lecturer in the Department of English Studies, Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun, Ijebu-ode, Ogun State. He holds a doctorate degree in African Literature. 19. Abdullahi, Kadir Ayinde holds a doctorate degree and teaches the English Language and Literature in English in the Department of English, Yobe State University, Damaturu. 20. Mustafa, Linda Jummai is of the Department of English, SPS IBB University, Lapai Niger State. She teaches literature courses in the University. 21. Usman Joshua is of the English Department, SPS IBB University, Lapai, Niger State. 22. Mbah, Victor teaches English Language and literature courses in the Department of English Language, NwaforOrizu College of Education, Nsugbe, Anambra State. 23. Ngozi Chuma – Udeh holds a doctorate degree from Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka, Anambra State. She teaches African Literature and Afro-American literature in the Department of English Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam. She is currently the Associate Dean, Faculty of Arts (COOU) Igbariam. 24. Abdullahi S. Abubakar holds a doctorate degree and teaches the Engish Language and Literature in the Department of English, University of Ilorin Kwara State, Nigeria. He has special inclination to literary criticism. 25. Chukweloka C.C. holds a doctorate degree in African Literature from the University of Calabar. He teaches Language and Literature courses in the Department of English Language, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam. He is currently the Associate Dean of Post-graduate School (COOU) Formerly Anambra State University, Igbariam. 26. Emodi, Livina N. is a lecturer in the Department of English Language Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam. She is specializing in the English Language. 27. Obumse, Amaechi Chiedu is currently a post-graduate student in the Department of English, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam Campus. His area of research is African Literature. 28. Umeh, Rose Amaechi is currently a postgraduate student in the Department of English COOU, Igbariam.

29. Onyeachonam, Sylvanus (Rev.) is currently a postgraduate student in the Department of English, COOU Igbariam, Anambra State.

30. Chukwu, Kenneth Uche is of the Directorate of General Studies, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State.

Ifejirika, Echezona Editor-in-Chief

viii

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3

SECTION3 3 3 A: ; Language

ix 1

The Power of Reading: Insight into the Reading Culture among Nigerians

Akabuike, Ifeoma Grace Department of English Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University Igbariam Campus

Abstract Reading is a lifelong activity; a universal phenomenon and tradition, as there is practically no vocation across the world that does not require reading. It afford readers independent success to information in an increasingly information – driven society, and most importantly, it is a means of constructing meaning and acquiring knowledge. Everything one owns could be lost except knowledge. Through reading we acquire knowledge and transmit knowledge to each succeeding generation; it allows one to benefit from the wisdom and people of all ages. It feeds and nourishes our imagination. Those who read derive pleasure and satisfaction from it. The pertinent question to ask is how many citizens of Nigeria still read? It is a pity; our people are no more reading, specially the youths. Today, every youth wants to become a footballer, musician, international business man/women, an actor/actress etc. The big question then is “which country has developed with football and music? The poor reading habit of Nigerians has a grave implication on the developmental aspirations of the nation and equally affects the performance of the younger generation adversely at school. The main thrust of this study therefore is to find out the causes of poor reading culture among Nigerians as well as find out the factors affecting reading among other things. With the observation of these unsatisfactory negligence on reading, the study stresses the need for effective reading culture since a reading nation is an informed nation; just as reading is power and maketh a man. The study also recommended that parents, teacher, government and school management should provide a stimulating reading environment for the young generation. Key Words: Reading, Reading habit/Culture, reading and academic performance, comprehension.

1 The Power of Reading: Insight into the Reading Culture among Nigerians Akabuike, Ifeoma Grace

Introduction The reading process will flow fluently. This is to Reading is the recognition of printed or written prove that reading in its fullest sense involves symbols, which serve as a stimuli for the recall of weaving together word recognition, and meanings built up through the reader's past comprehension in a fluent manner. experience. According to De-Harren in Nduka (2003), reading involves a process of deriving To develop word recognition, students should meanings from symbols. He went further to say learn to: that there is no meaning in print itself; printed Break and manipulate the sounds in symbols merely represent the sounds of a words; analyze words and spelling language. To derive meaning from print, readers patterns and, expand the number of must translate the written symbols into the sound words that can be identified automatically symbols of the language and utilize his or her (vocabulary). And to develop knowledge of language to construct the writer's comprehension, students should message. From the definition of reading by develop: background knowledge (what De-Harren, we can decode that reading is making you already know) and understand how meaning from print. It is a multifaceted process the English language works/operates e.g involving word recognition, comprehension, How to form plurals, spellings etc. fluency and motivation. However, you can make meaning from print without being able to identify Comprehension is at the center of reading. It is all the words. What was your experience the last the ability to understand something. It involves time you borrowed a note from a friend which the understanding of the thought beneath the was in a messy handwriting? You may have printed word. It is the ability to grasp the author's understood some, even though you couldn't thought, structure, not in isolated fragments but recognize all the scribbles. as an organized whole. Collins and Check (1999) describe reading as a process that requires the use Sometimes, you can identify words without being of complex thought processes to interpret able to construct much meaning from them. printed symbols as meaningful units and Again, you can identify words and comprehend comprehend them as a thought unit in order to them, but if the processes didn't come together understand a printed message. When one really smoothly, reading will remain a labored process. comprehends, according to Leedy as cited by E.g. Try reading the sentence below: Unoh (1990), one is able to relate main ideas to It isn't as if to the words details and to see the principal though as a matrix are difficult identify or in which all subsidiary ideas are contained. The understand but the spaces pause level of comprehension is determined by the make you words between which reader's prior knowledge experiences, attitude, means your reading is less and language speech community which is cultural fluent. and socially situated. This goes to show that readers interpret the words they have read into The way and manner the words of this sentence is their existing framework of knowledge or scattered in a way that is not orderly make it Schema (Background knowledge). difficult for any reader to come out of the reading In the views of Okwilagwe (1998) process successfully. Assuming the sentence Reading should be more of reasoning above is written in an orderly manner like it is involving the meaningful interpretation below:\ of words, phrases and sentences, “It isn't as if the words are difficult to identify or requiring all types of thinking such as understand, but the spaces make you pause critical, analytical, creative, imaginative, between words, which means your reading is less evaluative, judgmental, I and problem- fluent”. solving.

2 The Power of Reading: Insight into the Reading Culture among Nigerians Akabuike, Ifeoma Grace

Nduka in Osakwe et al (1997) agreeing with reading and studying is a required condition of your Okwilagwe recognizes the physical and mental job or profession, this in effect means that you must activities that go on during the reading process read, even if under duress. when he said that reading is more than seeing words clearly, more than pronouncing printed words A similar research on this by Higginbotham (1999), correctly, more than recognizing the meaning of examined the reading interests of middle school – isolated words. Reading requires you to think, feel sixth, seventh and eighth grade students in a and imagine. Again, one can say that reading is the metropolitan public school located in a south-eastern process of looking at series of written/printed state of Atlanta, Georgia. The result of this study symbols from where meanings can be deduced using revealed differences in interest by gender, which are critical and evaluative thinking. The reading process congruent with many society's stereotypes, and requires continuous practice development and females reported a stronger interest in romance, refinement. friendship, animal stories, and adventure and historical fiction while the males reported stronger The skill acquired in reading can promote the preferences for the categories of sports and science. acquisition of language skills like listening, speaking Also, the male respondent had a shoring preference and writing. Adigun and Oyelude (2003) observed for non-fiction than did the female respondents. that skill in reading will not only assist pupils in These findings go to show that students in this school organizing their thought and jotting down important and state have a good reading culture, at least, with facts while reading, but will also equip them to the evidence of their reading preferences. Little comprehend the entire text. Adewole (2001) notes wonder why the state is literate and developed, for a that there is “critical reading skill”, which students reading nation is an informed nation. need to read, explore and appreciate a literary text effectively. Dike (2006) maintains that the ability to How many citizens of Nigeria read the daily read is a crucial skill for information retrieval. The Newspaper and Magazines from time to time, not problem today is that Nigerian students find it to talk of literary books? These failures arise as a difficult to read and understand despite the fact that result of poor acquisition of reading skills and reading is indispensable. Some show carefree culture. One who has developed the habit of attitude towards reading. This problem is not reading will always look for something to read. peculiar to students at all levels, but pertains to all This leads us to critically examining the reading categories of Nigerian citizens. Lasis (2007) asked a culture and development in Nigeria. fundamental question on what books Nigerians read? His question included whether political office Reading Culture and Development holders in the country read. It was clear from the There is no doubt that the level of development tone of the question that he feels that reading is not in a country is directly proportional to the literacy part of the culture of the people that control level of that country. According to Etim (2008) Nigerian destiny. So, how then will the subjects read basic literacy means an individual's ability to read, and be encouraged to read?It is impossible for a write and speak English. According to studies on nation to sustain itself if there were no great readers literacy, the literacy rate of Nigeria dropped from and writers. In Nigeria, a study carried out by Henry 62% in 1992 to 52% in 2006. This implies that (2004), reveals that 40% of adult Nigerians never the illiteracy rate of the country is 48%. It also read a non-fiction book from cover to cover after means that rather than improving on the literacy leaving/finishing school. The average Nigerian rating, Nigeria keeps on retrogressing reads less than one book per year, and only 1% of (Olanrewaju, 2008). successful men and women in Nigeria read one non- fiction book per month. This goes to show that most Reading habit is this skill of making reading a graduates have poor reading skills. Again it is regular activity. It is the act of cultivating a possible that some Nigerians may not read because positive attitude, interest and possession of skills they are not working in the right field(s). If regular that make reading a pleasurable, regular and

3 The Power of Reading: Insight into the Reading Culture among Nigerians Akabuike, Ifeoma Grace constant activity. Reading habit is identified as international competitiveness. The economic, the single most important determinant of a social and political health of our nation depends on student's success in every level of education building literate citizens that are able to read widely (Nssien, 2008). and apply it practically for development. This is a way of making the youth, in fact, the citizens of Reading culture is the process of building up Nigeria aware of the benefits/importance of positive reading attitude among students and reading and ensuring that they have the skills children over a period of time. When an required in the society. individual habitually and regularly reads books and other materials that are not necessarily for Oke (1996) opines that conscious effort should him to advance in his profession or career, he is be made by all stakeholders in the educational said to have a good reading culture (Gbadamosi, system to promote the reading habit. According 2007). Reading culture in essence therefore is the to him, equipping libraries is the first practical kind of culture that imbibes reading and studying step in these efforts. as the basis of growth and development. It is the type that sees continuous and dedicated reading to Poor Reading Culture Among Nigerians information resources by pupils, children, students Today, there has been a growing concern that the and adults for knowledge-acquisition, which will be reading culture among Nigerians particularly the applied practically for development. Reading youth and students, has declined significantly. sharpens the mind, makes one reason rationally and Nowadays, the interest of most Nigerians has objectively in life. In fact readers are leaders. drastically diminished, as the people are now more interested in watching television and films, When you read, you think, but when you stop browsing the internet /web, among other forms reading, you stop thinking creatively. Reading in of entertainment. This is to say that the decline in general is very vital to human beings as long as one reading among Nigerians is an offshoot of breaths, because it helps in acquiring knowledge, technological advancements that have brought keeping one updated on things that are happening about overall changes in family, social, and in ones environment or society. Reading is economic conditions. essential to full participation in modern society. It adds quality to life, provides access to culture and Poor reading habits occur in children and young cultural heritage, empowers and emancipates people because reading is not considered a citizens as well as brings people together. Reading relevant leisure activity as it does not form part of is one of the fundamental building blocks of children's social interaction and reading is learning. Becoming a skilled and adaptable reader considered a solitary pursuit and is not attractive enhances the chances of success at school and compared with interactive activities on the beyond. Reading is not just for school, it is a internet. There is also an overriding desire lifelong activity. Reading in all its variety is vital to amongst young people to spend more time with being better informed, having a better their friends watching films, football, playing understanding of us as well as others. It makes games, chatting etc than remain at home reading. man to be a thoughtful and constructive According to Tracy (2008), reading is the only contributor to a democratic and cohesive society. form of entertainment that is also an essential life skill. Those who enjoy reading derive pleasure Leading world nations pride themselves on their and satisfaction from it. Reading is a skill that promotion of reading. They see a high level of must be nurtured from a child's earliest years. literacy as a major source of their competitiveness Once children know how to read, they still need and social maturity. The absence of widespread support to reach their full potential as good culture of reading in the case of Nigeria acts as an readers. Most people with learning disabilities effective barrier to our development and have problems with reading and related language

4 The Power of Reading: Insight into the Reading Culture among Nigerians Akabuike, Ifeoma Grace skills. Children with poor reading skills receive substitution, reversal, mispronunciation, sight poor grades at school, get easily distracted and related problems, vocabulary, not up to grade frustrated, have behavior problems, seem to level, nervousness, slow reading, and lack of dislike school, and often fail to develop their full comprehension. He advised that teachers must potential. Rubin (2002) in support of the above come up with solution to these problems. statement, stated that children with poor reading Nssien, (2008) confirming Lawal's findings noted habits have a higher chance of anti-social that poor reading skills which has been identified behavior. Delinquency; school violence bullying, as the problem of Nigerian students was as a hacking computers, and even examination result of the following: Slow comprehension rate, malpractices have a correlation with poor reading slow reading rate, difficulty in distinguishing habits. This does not mean that those with poor vocabulary or word power, inadequate reading reading habits display such behavior; however, interests and habits, distractions from television poor reading habits are associated with such and film viewing, and lack of interest and relevant behaviourial patterns while good reading habits reading materials. help to develop a steady and constructive mind. Causes of Poor Reading Culture According to Antwi (1985), studies show a There are several factors militating against relationship between reading/early literacy and a effective reading in Nigeria. Oyetunde and Uno, child's emotional, mental health, and social (1986) list impediments to positive reading habits behavior. According to him, a study done in the and attitude. These include lack of materials, USA showed that reading was correlated with poor preparation of teachers, lack of interest, delinquency, independence of neighbourhood, poor libraries or none at all, home background ethnicity and family involvement. The study also and lack of adult readers as models. showed that early in primary grades, children who are struggling with literacy begin to experience Poverty: In Nigeria, the impact of poverty is failure and related negative effects in deeply felt. Despite the huge amount of wealth interpersonal skills. of the Nigerian nation which is always ear- marked, over 90% of the entire populace is under Mr Eden Duke, the Minister of Tourism, Culture the crunch of penury. When people are poor, and National Orientation, during the National their main concern is seeking for ways to solve Institute for Cultural Orientation (NICO) annual their problem and under such a situation, reading round table lecture, particularly blamed the and abundant craving for reading becomes a non- students' poor performance in external issue. When a man is hungry, I don't think that his examinations nowadays on their poor reading immediate need would be books. I think his habit. Citing the 2011 WASCE results which he immediate need would be food. Many Nigerian described as “discouraging” as an example, the citizens are too poor to train their children in minister noted that less than 22% of the school and lack money to buy books, pay school candidates who sat for the examination passed fees for their children. Yet, Nigeria is regarded as with credits in five subjects, including English and the giant of Africa with its natural resources. Mathematics. This statement by Mr. Duke is in Only a few people in Nigeria live above the line with Ojo (1993) who found out that the major poverty level. causes of students' poor performance in school is attributed to their inability to read effectively, Home Background: The family as we know is the which in turn, is largely due to their attitude smallest, but the most important unit of any toward reading. Lawal, (1982) did a diagnostic nation. The leaders we see today were once testing of reading achievement of selected children from a home. The ideal thing is that secondary schools in Samaru, Zaria, and parents ought to promote reading culture by described such reading problems as; Omission, encouraging the children to read more at home

5 The Power of Reading: Insight into the Reading Culture among Nigerians Akabuike, Ifeoma Grace and giving less attention to watching television Lack of Interest: One of the greatest factors among other time consuming activities and contributing to the poor reading culture among creating enabling environment and providing Nigerians is lack of interest and our attitude to books at home now that they are young. When reading. For some people, Reading for example they grow up, they would keep the fire burning consumes a lot of time, needs concentration, but today the reverse is the case. The crucial role focus and with sound mind. The youth today of parents as the first level of contact with the believe that goggle has most of the answers to children is on the verge of collapse. Many their questions forgetting that the vast majority of parents hardly spend time with their children to the world's information today is not digitalized; it groom them academically. Most parents are too is in print form, mostly in books. Prof Chinua busy. They don't have time to encourage their kids Achebe during the 2001 Ahiajioku lecture rightly to read because they come back from work late said that “What makes illiteracy high in Nigeria is when the children must have slept. So, the fates of that most people often say that they do not have these children are in the hands of the house helps time to read. A country that does not read has a who on their own need care themselves. long way to go. This is to say that one cannot give what he doesn't have. Method of Teaching: Some teachers are lagging behind in their approach to teaching reading Corruption: Corruption has an adverse effect on comprehension. The effect is poor performance Nigerians and their reading habit /pattern. among students. These teachers lack methods of Thanks be to God Almighty for the imparting reading skills to pupils/students. One administration of President Mohammadu Buhari school of thought believes that the method used is that is currently fighting corruption in Nigeria. the cause of success or failure in teaching reading In schools and among students, for instance, because it is the method that determines the what and many prefer to indulge in immoral acts like the how of instruction. Methods are only as good as trading sex for grades, sorting of all types, evil their teachers. The rub of the matter is however that forms of exam malpractices and sale of ungraded the method is only one valuable weapon at the disposal textbooks to students at high rates/fees by of the teacher in his professional duty of teaching. The teachers. condition is so bad that some students find it difficult to understand. Other causes like poor reading culture; learning environment, health challenges, high cost of GSM Mobile Phone/Video Tapes/Films:: Since the books lack of effective library, lack of planning inception of mobile phone into Nigeria, Nigerians etc are among some of these factors worthy of especially the youth have concentrated on making note. phone calls, playing computer games etc rather than reading. Many of them are always seen Need for Effective Reading Culture especially the girls, being so busy and carried away The acquisition of reading skills has a beneficial by their activities with their handsets. Their effect on all school subjects while poor reading handsets are always glued to their ears day and skill can make a child develop a poor attitude night. Anyone who is always so engaged like this, towards school. Reading is more important today has little or no time for reading and cannot develop than it ever was. It is crucial to be an informed reading culture. citizen, to succeed in one chosen career and for personal fulfillment. Children who read well do Like the mobile phones, video/film watching has better in other subjects and in all aspects of contributed largely to the poor reading culture of school and beyond. As the world becomes more Nigerians. Many Nigerians have adopted film complex, reading is increasingly important for watching as their primary occupation. It is children trying to find their place in it. impossible to read while watching film.

6 The Power of Reading: Insight into the Reading Culture among Nigerians Akabuike, Ifeoma Grace

Oke, (1996) gives reasons why people should read to play in the education of pupils/students. which includes self improvement, pleasure, Necessary step to encourage and promote the relaxation, a feeling of pride and prestige. reading habit of Nigerians should be taken.

Reading is the chief means by which we learn Recommendation every subject. In school, the ability to read is the Based on the observations made in this study, the surest means to high academic achievements. following recommendations are made: When no provision is made for achievement by the poor reader, that student is eventually 1. Parents should provide a stimulating reading frustrated into a miserable state of failure. environment for their children and wards. They should encourage their children to read Reading is the royal road to knowledge, it is at home, make a reading time table for them, essential to success in all academic subjects. In provide books for them, register them with modern life, learning depends on one's ability to reading club around their area and reward interpret the printed page accurately and fully. them appropriately when they read. The enrichment in knowledge would enable one 2. Government at the federal, state and local to present oneself more confidently. government levels should provide adequate and appropriate materials for teaching Reading has come to hold the most significant reading skills. place in education and development of a nation 3. Fund is crucial to the development of and as a means of communication in a highly education and libraries. Therefore, Nigerian literate society. It is the surest way of government has to improve its funding of transforming information into knowledge. It is the education sector: establishing equipping heart breaking but true that students who cannot and maintaining of libraries e.g adequate, read well have trouble not only in language class current and relevant library materials should but in all other subjects that require reading and be provided. Funds released by the writing. Reading contributes not only to an government to school management to equip individual's well being/self-development and the libraries should be monitored so as not progress but also to the whole nation and the to be diverted. world at large. 4. Professionally qualified personnel should be employed to render services to users of the Reading as we have seen helps one to acquire new library. knowledge, skill, improve communication skills, 5. As a way of encouraging or inculcating improve critical thinking and enriches knowledge reading habit in Nigerians, stake holders of current events, issues and ideas. (parents, teachers, schools, librarians etc) should avoid nagging, bribing, judging, Conclusion criticizing reading choices, and setting Reading as we have seen is an indispensable tool unreasonable goals and fees. for learning. However, Nigeria cannot be 6. Programmes by Non-governmental regarded as a reading nation because the younger organization (NGO) like “The Read Africa generation of Nigerians are not reading Project by UBA as a means of reaching out effectively. The poor reading habit of these to the young people in secondary schools to younger generation affect their performances at mentor them towards achieving greatness school during examinations. with the cardinal objective of helping to rekindle the reading culture amongst African To address this problem, Nigerians should be youth and by donating books, launched in encouraged to imbibe the habit of reading early Feb 2011 should be encouraged and enough. Government, teachers, parents, students, students urged to take such initiative NGOS and school management have major roles seriously.

7 The Power of Reading: Insight into the Reading Culture among Nigerians Akabuike, Ifeoma Grace

7. There is urgent need for churches, mosques, presented at the 64tyh IFLA General the media etc to actively participate in the conference at Amsterdam Netherlands. nascent crusade to restore the reading August 16th – 21st. culture in the Nigerian society. Lasisi, A. (2007). We must promote reading and 8. There is also need for reading programmes, environmental culture. The punch competitions, workshops and seminars to be Newspaper June 15: 14. encouraged and a National Book Policy Lassa, N. (1995). Teachers' Role in the Art of (NBP) to be developed and adopted towards Schooling in Ipye, B. (ed). Research on specific societal needs. Schooling in Nigeria: Introductory reading. Ondo: Adeyemi College of References education, Ondo. Adenole, A.O. (2001). What Reading Skills do Nduka, D.M. (2003). Reading at the Tertiary Student need to Comprehend Literature? Level: Skills for Effective Comprehension Ibadan Journal of Education Studies 1(1): in Osakwe, N. (ed) English for 66 Communicative Competence. Enugu. Pp. Adigun, M, & Oyelude, A. (2003). Libraries as 5-6. Tools for Development: Survey of Users Ojo, O.I. (2003). Narrative, Descriptive, of Oyo State Public Library. Nigerian Argumentative Conversation and Dialogic School Libraries Journal 37(2): 78. Speech Types. In Alibi, A.O. (ed). New Dike, W. (2007). Global Overviews of School Perspectives in English Language Skills. Library Development and Impact on Oyo: Immaculate City Publisher. Information Literacy Skills of the School Okwilagwe, O. (1998). A New Approach to Child. Nigerian School Library Journal Reading Comprehension and Summary 5(2): 7. for Schools & Colleges. Ibadan: Stirling. Etim, F.E. (2007). Information Literacy in an Horden Publishers (Nig) Ltd. Information Age in F.E. Etim and F.U. Oyetunde, I. (1986). Teaching Reading Nssien (eds) Information Literacy for Comprehension and Summary Writing in Library Search. Uyo: Abam Publishing, pp. the Secondary Schools. Jos: Museum 72-89. Press. Gbadamosi, T. (2007). Library Reading Culture Nssien, F.U. (2007). Reading Habits and Skills in and Students' Academic Performance in F.E. Etim and F.U. Nissien (eds). Secondary Schools in Oyo State. Middle Information Literacy for Library Search, belt Journal of Library and Information Uyo: Abaam Publishers. Pp. 90-105. science. 7(2): 42-58. Sisulu, E. (2004). The Culture of Reading and the Higginbotham, S. (1999). Reading Interest of Book Chain: How do we achieve a Middle School Students and Preference by quantum Leap? Keynote Address at the Gender of Middle School Students in Symposium on Cost of a Culture of South Eastern Atlanta Georgia, Master's Reading. National Library of South Africa, dissertation, Mercer University, pp. 140. Sept. 16-17. Holte, M.S. (1998). Creating an Optimum Unoh, S. (1986). The Study of Reading. Ibadan: Reading Culture in the Low Countries: University Press. The Role of Stitching Lezen. Paper

8 2

Knowledge Enhancement Through Reading for Educational and National Development in Nigeria

Okeke, Fidelia Azuka Department of English Language Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam

Abstract Among the priorities of the government of any country is how to create literacy among people. But in spite of the various institutions of learning (both private, state and federal owned) located in almost all the nooks and crannies of this country, Nigeria still records poor educational and national development. Painful enough, our students show little or no interest in reading and worst still, lack essential reading skills for general knowledge enhancement. This pathetic situation has triggered this complementary effort that calls for urgent and consistent attention. This paper likens the situation to God's words in Hosea 4:6 that 'the people perish for lack of knowledge.' The much knowledge that students seek in the four walls of a university lies in the various text books, journals, magazines, newspapers, biographies, and so on; that relate to their disciplines. Unfortunately, most students no longer believe in hard work; they are deeply engulfed in the use of hand held devices and indulge in other irrelevant activities that make them hardly read their books (even during examinations) nor go into libraries to make research. Although reading is a complex activity, it still remains a panacea to enhancing the standard of education and in general, national development. The study therefore, adopts a reader – response theory and a psycholinguistic theory as its frameworks to emphasise that a reader is an active agent who imparts “real existence” to a text by giving it appropriate interpretation and that reading involves a process of predicting and guessing about the meaning of a text. It is therefore, recommended among others, that lecturers should lay more emphasis on the acquisition of reading skills among students. Educational and national development would be achieved if reading could be placed at the centre of every other courses offered by students in tertiary institutions, hence, including it as a compulsory course in every Departmental Course Description/Handbook will not be an aberration. Key terms: Knowledge, Reading, Education, Development and National Development.

9 Knowledge Enhancement Through Reading for Educational and National Development in Nigeria Okeke, Fidelia Azuka

Introduction This paper observes that the standard of Most countries of the world, including Nigeria, education in Nigeria is drastically dwindling have had special interest in education as a tool because of the obvious reason that most students with which their citizens are equipped to know, at who are 'blessed' to have been offered admission least, their fundamental human rights. With the and who have sponsors, no longer have keen notion that everyone has the right to be educated, interest in reading. They forget that one basic tool Nigeria for instance, is facing educational that is interwoven in the acquisition and explosion in her effort to provide education for advancement of knowledge for educational and all her citizens. The United States had earlier national development is reading. The poor declared some good recommendations for every reading culture among students as well as its citizenry adopted by the General Assembly in resultant decrease in educational and national December, 1948. Fabian-Ukozor (2007) rightly development in Nigeria has been a source of captures the United Nations' declaration that: worry to the curious minds of many researchers leveryone has the right to education. and has been the subject of academic discussions This shall be free, at least, in the among scholars, linguists and educators. Many elementary and primary stages. have equally proffered useful solutions to this lelementary education shall be problem but this paper observes that it has compulsory while technical and persisted and has eaten deep into the educational professional education shall be as well as national development. generally available. lhigher education shall be made Most students today want to gain admission into equally accessible to all on the basis higher institutions but do not have the necessary of merit. skills to read independently in order to acquire lparents have a prior right to choose knowledge. Incidentally, they resort to the kind of education that shall be impersonation (engaging somebody else to sit given to their children. and write their examinations) and all manner of examination malpractices. Painful enough, most Although most governments of various countries parents of such lazy students collaborate in this seem to adopt the above declarations, a good look by sponsoring 'the business.' Consequently, they around the world, especially in Nigeria, reveals that gain admission into various institutions and education is no longer accessible to all on the basis continue in that manner; 'sorting' their ways of merit nor has everyone the right to education. through by giving money to gullible course representatives who sell solved assignments of Education has been turned to a 'hot cake' meant intelligent students to them. During for the highest bidder or for the rich as most examinations, they seek the favour of being students with merit scores are denied admission allowed to sit with any intelligent student of their into various schools of their choices. Education is choice from whom they copy verbatim the no more made free in most states of some answers. And if they fail to succeed in doing this, countries as some students' hopes to acquire it are they proceed to 'buying' marks either directly dashed after they had secured admission; either from lecturers or through their course because of financial constraint or lack of representatives. sponsors. Worst still, most parents who give out their children as house helps fail to realise that Most typists around the business centers in they have indirectly sold out their children's various institutions are also culprits. They sell educational rights as some are denied education; typed assignments to students thereby making and if at all provided, they are enrolled in such their victims to score low during continuous schools where poor standard of learning is assessment as some meticulous examiners would obtained. not tolerate two or more papers with the same

10 Knowledge Enhancement Through Reading for Educational and National Development in Nigeria Okeke, Fidelia Azuka ideas, organization and presentation. At the is through learning that one's intelligence highest level are the examinations officers, some quotient is enhanced, that is, the ability to learn, of whom such idle students also bribe to upgrade understand and think critically about things. This their results during computation. Incidentally, the paper maintains that knowledge can be enhanced face of the coin is turned upside down as a would through reading for educational and national have been “Pass” or “Third Class” student is development which will touch all aspects of a placed either at “Second Class Upper” division or society and the lives of individuals in it. What is even “First Class” position. This being the case, reading and how does it enhance educational and some of the few students who exert little effort in national development? reading to pass their examinations feel cheated and decide to emulate the evil trend, and even Reading wonder why one should waste one's time reading Reading is one of the four language skills, and like when money or 'kindness' could do the magic writing, it is a complex exercise which must be (securing the desired certificate). The big learned. The reader has to learn to search for the question is, “why the much ado about nothing?” thought that was expressed by the author through What becomes the nation's fate when such word decoding, exploration of verbal symbols, students go into the labour market? understanding the purpose of the writer, interpretation of signs and symbols that are It is against this backdrop that the standard of involved in written language. Reading involves a education has fallen so much as to raise the worry developmental process which can never be about who will teach our children tomorrow. Is it completely mastered, and one should therefore, not said that ignorance is a disease? One's make a conscious effort to continue to improve knowledge can be enhanced through reading. It is one's reading skills throughout one's life. the basic educational tool for learning which helps a student to gather meaningful information from Reading involves the ability to process the written materials. It therefore, enhances literacy author's words and extract from these words the both at individual and national levels. Having given substance that is being expressed. Maduekwe the above background, it is pertinent also to (2007) sees reading as a skill that cannot be explicate and briefly review the crucial terms that mastered once and for all, yet it is a basic tool for form the crux of this paper in the succeeding learning. She therefore, defines it as “an activity, in sections. which the eyes, the mind and the brain interact in the process of perceiving, analyzing, reasoning, Knowledge interpreting and integrating a problem.” In this Knowledge of something can be acquired when sense, the reader searches for the thought that was individuals are adequately exposed to facilitating in the mind of the writer and which now lies in the learning environments. Longman dictionary of meaning of the words which he perceives contemporary English defines knowledge as “facts, through the eyes. Reading therefore, is a visual skills and understanding that you have gained exploration of printed and written pages or of through learning or experience”. Knowledge verbal stimuli. acquisition starts from birth just as language acquisition and continues throughout one's life. It Essentially, reading consists of two fundamental can be enhanced when one aspires to gain processes which are interdependent: the physical adequate skills, facts and general understanding or visual and the mental or intellectual. Reading about certain events or situations, such as geared efficiency is concerned with helping the learner to towards individual and national developments. acquirer proper motor skills which will help the Knowledge can be gained by observing one's efficient physical processing of written materials. environment, learning from other people Thus, one should develop new perceptual skills (relations/friends), reading, and through by increasing the span of recognition, developing education (under formal class room situations). It rhythmic movement and flexibility (a tendency to

11 Knowledge Enhancement Through Reading for Educational and National Development in Nigeria Okeke, Fidelia Azuka read with specific purpose and ability to adjust ltransactional reader – response theory; one's reading speed to suit the reading material). laffective stylistics lsubjective reader – response theory; One should also have to learn to eliminate old lpsychological reader - response theory and habits such as vocalization (a tendency to move lsocial reader – response theory (Wikipedia one's vocal organs (tongue, vocal cords, lips, etc.) atom feed). or to read aloud); head movement (the habit of moving one's head from side to side instead of Reading involves an interactional and moving only the eye muscles); sub-vocalization (a transactional relationship between the text and tendency to read the words internally as one tries the reader. This study is interested in the to eliminate the habit of vocalization); pointing to transactional reader – response theory which was words (a tendency to point to words with either championed by Rosenblatt (1988). The theory one's fingers, pen or ruler); regression (re-reading involves a transaction between the text's inferred a word, a phrase, or a sentence immediately it has meaning and the individual interpretation by the been read because of lack of concentration) and reader influenced by his/her personal emotions inflexibility (a failure to adjust one's reading speed and knowledge. to suit the reading material and the reader's purpose). According to Azubuike and Obodoh (2004), Rosenblatt (1988) considers the reading exercise Such bad reading habits will actually slow down and says that, “it is a transaction between the text one's reading speed as well as affect one's creative and the reader, during which both the text and the skill (ability to make meaning out of written reader are changed, becoming more than the sum materials). Maduekwe (2007) ascertains this when of their parts.” Thus, Azubuike and Obodoh she says that reading is a creative art through (2004) deduce that reading is transactional during which we seek to discover a meaning that is which a reader may react to a text socially, already there, inherent in a text. Reading is psychologically and morally. To this effect, they therefore important as it helps a learner to acquire quote Rosenblatt (1988) who asserts that: adequate knowledge from texts about what is unknown. the individual's share in language is that part or set of features of the public Theoretical framework system that has been internalised in the This paper anchors on two theoretical individual's experiences. We make frameworks called reader-response theory and meaning, we make sense of a new psycholinguistic theory. Reader response theory situation or transaction, byapplying, focuses on the reader rather than on the author or revising, or extending elements drawn the text. Hence, this theory recognises the reader from selected form, our personal as an active agent who imparts “real existence” to linguistic experimental reservoir (7). the work and completes its meaning through interpretation. It believes that the meaning of a The above assertion is true because a reader who text is derived from the reader through the is actively involved in the reading process will reading process. Reader – response critics understand the text by interpreting and making therefore, focus on what texts do in the minds of sense of the new situation as he/she takes a the readers. In this sense, a text can exist only as recourse to “internalised features of the public activated by the mind of the reader system or linguistic repertoire.” (pubic.wsu.edu /. . /reader.crit.html). This study also draws from the psycholinguistic Reader – response theory has five strands which theory of reading which sees reading as a whole include: process of predicting. In this regard, Goodman (1976) in Azubuike and Obodoh (2004) observe

12 Knowledge Enhancement Through Reading for Educational and National Development in Nigeria Okeke, Fidelia Azuka that reading is some sort of guessing game which The above observations imply that development gives an individual knowledge of language. This is brings about change (positive or negative, where this study has a link with this theory since a qualitative or quantitative). We can even feel this reader can enhance his/her knowledge through change around us today; at least, some people reading once he/she involves in predicting, grow with increased skill or capacity to create one guessing and cueing of ideas rather than seeing thing or the other; some people enjoy freedom reading as a difficult task. Azubuike and Obodoh after many years of enslavement; people learn (2004) capture the words of Goodman thus: new and good behaviour for self discipline; while many could not because of lack of education. reading is a psycholinguistic guessing Suffice it to say that development involves a game. It involves an interaction. Efficient continuous process of change that takes place in reading does not result from perception every individual in his environment, physically, and identification of all elements but intellectually, socially, culturally, morally, etc. In from slab in selecting the fewest, most this sense, it brings improvement in all aspects of productive ones necessary to produce life. guesses (about meaning) which are right the first time (6). In view of the above, Nwodu (2007) agrees with Moemeka (1989) who conceives development as Obviously, a reader interacts with the silent voice something that should aim at bettering “both the of the writer and guesses about what the actual human, cultural, socio-economic and political meaning that was hidden in the text is and of conditions of the individual, and consequently, course, what actions will occur next based on the society.” Socially, the quality of life of every his/her knowledge of the subject or of the world individual should be positively enhanced for one (predictions). Hence, both the reader – response to say that they have experienced development. and psycholinguistic theories are relevant to this study because reading involves meaningful Development can as well occur materially. Thus, reactions to texts as the reader perceives, Ogbodo (2002) cites Afigbo (1998) who explains interprets and makes inferences from what that “material development is at best only the he/she reads. beginning of human development which is concerned primarily with the moral and spiritual Development advancement of mankind with the ultimate As it has earlier been ascertained, knowledge can objective of attaining real happiness here and be acquired and enhanced for educational and hereafter through working hand in hand with national developments. Development is those laws of nature…” Considering the above perceived in different ways by different people. assertion, Kottak (2004) asserts that whereas Nwodu and Ukozor (2007) observe that an human development index represents an attempt economist would see development as the process to assess and display the quality of life in a of change that improves people's income as they country, it is not based exclusively on strive to attain a comfortable standard of living material/economic measures, such as per capita through farming, trading, working in offices and income and gross national product. Rather, it industries, etc. (Although the aim of most includes demographic statistics (e.g. literacy, years development projects is to enhance the quality of of schooling) as well as economic data. life, living standards often decline in the target According to him, “this measurement is called the areas). This is called economic development human development index.” This view is true which generally aims at getting people to convert because the necessary skills one needs for any from subsistence to cash economies and in that type of development would be acquired through way increase local participation in the world the process of reading, interwoven in education capitalist economy (Kottak, 2004). or literacy; otherwise, one remains “primitive', 'naked' and 'uncivilized'.

13 Knowledge Enhancement Through Reading for Educational and National Development in Nigeria Okeke, Fidelia Azuka

Therefore, Okunna (2002) in Nwodu and Ukozor behaviours which scholars among them have (2003) summarises that development (whether gathered and written down in printed materials physical or material) should bring positive like text books, journals, novels, plays, etc. And change, which should be for the benefit of the unless students, and of course every individual, majority of the people who closely involve or avail themselves of such materials, “the participate in the process. While these are true, knowledge, skills, and attitudes in their cultural the question remains, can human or national heritage or setting that are capable of fostering development be attained and sustained without survival against the unpredictable…” would quality education and can one's knowledge be definitely elude them. enhanced without the acquisition of reading skills? Again, education helps an individual to preserve, develop and transmit the culture of a people Reading for educational and national which have been imparted in them through class development room teaching or by reading what others have The target of any nation is usually to attain a written down in printed materials. Unfortunately, sustainable development in areas such as religion, impatience and lack of interest have led many to technology, economy, politics, social, education, involve in academic fraud, exhibited in various and so on, hence, the establishment of forms as impersonation, 'buying' of certificates, educational institutions in the nation. Efficient bribing for unmerited marks, presenting of fake and effective reading is a key to a learner's success results/certificates, and so on. People now and is central to educational and national purchase certificates to upgrade their ranks and development. positions in offices instead of experiencing reading for education which takes a process of Reading for educational development interaction, transaction, guessing and prediction. Education is interwoven with knowledge empowerment as well as national development According to Ukozor (2007), “education should just as reading is interwoven with education. take place from womb to tomb.” In other words, Anybody who bargains for education gains it should start at home, formalized at school and literacy and power but anything on the contrary should continue during the individual's results in ignorance; and ignorance is a disease. experience after school. Similarly, Uka (1994) The major key with which the accumulated believes that education is: knowledge that is locked in education can be the deliberate, systematic and sustained unlocked is reading. Ukozor (2007) sees effort to transmit, evoke or acquire education as: “the process by which every society knowledge, attitude, values, skills or attempts to preserve and upgrade the sensibilities as well as any outcome of that accumulated knowledge, skills and attitudes in its efforts. It involves the transmission of cultural setting and heritage in order to foster what is worthwhile to the pupil to enable continuously the wellbeing of mankind and him perform the role which society has guarantee its survival against the unpredictable, at allotted to him (21). a time of horrible and destructive element and forces of man and nature.” Citing Okoh (1988), Furthermore, Uka relates the view of O' Connor he further defines education as “a process of (1957) that: preserving, developing and transmitting the culture of a people from one generation to education, among other things, seeks to another.” awaken interest in and a taste of knowledge; it makes people to develop The above views are clear. Each society has a analytical and critical minds; and it trains body of knowledge or information about the people to appreciate the cultural and culture of the people, their beliefs, and moral achievement of mankind. Again, it

14 Knowledge Enhancement Through Reading for Educational and National Development in Nigeria Okeke, Fidelia Azuka

equips people with a minimum body of It must be clarified on time that social knowledge, skill and certain desirable development of any nation implies national attitudes and modes of behavior such as development, whether rural or urban. To lend self – discipline and a sense of credence to this clarification, Opubor (1985) in responsibility (22). Nwodu and Ukozor (2003) maintain that: “any notion or definition in Africa that does not take If every individual will imbibe the interest of into account fundamental change, for the better, reading, they will be able to appreciate the total in the lifestyle of the peasant farmer, the package of education and help in nation building. fisherman, the petty trader, the herdsman or the Thus, Okwechime (2003) agrees that education labourers is grossly inadequate.” or its process provides the means for the acquisition of appropriate knowledge and, hence, This paper believes that national development for development. He feels that the provision of encompasses both rural and urban development the facility for knowledge is a necessary plight for as both have their crucial roles to play for the empowerment for creating, maintaining, and actualization of national development. This is enhancing capacity building in developing the because it involves political, social, religious, nation by individuals. He therefore, sees economic, and cultural advancement of a nation. education as a crucial tool that is central to Thus, Nwodu and Ukozor (2003) cite Nwuneli development, freedom and human rights in any (1985) who defines national development as: civilized society. a directed and widely participatory The quest for education is like the quest for an process of deep and accelerated socio- adventure. A learner as well as the teacher should political change geared towards read the relevant materials wherein lie the producing substantial changes in the accumulated knowledge they required to grow economy, so that the moral and material academically. A student who fails to read and jot advancement of the majority of its down relevant facts or to prepare very well for population can be obtained within examinations would definitely perform poorly. conditions of generalized equality, And by failing to read extensively other important dignity, justice and liberty(4). materials like journals, newspapers, novels, and so one, he/she limits his/her knowledge about state The common features of national development as of the art. Reading for educational development a socio-political phenomenon therefore include: is therefore, a panacea for building the individual's intellect, skills, behaviours as well as la widely participatory process that involves the nation's in terms of religious, economic, greater number of people regardless of technological, social and cultural development. whether they live in a rural or an urban setting. Anyone who rejects education indirectly rejects knowledge and power. la substantial economic, technological, political, cultural and ecological transformation of a Reading for national development nation. Transformation here implies gradual Without the acquisition of knowledge through but sustained healthy movement from a poor to reading, educational and national development an enhanced state of living. cannot be attained. Having explained what educational development entails, it is also la steady growth in knowledge and the important to explicate what national acquisition of esoteric skills by the citizens to development is used to mean in this paper to the point that the citizens become conscious avoid misconceptions. about their well-being and what to do to protect and preserve it (Nwodu and Ukozor, 2003).

15 Knowledge Enhancement Through Reading for Educational and National Development in Nigeria Okeke, Fidelia Azuka

Meanwhile, Akporherhe (2003) believes that Nigerians is very poor and this affects national development involves fundamental zealous writers negatively…Many phenomena to include economic, social, political Nigerians may like to read; most people and administrative reforms, attitudinal changes read because they want to pass their of people to work, acceptance of discipline in examination, especially students. The private and public life. Citing Obanewa (2000), he reading culture is generally poor. People observes that national development touches all do not engage in active reading anymore aspects of a society and the lives of individuals in and it is painful (36-7). it. This, according to him, means that old habits and ways of life have to be discarded or modified, lReading is indispensable in both educational age-long customs have to yield to modern ones, and total development of a nation. Great traditional technology is replaced by modern or intellectuals are those who read effectively, not more efficient ones, old values are forced out by merely reading but truly engaging materials on new ones. In this sense, national development diverse topics or fields. The following benefits brings about positive transformation in all areas of reading identified by Maduabuchi (2009) of human endeavour. must be taken seriously:

National and educational development cannot be lreading builds a total person through exposure achieved when ignorance, as a result of lack of to treasures of knowledge on all facets of life. It reading, prevails. The level of education and does not only contribute to an individual's well- national development a nation attains is being, self development and progress but also determined by the reading skills acquired by its to those of a whole nation and the entire world. members before we begin to think of being ”knowledge-driven, information-conscious, lreading helps to develop work place synergy high-tech controlled and economically especially where the workers use their literacy competitive world of the 21st Century.” to decipher and write work place materials…which will help an individual As the world is dynamic, education has taken to become competent, confident, independent, as certain dynamics to suit the new demands and well as exercise better control over challenging new circumstances. Unfortunately, this change in issues and problems in the execution of duties. education, especially in the Nigerian environment, is negatively affecting its standard. lreading promotes economic, political, and This is because a learner is now more concerned religious (as well as educational) development with graduating with quality certificate through in any nation. Nations with high illiteracy levels dubious means rather than competency level of are handicapped economically and otherwise, the required accumulated knowledge, skills and since relevant information will elude them (37). attitude meant to sustain national development. With the above importance and others too The key to education is reading. Despite its numerous to mention here, it becomes imperative obvious importance, the reading level is very low. that a developing nation like Nigeria should invest Maduabuchi (2009) rightly observes that: adequately in education and make reading the centre of all development activities in order to in Nigeria today, the reading level is very reject an embrace which illiteracy, like a proverbial low and this is in spite of the increasing leper, seeks after it has been given a handshake. volumes of materials that surface every day begging for reading. In an interview Recommendations granted by Ausbeth, a writer in The Sun of This paper therefore, recommends that: Saturday November 25, 2006, she students and the whole of Nigerian populace revealed that the reading rate of should rise up from their slumber to acquire the

16 Knowledge Enhancement Through Reading for Educational and National Development in Nigeria Okeke, Fidelia Azuka reading skills and determine to positively change References their reading culture; Akporherhe, F. (2003). Universal basic education and English language in national lgovernment should make education a priority development in Nigeria. In Many voices, by increasing the percentage budget of one Nigeria. Journal of Nigerian Languages and annual allocation to education. This will go a Culture, 5(1), Owerri: Association of long way to improving our schools' Promoting Nigerian Languages and Culture environments for quality learning as well as (APNILAC). Kottak, C. P. (2004). motivating and equipping teachers; Anthropology: The exploration of human diversity (10th ed.), New York: McGraw – Hill lteachers should re-strategise their teaching Companies Inc. approach and methodology by introducing Longman dictionary of contemporary English. (1978). new techniques that will attract and sustain Essex: Pearson Education Limited. the interest of students in efficient reading; Maduabuchi, C. H. (2009). Building a total person and, for sustainable development through reading. In Christopher, N. M.(Ed.), Voices lreading should be included as a from Africa on literacy for the attainment of subject/course in the education curriculum sustainable development. USA: International from primary to tertiary levels and for all Development in Africa Committee. disciplines in tertiary institutions as a way of Maduekwe, A.N. (2007). Principles and practice of emphasising its importance. teaching English as a second language. Lagos: Vitaman Educational Books. Conclusion Nwodu, L. C. (2007). Managing development The quest for knowledge enhancement is double- communication campaign for sustainable faced: either you read to discover the relevant human development. In Nwosu, I. E., Fab- unknown facts, use them to develop your intellect Ukozor, N. K. and Nwodu, L.C. and by extension, the nation or you refuse to read Communication for sustainable human a n d p e r i s h o r r e m a i n p e r p e t u a l l y development: A multi-perspective approach. underdeveloped. Knowledge enhancement E n u g u : A f r i c a n C o u n c i l f o r through reading for educational and national Communication Education. development concerns all areas of human life. A Nwodu, L. C. and Fab-Ukozor, N. (2003). nation cannot grow in any aspect, which must Communication imperatives for development. include rural and urban areas, when its people Enugu: John Jacob's Publishers Ltd. wallow in ignorance. Ogbodo, J. C. (2002). Problematic language communication as an index to retardation Thus, reading remains the panacea (the key) to in national development. In Otagburuagu, achieving these, considering its international E. and Anyanwu, P. A. (Eds.), Concepts and relevance. Without reading, people perish for lack issues in language studies. Owerri: Springfield of knowledge. Parents, teachers and government Publishers Ltd. have a lot to do about this. In other words, all Okeke, F .A. and Chukwu, K .U. (2013). hands must be on deck. Although things have Introduction to the English Language. Awka: fallen apart, this paper is optimistic that if the Fab-Anieh Nig. Ltd. above recommendations are effectively Okwechime, O. (2003). Cultural deprivation and implemented, great efforts would have been compensatory education: The UBE made towards making the centre to hold again. attempt (PANACEA). In Many Voices, One Nigeria: Journal of Nigerian languages and culture, vol. 5 (1) Owerri: Association of Promoting Nigerian Languages and Culture (PANACEA).

17 Knowledge Enhancement Through Reading for Educational and National Development in Nigeria Okeke, Fidelia Azuka

The Millennium Bible: King James Version (1999). for social mobility and sustainable human Devotions, articles, and Bible study helps. Korea: development. In Nwosu, I. E., Fab-Ukozor, Holman Bible Publishers. N.T. and Nwodu, L. C. Communication for sustainable human development: A multi- Uka, E.M. (1994). The relevance of theological perspective approach. Enugu: African Council education in Nigeria. In NDUNODE. for Communication Education. Calabar Journal of the Humanities. 1 (1), Public.wsu.edu/. ./reader.crit.html Retrieved, 27 Calabar: Compuflex Systems Ltd. May, 2015. Wikipedia Atom feed Retrieved Ukozor, F. I. (2007). Education as an instrument 27 May, 2015.

18 3

English for Academic Purpose: The Nigerian Experience

Godwin F. Akpan (Ph.D) College of Education Afaha Nsit

Abstract This study attempts a descriptive and a diachronic approach at examining English used for academic purposes in Nigeria. It traces the coming of the English language into the Nigerian territory and establishes that the World Standard English (WSE) cannot be guaranteed in Nigerian because of the problem usually associated with language contact. The paper highlights the present status of English language in Nigeria as well as looks at the features of Nigerianisms that have affected the language. It concludes finally that for the world standard to be achieved, English language teaching must be based on grammatical acceptability. Keywords: Academics, Experience, Language, Administration, Competence

19 English for Academic Purpose: The Nigerian Experience Godwin F. Akpan (Ph.D)

Introduction constitution of Nigeria. It appears the country Many scholars and experts in the field have has accepted the handicapped position of its written several learned articles on the subject of failed language policy and succumbed to the the English language and the Nigerian situation. superior role the English language is playing. They have equally given reasons for the spread of Udofot (2007) agrees with this position, when she the language beyond its British homeland. Of opines that literacy in English and oracy in it course, there would be no meaningful discussion (English) guarantee acceptance and success any of the English language in Nigeria without the where in the country. activities of the European explorers, traders, missionaries and colonial administrators who It is against this background that this paper seeks introduced and propagated the use of the to examine the shift from language for general language in the country. The firm establishment communicative purposes to its purpose for and presence of the Europeans on the coast of specialized usage such as in medicine, business, Africa coupled with the cultural and linguistic literature, architecture, engineering, commerce, heterogeneity of the natives made it mandatory education, religion and so on. These specialized for the evolvement of a language of mutual possibilities and usages are often reflected in intelligibility. It was this need that gave the registers and structures (Orisawayi, 2002). Thus, English language the pride of place in Africa nay this paper will specifically look at the English Nigeria. language in Nigeria vis-à-vis it academic needs, the importance and status of the language given Today, the English language which first came to the Nigerian socio-cultural landscape as well as Nigeria as a foreign language (FL) has over the advance some recommendations for the years, gained acceptance in the country and is continued use of the language in its new form in being regarded as Nigeria's second language (L2). the Nigerian environment. As it is today, it does appear that the English language will continue to enjoy such official status The English Language in Nigeria and the need because of the failure of the country to evolve a for English for Academic Purposes (EAP) common language for itself which can serve all It is now generally known that English has spread the purposes the English language is made to globally and no longer the MT or L1 of the British perform. owners. In Nigeria, for instance, it is believed that English came in as early as the 16th Century (Eka, The English language has been found to be useful 1994). Commenting on the spread of English in the Nigerian society economically, politically, language, Kachru (1981:ix) puts it thus: socially, culturally, educationally, technologically …..there has never before been a single as well as religiously; there is no aspect of the language which spread over most of the Nigeria's communicative life that English has not world, as English has done in this played a vital role. However, the so called three century. The importance of this fact is national languages (Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba) often over-looked in discussions of the prescribed for use by the Nigerian constitution characteristic features of this age… when have failed to compete with the English language; the need for global communication came primarily because the issue has been politicized to exceed the limits set by language and secondly, because their lexicon have not been barriers, the spread of English accelerated, sufficiently enriched to transmit specialized transforming existing patterns of information and gain international acceptability. international communication.

The role of the English language in Nigeria is As English travelled to many other countries, it legalized by the government policy on education came in contact with the language of the natives, as stated in The National Policy on Education this is the position for which English has found (NPE) (1977, 1981, 1989 and 2004) and the itself in Nigeria. The status of English according

20 English for Academic Purpose: The Nigerian Experience Godwin F. Akpan (Ph.D) to Bamgbose (1995), is as a result of the contact According to Orisqwayi (2002), English for between it and the Nigerian languages in the Academic Purposes (EAP) is an innovation in socio-cultural and political situation. Nigeria. It is designed to re-orientate the teaching of the use of English course in Nigerian The implication of this statement is that any universities. The need to inculcate this into the language used by a people has to take on the students has become very necessary because of characteristics of the culture of that people if it is the remarkable developments in the field of to serve as an effective medium of communication. science, technology and other economic activities From this angle therefore, the English language has across the world which demand communication assumed a position of dominance over the local of expertise across the world. languages but the latter have introduced colour(s) Orisawayi (2002:2) agrees with this position thus: or varieties into its usage. About the same time that “Use of English” was being introduced as a This colour is seen at all levels of the English course in Nigerian universities, new language: phonological, lexical, morphology, developments began to emerge in the semantic as well as syntactic. Thus, the English world of English Language Teaching language has been vernacularised or to use the (ELT), Particularly in Britain where word of Bamgbose (1995) nativised. It is this kind Native speakers/users began to discover of colouration that has branded the kind of new frontiers in the teaching, learning English used in Nigeria as Nigerian English (NE). and use of the language. Having Even within the Nigerian variety, there are sub apparently exhausted its content as native varieties such as Yoruba variety, Igbo variety, language and its application to literature, Hausa variety, Ibibio variety, and so on. In each of ELT professionals began to discover new these sub-varieties, there is a scale of grounds for its use. standardization, e.g.

Thus, what the Nigerian user needs to do is to go back to the era of “correctness” in communicative WSE competence. The era of prescriptivism in language use as championed by Noam Chomsky is thus, the SNE way forward if Nigerians are to communicate effectively in the global world. Teachers of English Sub-standard varieties have long abandoned the linguistic or grammatical competence strategy (Eyo, 2007). There is an Fig. 1 urgent need for teachers to give practical exercise Key: WSE – World Standard English on registers in the various disciplines; this will SNE – Standard Nigerian English enhance learners' understanding and acquaintance.

At the lower level, there is pidgin and interference Another major challenge to EAP is the agitation while at the upper level, there is the standard by many literary writers on the need to evolve a variety which is usually tagged educated English. variety of English that would suit the Nigerian It should however be noted that since educated experience. For instance, Okara (1973) advocates speakers belong to different linguistic groups, the introduction of Nigerian or African English elements of their ethnic variation will be noticed that is capable of reflecting the idioms and in their English. imagery inherent in African language Nwachukwu (2000) is of the opinion that the It is this demand for correct and acceptable usage African writer has a burden which is complex as to meet the WSE that led native English far as the language issue is concerned, while professionals to identify and develop resources in Ikiddeh (2005:366) puts the problem this way: English for special or specific purposes.

21 English for Academic Purpose: The Nigerian Experience Godwin F. Akpan (Ph.D)

Nigerian pidgin has assumed among large language of the country. In spite of this lack of sections of our population for more than political will by the government, English a century the status of a lingua franca but continues to enjoy and also perform the role of a the problems attendant on its lack of a national language in Nigeria. It appears that this standard grammar, the variants. position may continue for a long time. Udosen (2007) believes that the high functions assigned to Today the use of pidgin flourishes as a medium the English language manifest in all facets of of inter-ethnic communication, especially among Nigeria's life. Also for Bamgbose (2004:4), “the urban dwellers in Nigerian cities. For instance, a trend towards globalization and its attendant visit to many schools in the cities shows that concomitance in the use of English as the almost all the teachers and students interact in language of international communication par pidgin. This situation has a negative implication excellence, has reinforced the role and status of for the teaching and learning of Standard British English in many countries of the world”. English (SBE). Jowitt succintingly captures this position thus: Despite this revered function assigned to English, English is then likely to be marked by the question is: how competent are Nigerian interference from pidgin as well as from students and graduates in the English language? the MT pidgin often serves as a lingua The objective of the status of the English franca for children from different ethnic language in Nigerian schools today seems to backgrounds attending school together. stress knowledge about the language rather than Pidgin continues to serve as a lingua using the language. franca in higher institutions and even to some extent among graduates, (1991:14) Teachers are mostly engaged in explicit definitions of rules of language elements and Despite the great impact and prestige of Standard grammatical items without imparting on the British English (SBE), students' performance in students the ability to use the language in real-life the English language in public examination such situations outside the classroom. Also, lack of as NECO, GCE, WASC, and JAMB is dwindling. qualified English language teachers has made the A lot of factors may be adduced for this abysmal teaching of the English language difficult. For performance. One of such is that the teachers instance, in almost all the Nigerian universities, themselves in cannot effectively master the SBE colleges and polytechnics, lecturers other than standards and so cannot pass it to the students. The English language graduates are drafted to teach sociolinguistic environment these students find the Use of English. This is a sad development in themselves does not encourage the proper learning the teaching/learning of the English language. and acquisition of the SBE. Also many literary Nigerian writers use pidgin and Nigerian variety of Since Nigeria is a non-native-speaking English in their texts, examples include Achebe in environment for English; a local variety of the almost all his novel, Soyinka and Amos Tutuola. language has developed as often happens in a Over the years, their texts have prominently featured language contact. In Banjo's (1970) argument, in the syllabus of the above mentioned examinations. “the English language in Nigeria is not and cannot be a linguistic island to itself, it has been The Status of English in Nigeria and the reacting and adapting to the local, social and Nigerian Situation linguistic environment” (p.20). Even within the The English language is often referred to as armbit of university teachers and other users of Nigeria's official language. There are however, the English language, the adaptations mentioned contentions about this classification. According above have manifested in the form of to Jowit (1991), this classification has never been “Nigerianisms”. Okon and Uduk (2007) define explicitly pronounced by statute or decree of the Nigerianism thus: Federal Government of Nigeria to be the official

22 English for Academic Purpose: The Nigerian Experience Godwin F. Akpan (Ph.D)

as phrases or terms, or sentence The Way Forward constructions, even among Nigerians of To achieve effectiveness in English for academic rank and education, different from the use purpose, the following postulations are put of the same terms or phrases, or the forward. construction of similar sentence in Britain i. English literature should be vigorously taught and America, or the borrowing, right from the secondary school as most adaptation of invention or words not Literature in English texts written by most found in British or American Englishes Nigerians carry the mark of Nigerian English and the use of such terms as if they were in them. English words. ii. Teachers of English in Nigeria need to return Similarly, English pronunciation in Nigeria has to the grammatical or linguistic competence obvious non-native accents. These arise both method which promotes analytical from the differences between the indigenous understanding of the language (Eyo, 2007). languages and English, resulting in interference. Certain consonants and vowels in English do not iii. The English language teachers must be obtain in certain Nigerian languages; for example, exposed to the current technique of the interdental fricatives /? /, /ð/ and the central learning/teaching the language at all levels of /∂/, /?/ do not occur in any, (Okon and Uduk, our education. 2007). There are also noticeable deviations in intonation, e.g. 'madam (British English), Ma'dam iv. Also, our schools should continue to teach the (Nigerian English), suc'cess (British English) English prescribed in dictionaries of the 'success (Nigerian English) 'colleague (British language. English), Co'lleague (Nigerian English). v. Only qualified English language teachers At the lexico-semantic level, Nigerian English is most should be assigned to teach the language. distinctive. Their occurrence and usage have affected the drive to attain perfection in the field English for vi. Teachers of the English language should Academic Purpose. The following examples are cited expose students to both the Nigerian English from Okon and Uduk (2007, p. 347). and British Standard English.

Branch - call (on one's way to another place) Conclusion Drop - alight (example from a bus) This paper looked at English for academic Escort a person - see a person off purpose vis-à-vis the Nigeria experience. It Lesson - private tuition examined the place and role of English language Invited guests - guests in Nigeria. It concludes that achieving the world Off-head - by heart, off-hand standard variety may still be a mirage in Nigeria Bush meat - game given the problems usually associated with Go – slow - traffic jam language contact. It however made some Arrange - negotiator recommendations which, if adhered, to may enhance a near native speaker approach to the From the examples above, it is discovered that teaching/learning of the English language. most English words are formed from items in the Nigerian environment. These may be local items whose English names are not readily available to satisfy the communication needs of the speaker in this new nation where English serve as a second language.

23 English for Academic Purpose: The Nigerian Experience Godwin F. Akpan (Ph.D)

References Century: Focus & Imperatives. 372- Bamgbose, A. (1995). English in the 386. Nig erian Environment In Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). Bamgbose, A., Banjo, A., Thomas, National Policy on Education. Federal A. (Eds) New Englishes: A West Government Press, Lagos. African Perspective. Ibadan: Mosun, Jowit, D. (1991). Nigerian English Usage: An 19-28. Introduction. Lagos: Longman. Bamgbose, A. (2004). English and Okon, F, and Uduk, A. (2007). Linguistic Inequality: An African Perspective. Creativity and Indigenization of In Awonusi, S. & Babalola, E. A., English in the 21st Century; (Eds) The Domestication of English in Pedagogical Implication in Etuk, Nigeria. Lagos: University of Lagos E.N. Udofot, I. M. and Udosen, A. Press, 1-14. E, (Eds). Education in Nigeria in the Banjo, A. (1970). A Historical View of the 21st Century: Focus & Imperatives. 340- English Language in Nigeria. Ibadan: 359. University Press. Orisawayi, D. (2002). Linguistic Eka, D. (1994). Elements of Grammar and Competence, Communicative Mechanics of the English Language. Efficiency and English for Sammy Nig. Ltd. Uyo. Academic Purpose in a Non-Native Eyo, L. (2007). Strategies for Effective ESL Environment. In Journal of Teaching of the English Language Nigerian English and Literature. in Nigerian Schools In Etuk, E. N. (Jonel) 3:(1) Udofot, I. M., and Udosen, A. E. (Eds). Education in Nigeria in the 21st

24 4

Binding the Devil: A Speech Act Reading of Selected Prayer Points in Daniel Olukoya's Prayer Rain

Olumola Victoria Iyabo Federal School of Statistics Ibadan, Nigeria

Abstract Some of the previous studies on religious discourse in Nigeria have focused on stylistic, discourse and impressive theoretical analyses. Despite the bulk of studies on religious discourse, it is noticed that the subject of prayers in Pentecostal churches has not been exhaustively treated by previous researchers. This study is therefore, a speech act analysis of selected prayer points in Daniel Olukoya's Prayer Rain with a view to bringing out how language is used in the Mountain of Fire and Miracle Ministries. The prayer points were purposively selected from the book Prayer Rain. Three prayer points were selected in all. The selected prayer points were subjected to a speech act analysis, using Searle's model of the speech act theory as a theoretical framework. In the analysis, we observe that various types of acts such as directive, declarative, commissive and representative help to communicate the different issues discussed in the prayer points. These acts are deployed strategically to achieve meanings and affirm the illocutionary intention of the speakers. Further, the illocutionary force of the prayer points tends to be mainly 'directive' through either commanding, pleading, requesting or confronting. The subjects perform especially directive and commissive acts to show that they have authority over those forces that work against their progress spiritually and physically. The prayer points considered are laden with African cultural beliefs. Hence, meaningful interpretations of these acts in the prayer points would reveal the thematic profundity and pragmatic richness of the prayer points.

25 Binding the Devil: A Speech Act Reading of Selected Prayer Points in Daniel Olukoya's Prayer Rain Olumola Victoria Iyabo

Introduction speech act, spoken aloud or silently in one's mind. Praying is a way of communicating with a divine For instance, leading a quick prayer in a Christian power and, while the activities involved in it vary home, expressing thanks and gratitude during a widely, it can be considered as perhaps one of the household prayer at the dinner table and asking most remarkable culturally-mediated forms of God for guidance and protection for the family normative dissociation and a ubiquitous religious are examples of prayers as speech act. Prayer phenomenon. (Geertz, 2008) from a Christian standpoint is interpreted as a personal relationship with the higher power of Christians use prayers to establish a personal God. Prayer is usually expressed verbally to God. relationship with God. While investigating The present study is a speech act analysis of some prayers' place within the process through which selected prayer points in Daniel Olukoya's Prayer supernatural order is known and experienced by Rain. In order to achieve this aim, this study has `believers, Luhrmann (2005) offers a glimpse into three specific objectives: the trained absorption skills shared by those lay lIdentify specific speech act types performed by people manifesting significant spiritual and Olukoya's prayer points. transpersonal experiences. In this wise, lExplain the basis for the acts performed in the (Luhrmann, Nusbaum, & Thisted, 2010) propose prayer points. that: lIdentify the expected perlocutionary effects Learning to experience God depends on of Olukoya's prayer points. interpretation (the socially taught and culturally variable cognitive categories Searle's Speech Act Theory that identify the presence of God), Inspired by Austin's work, Searle (1975) refined practice (the subjective and psychological the notion of speech acts. Searle et al. (1980) opine consequences of the specific training that “the theory of speech acts begins with the specified by the religion: e.g., prayer), and assumption that the minimal unit of human proclivity (a talent for and willingness to communication is not a sentence, but rather the respond to practice). performance of certain kinds of acts.” However, Searle argued that the felicity conditions The choices we make everyday are informed by a established by Austin were not alone sufficient complex system of references and justifications, for speech acts because one could not merely test each human being could therefore, be considered, a list of performative verbs and truth statements psychologically speaking, a believer in his or her to determine the force of the utterance. own worldview. Within a cultural perspective (Ward 2005), what might separate a devoted Searle formulated a set of conditions to aid in believer from an individual without a strong understanding speech acts, as well as explaining religious and spiritual credo is whether his or her how to make them felicitous. The first condition worldview is fundamentally shaped and is Propositional content. More often than not, reinforced both by a religious tradition and this is compared to Austin's locutionary act personal spiritual experience. because it entails meaning of the utterance itself based on context. So given the utterance (1) “I The power of one's prayer language needs to warn her not to go”, the propositional content is reverberate and evoke one's faith, thus granting that the speaker provides a warning that refers to an essential performative to any prayer act. a future event. For this condition to be felicitous, Praying implies a relationship of trust and it must be appropriate for the given context and dependency with a Divine power (Levin, 2009), a must be intended for the hearer's future. The relationship manifested through the absence of utterance (2) “I warned her not to go” would not anxiety, so that faith is seen as a deeply inhabited be felicitous because the speech event has already aspect of one's life. Prayer can be viewed as a occurred. We are in effect saying that the property

26 Binding the Devil: A Speech Act Reading of Selected Prayer Points in Daniel Olukoya's Prayer Rain Olumola Victoria Iyabo of propositional content intended for a warning (2) Directives refer to utterances made in an must be in the present tense and in the first attempt by the speaker to get the hearer to person; otherwise, an utterance like in (2) would do something for him. These directives may only be a statement of a previous speech act. The be expressed as questions form or in second type is Preparatory condition. This command form like (4) “Would you mind condition applies only to the intentions of the passing the salt?” or (5) “Pass the salt”. In speaker, which are difficult to analyze. The either case, the speaker wants the hearer to preparatory condition for the warning utterance pass the salt. (1) would mean that the speaker thinks that in the future, a certain event will occur and it is not in the (3) Commissives refer to actions that commit hearer's best interest for him to go. In saying this, the speaker to some future event or action. the speaker feels that it may not be obvious to the They also express what the speaker intends hearer that the event will not be in his best to do, such as promising, threatening, or interest. The third type of felicity condition also swearing, i.e. (6) “I promise to come in the applies to the intentions and feelings of the morning”. In using the commissives, the speaker. This third type is the sincerity condition. speaker is making an understood contract For this condition to be felicitous, when saying (1) with the hearer that will be carried out. the speaker must truly believe that the future event is not in the hearer's best interest. (4) Expressives express psychological states within the speaker and tell how the speaker In conclusion, essential condition is the last type feels. Examples of expressives include of felicity condition. This condition is most statements of happiness (7) “Joy! Joy! Joy!” transparent because it serves as an attempt for the thanking someone (8) “Thanks”, speaker to show that the future event is not in the apologizing (9) “I'm so sorry”, dislikes (10) best interest of the hearer. This last condition is “You bought me this?”, and pain (11) the most essential because this is where the force “Mother of Christ!” These, of course, must of the utterance lies. It also combines the first be context dependent because the three conditions, which are basic intentions of illocutionary and perlocutionary acts may be the speaker, and transforms them into an act of interpreted differently in alternative warning, or promising, or betting, etc. Hence, by environments. Whereas the locutionary act analyzing the essential condition, the effect of the of these expressives may be used for other communicative utterance can be seen. categories, such as in (11) as in a response to the question (12) “Who was Mary?”, when Types of Speech acts taken in appropriate context, they operate as Typologies of speech acts vary across field and expressives. philosophy. Therefore, the Searle typology will be the basis for this study because of its broadness. (5) Declaratives refer to statements made by Searle developed five basic kinds of speech acts authority, which cause immediate action that we use to express our communicative intent from the utterance. These are only effective and purpose in speaking: when stated by the appropriate authority. (1) Representatives. This refers to basic For example (13) “I hereby pronounce you assertions made by the speaker, which man and wife” in turn officially causes the contain a truth-value on the proposition. If couple to be wedded, and can take effect someone says, (3) “I state that Lagos is in only if said by a priest or someone who Ghana”, an assertion has been made, carries authority to wed individuals. although the statement is false. Within this system, Searle addressed possible intentions of speakers and desired actions of the

27 Binding the Devil: A Speech Act Reading of Selected Prayer Points in Daniel Olukoya's Prayer Rain Olumola Victoria Iyabo utterances for different situations. The present The prayer points above are characterised by study adopts Searle's model of speech act theory directive acts. Most of these directive acts are because of the broad classification of speech commands meant to fight evil forces and halt their types presented in his version of the speech act evil operations. The subject through the directive theory. act is asked to praise the Lord before he or she starts praying (Prayer point 1). In this case, the Methodology curses are not commanded but the subject. This Data for this study were drawn from the book should be done by the subject firstly to emphasize Prayer Rain. Three prayer points were purposively the belief in Christianity that God loves to be selected. The selected prayer points were praised even before prayers. This may at times be subjected to a speech act analysis, using Searle's in the form of appreciating Him ahead of what model of the speech act theory as a theoretical He will eventually do. Secondly, it is believed that framework. praising God before prayers urges God to attend to one's prayers without delay. However, as stated Data Analysis earlier, most of these directive acts are commands Using Searle's (1976) Taxonomy of Speech Acts against the evil curses hindering the subject's theory, this section analyzes prayers that relate to progress. These commands are most especially deliverance from evil forces. It is generally through the use of the imperative verb believed, especially in the Mountain of Fire and 'command'. The evil curses are commanded to be Miracle Ministries that certain forces work against broken and to leave the subject's life. These are one's progress spiritually and materially. The data curses associated with evil spirits and they are analysed here are prayers meant to overcome believed to be hard problems that must be broken these forces. These prayers are grouped based on to pieces. They are not only meant to be broken their themes since they are meant to achieve down but to also be evicted from the subject's life. different things. We shall therefore proceed to the analysis based on the groupings. Some of these directives are used to make request or ask God to do something. Although these acts Prayers for Reversing Hidden Curses are request, they are used in the form of In Mountain of Fire and Miracles Ministries (MFM), commands especially with the use of the verb 'let'. these prayers are believed to be appropriate for This verb is used to ask God to allow something to deliverance ministrations or breaking of curses. It happen. In each occasion of its use in the prayers, is one of the beliefs in this church that many it is used to make a request from God to purge out people, in spite of their efforts, still labour under and cleanse the subject's life of evil curses. unexplainable hindrances that debar them from moving on in life. Hence, prayers against such Apart from the directive acts performed with curses or burdens are said aggressively because some of these prayers, the following prayers are curses are believed to be evil words backed up by characterized by commissive acts. supernatural powers. Some of the prayers often used for reversing these evil curses are highlighted I take authority over every curse of and the speech acts performed through them are uSickness, infirmity and deformity discussed. uFinancial destruction uPraise the Lord for the redemptive power in uPhysical and spiritual destruction the blood of Jesus uFamily destruction uI command all curses issued against me to be uMarital destruction in my family, in the name broken, in the name of Jesus. of Jesus uI command all evil spirits associated with any uI cancel the consequences and evil effects of all curse to leave me now, in the name of Jesus. curses, in the name of Jesus (Text 1) uI release myself from any curse emanating from:

28 Binding the Devil: A Speech Act Reading of Selected Prayer Points in Daniel Olukoya's Prayer Rain Olumola Victoria Iyabo

- Past heresies or blasphemies down by mere assertions. They need to be - Breaking a person's heart commanded. Examples of such directive acts - Self-imposed curses with the use of commands are illustrated below: - Past involvement in false religion uI command all serpentine and scorpion spirits - Tithe failures to depart and go now, in the name of Jesus. - Deliberate sinning uYou agents of frustration, I command you in - Negative words the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, loose your (Text 2) hold over my life. uYou agents of poverty, I command you in the These prayers contain commissive acts binding name of our Lord Jesus Christ, loose hold over the subject to perform a specified act or behave in my life. a certain way. The prayers are vows made by the uYou agents of spiritual rags, I command you in subject. It is not unusual for prayers to be in the the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, loose your form of taking vows. This most especially hold over my life. increases the boldness of the subject to wage uYou agents of infirmity, I command you in the some spiritual wars themselves rather than asking name of our Lord Jesus Christ, loose your hold or directing God to do it for them. It is believed of my life. that Christians who are deep in the knowledge of (Text 3) God and of the Bible should not be afraid of evil forces. These prayers come in the form of the In the prayers above, evil forces and their agents responsibilities that are necessary to be taken by are confronted through commands. This believers. These acts are reflected especially in the directive act of command is performed with the use of the verbs 'take', 'cancel' and 'release'. These use of the verb 'command' preceded by the verbs are suggestive of the personal decisions or personal pronoun 'I' referring to the subject. vows taken by the subjects themselves to liberate Through these prayers in which directive acts are themselves from these evil forces. The vows in performed, the subject commands for instance, these prayers are against sickness, infirmity, in prayer 1 'serpentine and scorpion spirits' to be financial destruction, negative effects of evil destroyed. The adjective 'serpentine' and the forces, self imposed curses, etc. these vows could noun 'scorpion' are used to refer to the evil spirits at times be seen as sacrifices that must be made by that torment the life of any Christian. 'Serpent' the subjects to free themselves. and 'Scorpion' are dangerous creatures which are Prayers for Confronting and Conquering Evil often dreaded by the people. They are creatures Forces that are not wanted in the midst of humans because of their dangerous and destructive These are prayers used for declaring war against tendencies. Such creatures are often killed and evil forces. It is a common belief in Christianity destroyed. But in this case, serpents and scorpion that Christians should equip themselves with are invisible. They are evil spirits that are not prayers, often referred to as, weapons so as to visible to humans. They cannot be killed but only launch virulent attacks against every 'Goliath' be commanded through the name of Jesus harassing their lives. The word 'Goliath' is . symbolic as it represents the enemy of one's However, in prayers 2, 3, 4 and 5, directive acts are progress. Such as are used to conquer and destroy. performed through confrontations and As a result of what these prayers are used for, they commands. The evil forces are first confronted are mostly characterised by directive acts often before they are commanded. The subject is very used to command. This directive act of specific and assertive through these commanding is used to storm the abode of the confrontations. These evil forces are first enemies and destroy their strongholds. The addressed and their names are mentioned. The strongholds of the enemies cannot be pulled forces specifically mentioned in these prayers are

29 Binding the Devil: A Speech Act Reading of Selected Prayer Points in Daniel Olukoya's Prayer Rain Olumola Victoria Iyabo

'agents of frustration' 'agents of poverty', 'agents these prayers. Apart from the fact that these of spiritual rags', and 'agents of infirmity'. These statements are prayers, they are also personal agents (evil forces) are confronted through the decisions of the subject through which he use of the second person plural pronoun 'you' to commits himself. They can also be seen as show that the subject is very direct and specific personal promises by the subject to brace him up about the spirits or persons he or she is and reject certain evil links. addressing. Frustration, poverty, spiritual rags and infirmity turn Christians to non-entities and as a In the same vein, some directive acts are also result, they and their agents must not be allowed performed in some of these prayers. Some of to operate at will. Hence, they are commanded to these directives are used to plead to God and take a leave or better still be destroyed. some are used as commands to command the spirit of death and hell. Prayers for Cutting off Evil Linkage uI command the spirit of death and hell to loose These are prayers used to break evil linkage and its hold upon my life, in the name of Jesus. satanic bands. It is a common belief especially in uI command every evil spiritual clock to be Africa that some problems both spiritual and destroyed with Holy Ghost fire, in the name of physical are traceable to one's family background Jesus. or ancestors. Many people are believed to have (Text 5) been wrongly 'programmed' from birth. This could result from incisions and satanic labels on The prayers above are direct commands of spirits their bodies which link them to evil spirits. Hence, of death and hell and evil spiritual clock. The these prayers are meant to cut off such links that items commanded here are instruments of the are contrary to the teachings of God. It is devil used to torment Christians and unbelievers. observed that commissive acts are mostly Spiritual clock is believed to always draw a true performed in these prayers because the subject Christian backward while the spirit of death and takes it upon himself to cut himself completely hell put Christians in fear. They can only be off such linkages. These acts are performed with commanded forcefully as they are very strong some verbs which indicate certain things the tools in the hands of the devil. subject wants to cut off. Let us see how these commissive acts are performed with such verbs in Discussion and Conclusion the following prayers. A critical analysis of the discoursal elements in uI cut off every link and label of demonic the prayer points reveals the following about oppression, in Jesus' name religious discourse: uI reject every garment of confusion, in the name of Jesus. i. Christian religious leaders and preachers uI break every demonic circle in my life, in the recognize the power of language in name of Jesus. persuading, enticing, promising, asserting, (Text 4) threatening and so specially deploy language to achieve these purposes. The verbs 'cut off', 'rejects' and 'break' show the desperation on the part of the subject. He needs ii. The use of English in Christian religious to cut off, reject and break these evil linkages discourse, from the point of view of speech especially through prayers and appropriate act theory, is used to give commands and actions. These verbs are indicators of what he has suggestions by way of directives; make claims resolved to do. In rejecting 'garment of and assertions by way of representatives and confusion', breaking 'demonic circle' and cutting make promises and issue threats by way of off the 'link and label demonic oppression' the commissives. subject has to make some personal vows through

30 Binding the Devil: A Speech Act Reading of Selected Prayer Points in Daniel Olukoya's Prayer Rain Olumola Victoria Iyabo

There is a link between religion and words. The he commits himself. They can also be seen as spoken and written word play essential role in personal promises by the subject to brace him up religion, as language is necessarily used to address and reject certain evil links. This shows that the gods or God, to speak about the divine or the culturally, the ways individuals view the world sacred, and to express religious feeling or reflect in their linguistic realizations. Should a awareness. The sequence that addresses prayers European want to say similar prayers, he or she on deliverance from evil forces is rich in will not take cognizance of some evil 'in laws' or directives, representatives and commissives. This some forces waging spiritual war against him or implies that there is a directive force underlying her. religious speeches. This directive force, according In the findings, it was concluded that the to Adegbija (1982:125) also serves as a binding illocutionary force of the prayer points tends to wire to join all the individual speech acts together. be mainly 'directive' through commanding, Babatunde and Odepitan (2009) further note that pleading, requesting and confrontations. representatives (assertives) are essential for the Christian religious leaders and preachers realization of a rhetorical end, which is recognize the power of language in persuading, persuasion, and assertives are among the major enticing, promising, asserting, threatening, etc. illocutionary acts. and so specially deploy language to achieve these purposes. They also consciously or unconsciously The ways of expressing speech acts vary from deploy new words not currently existing in the culture to culture. The prayer points considered English language to serve their own are heavily laden with the African cultural beliefs. communicative and aesthetic purposes. The Commissive acts are mostly performed in these prayer points do not preach love; adherents are prayers because the subject takes it upon himself encouraged to continuously wage war against the to cut himself completely off such linkages. spiritual world and all the human agents who These acts are performed with some verbs which represent it. indicate certain things the subject wants to cut off. Let us see how these commissive acts are References performed with such verbs in the following Adegbija, E.E (1982). A Speech Act Analysis of prayers points. Consumer Advertisements. Dissertation. English, Arts. Indiana University. I cut off every link and label of demonic Babatunde, S. and Odepitan, O. (2009). oppression, in Jesus' name I reject every garment Pragmarhetorical Strategies in Selected Speeches of confusion, in the name of Jesus. of Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo. Religious Communication in Nigeria. (Eds.) I break every demonic circle in my life, in the A.Odebunmi, and Babajide A. Publication name of Jesus. of Lincon GmbH, pp. 297-312. The verbs 'cut off', 'rejects' and 'break' show the Geertz, A. W. (2008). Comparing prayer: On desperation on the part of the subject. He needs Science, Universals, and the Human to cut off, reject and break these evil linkages Condition. especially through prayers and appropriate Introducing religion: Essays in honor of Jonathan Z. actions. These verbs are indicators of what he has Smith. Eds. W. Braun, & R. T. McCutcheon, resolved to do. In rejecting 'garment of (pp. 113-139). London, UK: Equinox confusion', breaking 'demonic circle' and cutting Publishing. off the 'link and label demonic oppression.' The Levin, J. (2009). How Faith Heals: A theoretical subject has to make some personal vows through Model. Explore, 5, 77-96. these prayers. Apart from the fact that these Luhrmann, T. M. (2005). The art of hearing God: statements are said as prayers, they are also Absorption, dissociation, and contemporary personal decisions of the subject through which American spirituality. Spiritus, 5, 133-157.

31 Binding the Devil: A Speech Act Reading of Selected Prayer Points in Daniel Olukoya's Prayer Rain Olumola Victoria Iyabo

Luhrmann, T. M., Nusbaum, H., & Thisted, R. Searle, J. R. (1976). A Classification of (2010). The absorption hypothesis: Illocutionary acts. Language in Societies 5, 1- Learning to hear God in evangelical 2-3. Christianity. American Anthropologist, 112, Searle, J., F. Kiefer, and M. Bierwisch (Eds.) 66–78. (1980). Speech Act Theory and Searle, J. R. (1968). Austin on locutionary and Pragmatics. Dordrecht: D. Reidel illocutionary acts. The Philosophical Review. Publishing. 77:405-424. Ward, G. (2005). Christ and culture. Oxford, UK: Searle, J. (1975). Indirect Speech Acts, in P. Cole & J. Blackwell. Morgan (eds.). Syntax and Semantics, Vol. 3: Speech Acts. New York Academic Press.

32 5

A Linguistic Discourse on the Nature of Sound Production

Godwin F. Akpan, Ph.D. College of Education Afaha Nsit

Abstract This paper, a linguistic Discourse on the nature of sound of production attempts a descriptive overview of the English speech sounds. The paper recognizes that sounds are not visual but auditory and that a proper understanding of these sounds will enhance the communicative needs of the user of English especially in ESL situation in Nigeria. The paper also identifies the lips, the mouth, the teeth, the hard palate, the soft plate, the tongue, the lungs, the pharynx and the larynx as the important organs which play salient roles in speech production. Finally, it concludes that sound production can take a lot of forms depending on the place and manner of articulation. Keywords: Discourse, Communication, Sounds, Production, Articulation, Phonetic symbols

33 A Linguistic Discourse on the Nature of Sound Production Godwin F. Akpan, Ph.D.

Introduction other languages of the world have been classified Sounds are normally produced with a controlled into two groups; vowels and consonants. Each flow of air from the lungs. They are usually heard. vowel or consonant has been assigned a symbol It is sounds that make speech possible. The sound with which it is represented… And are used to according to O'Connor (1980) is made by definite give form to speech sounds which are auditory. movements of the organs of speech. It is the letters that are usually used to represent words The argument of Eka therefore is that each sound and sentences. Sometimes, the letters are said to that occurs in language (i.e. all languages of the constitute the means of representing sounds. A world) is represented by a phonetic symbol or a warning must be made here that in some natural combination of symbols. Thus, phonetic languages there are no word for word symbols have universal application. In all correspondence between the letter and the languages the same symbols stand for the same sound. sound, (Egbokhare, 1992). E.g / f / - in cough, Joseph. / Ë / - in love Basically, any organ that participates in one way or the other in the speech process could be As can be seen from the above examples, the considered an organ of speech. But adopting this sounds do not correspond with the words. Again position takes one beyond the strictly phonetic the letter 'O' has a sound quite different from the domain. Thus, speech organs can be seen as those sound of another word. Thus, it is better and organs of the body that are observed to be more technical to represent sounds than symbols. actively involved in speech production. The Darbyshire (1967) regards speech sounds as organs of speech operate under three systems or vibrations in the atmosphere produced by the mechanisms. These are the airstream, phonatory respiratory tract of the human body. and articulatory mechanisms. These mechanisms can be related literally to the bellows, reeds and Sounds in natural languages traditionally fall into resonators of a wind instrument (Egbokhare, two groups vowels and consonants. Vowel 1992). sounds are those sounds generally produced without any audible obstruction in the speech For the purposes of this paper, elaborate organs e.g. /a/,f/,e/,i/,o/,u/. On the other hand, explanation of the vowel and consonant sounds the realization of consonant sounds is always would be avoided. However, they will be taken in followed by some form of obstruction, which is group as we discuss sound production. partial or total. Sound Production Process It should be noted that words are not made of We begin with a general functional overview of consonants or vowels alone, but by a combination the process of speech production. The human of both. Every language has a definite number of vocal apparatus can be viewed as a kind of sounds which it employs for speech production. mechanism – it has measurable dimensions, such Some of these sounds are peculiar for it, other it as the distance from the larynx to the lips, it has shares with other languages the total set of speech moving parts, such as the tongue, and so on. sounds occurring in all languages of the world But Eka and Udofot (1996:40) identifies three represents the universal inventory, and it defines organs that are involved in the speech process: man's speech producing capacity. (i) Those concerned with breathing (ii) Those concerned with voicing According to Eka and Udofot (1996:14), every (iii) Those concerned with specific/final speech language has its own inventory of sounds, some production. of which are unique to it while some occur in other languages. All the sounds that occur in The formation of any sound requires that a vibrating medium should be set in motion by

34 A Linguistic Discourse on the Nature of Sound Production Godwin F. Akpan, Ph.D. some kind of energy (Cruttender 1962). In The tongue is divided into two parts: The human speech production for instance, the front and the back. The front is sometimes function of the vibrator is often fulfilled by the further divided into two parts, the blade and vocal folds and that these are activated by air the tip while the back is normally divided pressure from the lungs. Before advancing any into the back and the root. further, it is important to discuss the speech organs involved in sound production. (iv) The Lips: This constitutes another set of moveable organs. They are very important A. The Moveable Organs: because they determine the degree of the The vocal lips, the soft palate, the tongue and the opening for various sounds. For instance, lips are mobile. A major feature of the mobile they can be wide open, allowing the air to organs is that they can act more or less pass freely through as in sounds like /a:/, independently of each other and their /h/ and /e/; they can be in close contact and movements can be combined in different ways then give way for an instant release of the with other mobile organs as well as fixed ones sound; they can be spread as in /I:/; neutral resulting in the production of a large number of as in /d/; open rounded as in /? /; close speech sounds. rounded as in /u:/; they can be brought close together through to cause a narrowed space (i) The Vocal Cords: We can argue that the lips are for sounds to filter through as in /?/, /f/, at the pivot of sound production. Each /v/; Finally, they can be made to vibrate as speech sound in each natural language is babies and children do when learning to either voiced or voiceless. Again the cords produce sounds. constitute an important distinction between vowels and consonants. For instance, there is B. Fixed Organs always a vibration of the vocal cords during (i) The Teeth: The teeth like the other fixed the production of vowel sounds since all organs produce sounds through the co- vowels are voiced. There is a constant operation of other organs of speech. For adjustment of the vocal cords in the example, the teeth particularly the two upper production of consonant sounds since some front teeth help in the production of the are voiced and others voiceless. interdental sounds //, /ð/.

(ii) The Soft Palate: The soft palate may be also (ii) The Hard Palate: helps in the realization of the referred to as the velum. As a moveable palatal sounds /j/. At the left end of the hard organ, it can take up two positions: during palate is the alveolar ridge. This part of the quiet breathing, it is lowered and the air can palate helps in the realization of the numerous pass behind it and then through the nose alveolar and palate – alveolar sounds. cavity. It takes the same position during the realization of nasal as well as nasalized (iii) The Pharynx & the Epiglottis: This pharynx is sounds. Thus during speech production the the space between the back of the tongue and soft palate is constantly opening and closing the back wall of the throat. The pharynx itself the nasal and the oral cavities as the need helps as it produces the space for air to pass into arises. the nose as well as the mouth. The epiglottis helps to contract that space by closing and (iii) The Tongue: The tongue is one of the most opening the food passage and sounds passage important organs of speech. It can make as necessary. many movements and can combine easily with many other organs to produce (iv) The Larynx: This is the outer coverage for the practically all vowels and many consonants. vocal lips. It is sometimes referred to as

35 A Linguistic Discourse on the Nature of Sound Production Godwin F. Akpan, Ph.D.

“Adam apple”. Its main function is to protect The uvula may be raised over the nasal cavity to both the vocal cords and the space between allow the air to pass through the oral cavity. This is them. the way oral sounds are produced.

(v) The Lungs: The lungs are not organs of The vocal cords may vibrate causing the speech in any strict sense. They simply articulated sounds to be voiced. process air inhaled into them and send out air The vocal cords may remain open, allowing the which then becomes controlled for the articulation sounds, to pass through without production of sounds. vibration.

Sound Articulation When however, we consider what goes on Articulation simply refers to sound production. simultaneously between the active and the passive We have discussed the organs, which enhance this articulators, we can see the articulation as being event and have seen the major ones to include the primary, secondary, double or displaced. vocal cords, the tongue, and the lips. The articulatory system can also include the lungs, the A primary articulation is concerned with the main nose and even the ear since a sound is largely organ involved in the production of sound. For irrelevant until it is used for communication example, in the production of /m/ there is a between the transmitter and the receiver of the complete closure of the two lips. This is referred message (Abercrombie 1967:21). to as primary articulation. The tongue carries on certain movements depending on what sound, The articulators as we have discussed are either (perhaps vowel sound) comes after /m/, what the fixed or moveable. The moveable articulators tongue does is describable in terms of secondary may be referred to as active articulators, while the articulation. fixed may be regarded as passive articulators. According to Eka and Udofot (1996:49) Primary and secondary articulations normally go articulation is achieved in various ways. together; the primary articulators being the active articulator and the secondary articulators being The current of air stream from the lungs may be the passive ones. This also presupposes that in all stopped completely as in the articulation of cases, the secondary articulation is subordinator plosives such as /p, b, t/. to the primary articulation.

The space between the articulating organs may be A double articulation may also be referred to as a narrowed, allowing the air to pass through it as in complex articulation. It consists of two the articulation of fricatives such as /f, v, s/. movement of equal importance and in such a case the descriptive label has to contain two terms of The middle of the mouth may be blocked, place usually joined by a hyphen e.g. palato- allowing the air to pass through the two sides of alveolar. Thus the sound /d?/ of John (English) the mouth. This is usually observed in the and the labio-velar sound /kp/ of ekpe “hon” realization of the liquid sound /l, r/ (Ibibio).

They may be complete absence of audible There are also instances of displaced articulation. obstruction in the speech organs. This is a way The term is used to describe a situation in which a vowels are articulated. double articulation would take place, but the sound is produced before the passive articulator The uvula may be allowed to cover the oral cavity has a chance to participate fully in articulation e.g. to allow the air to pass through the nasal cavity. /f/ and /v/ in English. This is the way nasal sounds and nasalized ones are articulated.

36 A Linguistic Discourse on the Nature of Sound Production Godwin F. Akpan, Ph.D.

The case with the displacement may be best Manner of Articulation understood in terms of the position of the There are six types articulators during a period of rest: Unlike the (1) Plosives (stops): This is so because at the point two lips, the upper (passive) and the lower (active) of production, you stop the air, like /t, d, k/. which normally lie directly opposite each other There are those sounds realized through the during such a period, the lower lip (active) and the bringing together of the articulating organs upper front teeth (passive) do not lie in this kind and a sudden release and explosion. of position. So they are “displaced” from the Six plosives are recognized in English viewpoint of distance, which becomes a sort of /p, b/ (Bilabial plosives) handicap. /t, d/ (Alveolar plosives) /k, g/ (Vela plosives) Sounds in English: Consonants Traditional description recognizes 24 consonants (2) Fricatives: These are sounds produced through described through the place and manner of the narrowing of the space between the articulation. From the viewpoint of place, this articulating organs and a filtering of a sound paper can identify eight groups. resulting in some kind of hissing sounds. (i) The first is the bilabial sounds i.e. those There are nine fricatives, /f, v/ - labio-dental, sounds that are realized between the two /ð/ - dental, /s, z/ - alveolar, /s, h/ - palato- lips e.g. /p, b, m/. alveolar, /h/ - glottal. (ii) Also there are the labio-dental sounds realized with the lower and the upper (3) Affricates: These are the sounds produced by front teeth e.g. /f/ and /v/. the bringing together of the articulating (iii) The next group are the dental sounds organs and the less sudden releases of sound realized with the tip of the tongue than in the case of plosives. between the two rows of teeth e.g. //, /ð/ (4) Nasals: These are sounds produced with the (iv) Equally, there are the alveolar sounds soft palate lowered and allowing the air to produced with the tip of the tongue pass through the nose, and they are three /m, about touching the teeth ridge e.g. /t, d, l, n, n/. n, s, z/. (v) There are also the palato-alveolar sounds. (5) Liquid Sounds: In English there are only two These are sounds produced with the tip /l, r/. It is a kind of blanket term used to of the tongue against the hard palate and cover the lateral and the rolled sounds. It is the teeth ridge e.g. /t?/ as in church, /d?/ realized by the tip of the tongue touching the as in July, / ?/ as in she and /?/ as in vision. teeth ridge and air passing through the sides (vi) Palatal sounds: These are realized with of the tongue, hence the sound is referred to the tongue touching the hard palate, e.g. as the alveolar liquid. /j/ as in yes. The rolled liquid is realized with the tip of the (vii) The soft or velar sound: These are three tongue repeatedly touching and vibrating in number. They are produced with the against the teeth ridge, hence it is called the back of the tongue touching the soft alveolar liquid rolled. palate e.g. /k, g, n/. (viii) Glottal Sound: An obstruction, or a (6) Semi-Vowels: There are those consonant narrowing causing friction but not sounds that are produced with very little vibration between vocal folds e.g. /h/ as obstruction by the articulating organ. E.g. in hat, hen. /w/ - produced with two lips attempting to block the air and in the case of /j/, it is the tip of the tongue and the hard palate.

37 A Linguistic Discourse on the Nature of Sound Production Godwin F. Akpan, Ph.D.

Voiced/Voiceless (b) /a:/ is open, back, unrounded A consonant may also be described as voiced or (c) /u:/ is close, back, rounded. (Eka & Udofot, voiceless. At the production of a sound the vocal 1996:84). cord will remain either close or opened, if they are closed, the air from the lungs (pulmonic airstrip) on Finally, duration is another aspect often considered in getting there will force it open causing the vocal cords the descriptive of vowels. This is because certain to vibrate. This vibration results in voicing, if the vowels tend to be longer than others. Some vowels vocal cords are open the air from the lungs will pass are often describe as relatively long while some are without obstruction, this results in noiselessness. In relatively short. In our above example, the two dots normal realization all consonant sounds are either are conventionally used in front of a vowel to show voiced or voiceless. that it is a long vowel. Those without dots in front of them are short. Sounds in English: Vowels Vowels are usually conventionally numbered. They Conclusion are usually described according to: To produce a sound of any kind, a source of energy is (i) The position of the tongue in relation to the needed. For speech, a flow of air makes it possible to roof of the month. generate sounds, and the volume and pressure of the (ii) The position of the lips air supply determines the duration and loudness of (iii) The relative duration in the realization of a the sound produced. The majority of the sounds particular vowel produced in say English, use airflow from the lungs.

A vowel can thus be described as a close vowel if the The airflow can be interrupted periodically by the tongue is raise relatively high towards the palate vocal folds, which are situated in the airway. during its production and an open vowel if the vowel is produced with the tongue lying flat in the mouth. This paper attempted only a brief summary of the The other positions are half close and half open major types of articulatory process involved in between the two extremes. When considering the speech production. In normal continuous speech, posture of the lips, a vowel can be described as some of these processes occur very rapidly and may rounded if the lips are rounded during its realization interact with each other as a result. The sound output and unrounded if produced either with spread or can show rapid changes of quality and this dynamic neutral lips. aspect of speech is also important in providing cues that allows listeners to recognize a sequence of In some languages, it is necessary to specify whether speech sounds. the vowel is oral or nasalized, e.g. in the French word “vin” /ven/ or the English word “man” /maen/. It References is also important to say whether a vowel is voiced or Abercrombie, D. (1967). Elements of General Phonetics. voiceless. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Clark, J. and Yallop, C. (1990). An Introduction to Given this background, it is possible to describe a Phonetics and Phonology. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. vowel sound as close, half-close, half open or open Cruttender, A. (1962). Gimson's Pronunciation of depending on the height of the tongue in relation to English. (6th Edition). London: Oxford the palate. A vowel can also be described as front, University Press. central or back depending on the part of the tongue Eka, D and Udofot, I. (1996). Aspects of Spoken that is raise or lowered during the vowel articulation. Language. Calabar: Bon Universal Ltd. Again, a vowel can be described as rounded or Egbokhare, F. (1992). Basic Phonetics: A Course in unrounded depending on the lip posture. E.g. in the Articulatory Phonetics. Ibadan: M. Alofe Nig. English words seed, calm, food; we have /i:/, /a:/ Ent. and /u:/, we can therefore say that Udondata, J. (2002). Learning to Speak English. Uyo: (a) /i:/ is close, front unrounded Scholars Press (Nig) Ltd.

38 6

English and Hausa Loan Words in Tiv

Usar, Ignatius Lornenge Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages University of Jos and Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu Department of English, Chukwuemeka Odomegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam Campus, Anambra State.

Abstract The Tiv language spoken largely in Nigeria and some parts of Cameroon should on the face value be thought to have developed so much considering that studies in the language started in the early 20th Century. However, owing to contact with the Hausa language and the status of the English language as the National/Official language of Nigeria, words from the Hausa and English languages shave been loaned into the Tiv through various processes. This paper examines English and Hausa adopted words into Tiv with the aim of finding out the enormity of loanwords from the two. The paper also examines strategies adopted by the Tiv language in naturalizing and integrating the loan words into the target language.

39 English and Hausa Loan Words in Tiv Usar, Ignatius Lornenge and Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu

1.0 Historical Background of the Tiv People Areas across Benue, Nassarawa, Taraba and There is no agreement among scholars as to Cross River States. In Benue State alone, the the original home of the Tiv from where they Tiv settle in large numbers in Buruku, Gboko·, may have started their migration to the present Guma, Katsina-Ala, Konshisha, Kwande, home. One can of course say this of most, if Ushongo, Makurdi, Vandeikya, ,Gwer, Gwer- not all the ethnic groups in Nigeria. Most West, Ukum, Tarka and Logo Local accounts however indicate that the Tiv are of Government Areas. In Cross River State, they Bantu stock, and therefore must have had their are found in Yala, Boki, Obudu and lkom areas original home somewhere in central Africa. while in Taraba State, the Tiv language is The linguistic approach to the question spoken in their settlement areas such as attempts to establish a link between the Negro Aldokolor, Sardauna, Wukari, lbi , Bali, groups by pointing to the similarity of Takum, Donga, and Gasol Local Government language. Abraham (1933) bases his thesis on a Areas while in Nassarawa State they settle in Congo origin for the Tiv on a sixty-seven word Lafia, Keana, Doma, Awe, Nassarawa and Obi. list. The list purports that to demonstrate Furthermore, the Tiv are also found in Qu'an some similarity between Tiv language and the Pan, Shendam and Langtang South in Plateau Bantu Nyanza who live in present day Malawi. State. Considering the geographical spread The time of Tiv migration to their permanent and the large number of speakers, Tiv homeland cannot be known with any certainty, language is indeed a very important language. however, Downes (1933) cited in Wegh (1997) estimates that the really general migration into It is an interesting scenario that in spite of the the present area began around 1800 and that fact that while the English and Hausa the Tiv were present south of the Benue River languages belong to the Indo-European and in large numbers by 1850. The various clans Chadic family respectively, Tiv language which shifted position until 1890 when the is a Bantu language borrowed excessively from boundaries were rather well established and the two. Although Hausa, the largest known permanent settlement undertaken. Chadic language is spoken in Nigeria, Tivland does not share any close geographical affinity Greenberg (1963) provides a broad and with speakers of the language. One wonders significant framework for classifying African therefore, why languages indigenous to languages which has earned the status of a Nasarawa, Taraba, Cross River and Plateau reference point. Tiv is a member of the states have not found their way into the Tiv Bantoid languages a sub-division of Benue lexicon. The plausible explanation for this is Congo group where it forms a prominent part simply that languages indigenous to these of the sub group. Benue Congo is a sub-family states have themselves heavily depended on of the Niger-Congo family. the Hausa language thus serving as 'buffer languages which facilitated the extensive Today, the Tiv people are predominantly loanwords found in the Tiv lexicon. found in central Nigeria and a significant number in the Republic of Cameroon in West From the above information therefore, it can Africa. Gboko is the headquarters town of the be asserted that a large number of the Hausa Tiv. Studies by Udu, Dooga, and Isa ( 1998, p.2 words adopted into the Tiv language were originally English or other languages from and Udu 1999, p.4) cited in Udu (2009) have which the Hausa might have also borrowed. revealed that in Nigeria, the Tiv people occupy Consider the following words: over thirty three (33) Local Government

40 English and Hausa Loan Words in Tiv Usar, Ignatius Lornenge and Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu

English Hausa Tiv Gloss language. Such words are sometimes adapted Table Tebur Tebul Table directly to fit the sound patterns of the borrowing Shovel Shebur Shebul Shovel language. Bread Burodi Beredi Bread Mango Mangoro Mongoo Mango Millar (2007:21-22) says there are many different Field Fili Fiidi Field ways of acquiring new words in language, some Garage Gareji Galeeji Garage of them exceedingly common, others rather Government Gwamnati Gomenti Government unusual but the simplest and most obvious source of all in borrowing. The process of acquiring new 1.1 Hegemonic Influence of the Hausa words is curiosly called borrowing because the Language evidenced in Loanwords lending language does not lose the use of the The nature of the Hausa people of Nigeria as word, nor does the borrowing language intend to traders and the influence which the Hausa give it back. language has on many languages in the Northern part of the country has made encouraged the Why should people be so eager to borrow growth and continual blossoming of the somebody else's word? Linguists have proposed language. According to Busa (2008) 'Hausa so many reasons for loaning of lexical items from Language has virtually captured almost all the one language to another which include: minor languages of Northern Nigeria in so (i) the word is the name of something genuinely many ways. This process has compelled the new to speakers of the borrowing language; native speakers of the minority languages to (ii) the need to designate new things, persons, adopt Hausa words into their vocabulary places and concepts for which a language through the processes of loan-adoption, coinage, has no term(s) in its vocabulary but has extension of meaning and loan translation.' This sufficient contact with another language process has also helped in developing the which has these terms; vocabulary of the Tiv language and has made for (iii) to enhance communicative competence ease of interaction with their neighbouring amongst speakers of different languages in communities who have also fallen prey to the contact; and Hausa language's hegemonic influence and (iv) to promote scientific and technological assimilation processes. This paper is therefore development and advancement of the concerned with English and Hausa adopted borrowing language, amongst other reasons. words in Tiv only. 2.0 English Loan Words in Tiv 1.2 What is Loanword and what Factors This study shows that there are a large number Necessitate Loaning of English loanwords in Tiv. Words denoting According to Crystal (2008, p.286) a 'loan' is a mostly household items, clothing, means of linguistic unit (usually a lexical item) which has transportation, school materials etc. have been come to be used in a language or dialect other loaned into the Tiv language. than the one where it originated. It says further that several types of loan process has been These words in the Tiv vocabulary were originally recognized, such as loan words (where both form English and did not come into the lexicon and meaning are borrowed, or assimilated with through any buffer languages. These words are adaptation to the phonological system of the new loaned into the Tiv language directly from the language; loan blends, loan shifts and loan English language, they include the following: translations.

Mathews (2007:230) describes a loan word as a word imported by borrowing from another

41 English and Hausa Loan Words in Tiv Usar, Ignatius Lornenge and Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu

English Tiv Adopted Gloss as well as clothing have, over the years, found their Names Name ways into the Tiv language. Some of the words in Shirt Sheti Shirt these categories are presented thus: Air conditioner Eakondishena Air conditioner Skirt Siketi Skirt 3.1 Hausa Words Relating to Animals Cup Koopu Cup Tiv language has borrowed a lot of Hausa names Plate Peleti Plate relating to animals. In the case of animals, the Drum Durum Drum borrowed words are mostly alien to Tiv land as such Digger Ijiga Digger animals are only found in particular regions. In Black board Belakaboodu Black board addition the migration of the Tiv from along the Desk Deseke School desk Congo River basin as enumerated above did not Duster Doseta Duster follow routes along the Sahel where especially camels Pencil Pensel Pencil and donkeys are found in large number. They borrow Biro Biro/bairo Biro such words so as to effectively communicate with the Dust bin Dosebin Dust bin speakers of the Hausa language and other tribe Cupboard Koboodu Cupboard members who may be so familiar with the Hausa Whistle Wusul Whistle language more than Tiv. The words include: Ball Bol Ball Teacher Tica Teacher Hausa Hausa Adopted Gloss Wheel barrow Wiibaro Wheelbarrow Names Names into Tiv Pick up Pikov Pick up van Jaki Ijaki Donkey Tractor Turokoto Tractor Kunkuru Kurugh Tortoise Grader Gereda Grader Pastor Paseto Pastor Rakumi Rakumi Camel Lawyer Loya Lawyer Zaki Zaki Lion Chairman Ciaman Chairman Deacon Diakon Deacon 3.2 Names of Fruits and Trees Dictionary Dikishenali Dictionary Tiv has loaned a large number of Hausa names of Typewriter Tapirata Typewriter fruits and trees into its lexicon as shown in the Ink Inki Ink following examples: Brush Buroshi Brush Soldier Orshoja Soldier Hausa Tiv Adopted Gloss It is noticeable that the English words assume a new Names Name phonological shape in the Tiv language. This is Gwaiva Gwava Guava because in order for borrowed material to be fully Albasa Alabesa Onion integrated into the recipient language it must be Attarugu Atarugu Large chilies adapted into the existing patterns of that language. The phonological shape of the borrowed item has to Mangoro Mongoo Mango be made to conform to recipient-language patterns. Lemu Alum Orange Hence we find English words loaned into the Tiv Ayaba Ayaba Banana language spelt as if it were written in the English phonetic forms. In this category of borrowing of words from Hausa to Tiv, assume new phonological shapes in 3.0 Hausa Loanwords in Tiv order to make their pronunciation 'Tivicised.' In This study shows that there are a large number of English and Hausa loanwords in Tiv. Words relating so doing, the loan words are made to look as if to names of animals, plants and fruits, commerce they were originally part of the Tiv language and transport, household items/utensils, professions lexicon.

42 English and Hausa Loan Words in Tiv Usar, Ignatius Lornenge and Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu

3.3 Names Relating to Transport and Commerce 3.4 Hausa Names of Utensils loaned into Tiv The history of trade and transport amongst Utensils are materials or equipment used in the Hausas and the Tiv is as old as their history households to ease activities. The following are itself. The Hausas are found in virtually all states names of household utensils loaned into Tiv. in Nigeria and are known to sell commodities Hausa Tiv Adopted Gloss such as salt, potash and clothing usually referred Names Name to as 'alaha' (second hand clothing) even among Cokali Cokoli Spoon the Tiv. The Tiv farmers have also been selling Tasa Tesa Plate farm produce and food stuffs to the Hausas in Perenti Pelengi Tray turn, sometimes travelling as far as Kano, Sokoto Kujera Kujira Stool and to the extreme parts of Hausa land. As a Soso Soso Sponge result of this trade, the following words have been Tozali Tojii Eye powder Laria Lalia Sieve borrowed from Hausa into Tiv: Akwati Akwati Box Ashana Ashanu Matches Hausa Tiv Adopted Gloss Tsintsiya Chancha Broom Names Name Wondo Wondu Trousers Mota Mato Car Riga Riga Shirt Tipa Tipa Tipper Kampe Kempe Under shorts Kasuwa Kasuwa Market Almakeshi Keshi Scissors Tanka Tanka Tanker Alura Anula Needled/ Keke Ikyekye Bicycle Injection Gongoro Gongolo Truck Girgi Igirgi Agogo Agogo Wristwatch/ - Sama - Purugh Airplane clock - Kasa (dogo) - Dogo Train Makuli Makuli Keys - Ruwa - Mnger Ship Danko Donko Elastic Birki Biliki Brakes material Buhu Bufu Bag From the above words loaned into Tiv, tsintsiya Chanji Cenji Exchange (balance) "broom" changes to chancha; and ashana Dari Deri Hundred "matches" changes to ashanu in Tiv adopted Dubu Dubu Thousand Hausa words. Considering that the Alveolar Gargada Gadagada Bumps (road) lateral souns /l/ and the alveolar trill /r/ are Gari Gar Town/village allophones of the same phoneme, that is, they do not contrast meaning, where one occurs in the In this category of borrowing of words, some Hausa language, the other occurs in Tiv. Words words enjoy a wholesale transfer from the Hausa such laria changes to lalia, alura changes to anula. language into Tiv. The concept for airplane, train and ship are entirely borrowed from the Hausa 3.5. English-Hausa-Tiv Loan Words language where the stem igirgi has suffixes The following are names of some household attached to describe air, land and water as is found items/utensils which are believed to have first in the Hausa language. Tiv numeral system used been borrowed into Hausa language from the to be in tens and twenties, where hundred was English language before eventually finding their described using five twenties (akundu a ataan) to way into the Tiv language. They have been loaned mean hundred but words such as 'deri' are in use into Tiv as follows: today. Virtually all means of transportation except for the motor bike have been adopted from the Hausa language.

43 English and Hausa Loan Words in Tiv Usar, Ignatius Lornenge and Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu

English Hausa Tiv Adopted Gloss numerous than other classes of words to begin Names Names Name with, partly because new things are more likely to Pillow Pilo Pilo Pillow be denoted by nouns than by any other words and Bench Benci Benci Bench partly because new nouns are often easier to Radio Radiyo Redio Radio accommodate within the grammatical system of Television Telebijin Televishen Television the borrowing language. Singlet Singileti Shingil Singlet Telephone Talho/waya Telefon/waya Telephone The effect of this sociolinguistic phenomenon on Bucket Bokati Bokoti Bucket the Tiv people and their language is that, the Soldier Soja Orshoja soldier present day native speaker of the target language finds it difficult to interact in his mother tongue In this category of words it is noticeable that the without interference from the English and Hausa Tiv language borrowed certain lexical items that languages. Often times than not, speakers are even the Hausa language can be said to have found unconsciously code-switching and code- borrowed same from the English language. As is mixing even when the conversation is between usually the case with loanwords, the spellings Tiv native speakers. It is my candid opinion that if and the pronunciations are adapted to suit the this trend is allowed to continue unabated, it may recipient language thereby naturalizing the words lead to endangerment of the Tiv language as more and giving them a seeming status of originality. and more young speakers no longer use indigenous Tiv words in spite of the fact that they 3.6 Names Relating to Musical Instruments do exist. Loaned into Tiv Name of some musical instruments have been The paper also reveals that, Tiv people do not loaned into the Tiv language from Hausa. They borrow English and Hausa words because they do might have borrowed such names from the Hausas not have their equivalent in their native language. to enhance easy interaction amongst members of They borrow such words in order to ease the two communities. Again it is noteworthy to communication and interaction processes with mention most of the instruments listed below are especially the non Tiv who may be more used by the Hausa. Examples of such musical comfortable with the English and Hausa instruments' names loaned into Tiv include: languages. Hausa Tiv Adopted Gloss Names Name 4.1 Recommendations Ganga Genga Drums Based on our findings, the following Molo Moro A kind of musical recommendations are made: instrument The orthography of the Tiv language should be Kalangu Akelangu A kind of musical standardized and indigenous writers should be instrument encouraged to publish works in the language. Busa Busa Bugle Kakaaki Kakaki A long flute Loanwords should be allowed in the Tiv language in the light of the fact that loans and borrowings 4.0 Summary and Conclusion enhance communicative competence but We have observed in this paper how Tiv has speakers should be encouraged to use indigenous loaned a number of words from the English and words where and when necessary to avoid such Hausa languages. We also observed that it is words going into extinction. In addition, the Tiv notable that some types of words are loaned more Language Studies and Development Association readily than others. For one thing, nouns are should be upgraded to a full-fledged borrowed more often than verbs or adjectives. Governmental agency with Centers which This occurs partly because nouns are far more should be responsible for the standardization

44 English and Hausa Loan Words in Tiv Usar, Ignatius Lornenge and Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu and codification of new words and phrases as Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and they come into the Tiv language. Phonetics, 6th edition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Works such as the 'sababbin kalmomi Ingilishi zuwa Gyanggyang, S. (1997). Dikishenali i Tiv. Hausa' published by the Centre for the Study of Zaria: Agitab Publishers. Nigerian Languages, Bayero University Kano Matthews, P. H. (2007). Oxford Concise Dictionary of should be encouraged in other languages as has Linguistics, 2nd edition. Oxford: OUP been done for the Hausa language and especially Millar, R. M. (2007). Trask's Historical Linguistics, 2nd for the Tiv language. edition. London: Hodder Arnold Education References Orkar, J. T. (2005). Seer Fan Zwa Tiv. Makurdi: Busa, M.A. (2013). Hausa Loanwords in Gbagyi. Indyer Publications In Yalwa, L. D. et al (eds.) Studies in Hausa Udu, T. T. (2009). Tiv Language: A Reference Book. Language, Literature and Culture, Kaduna: Labari Communications and Proceedings of the First National Publishers. Conference pp 26-37. Zaria: ABU Press. Wegh, S. F. (1994). Marriage, Family and the Church in Bynon. T. (1979). Historical Linguistics. Tiv. Makurdi: Decon Computer Services. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.

45 7

Discourse Techniques in Chief Willie M. Obiano's Inaugural Address, “Expanding the Frontiers of Excellence…”

Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu Department of English, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam Campus, Anambra State. And Umeh, Rose Amaechi De par tment of English, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam Campus, Anambra State.

Abstract Language has been identified as man's most important and effective means of communication. Language is also a portrait of human thought and it reflects the quality of thought generated in society. This discourse involves the context of usage. Woods Nicola (2006) defined discourse as language plus context. She says discourse determines our language in the context of usage. This paper focuses on the discourse techniques used by Chief Willie M. Obiano, the executive governor of Anambra state, in his inaugural speech, delivered on the 17th of March 2014. These techniques blended in his political discourse are coinages, diction and placement of words, word-trading, speech vocatives, figurative use of language and idiomatic expressions, rhetorical questions, Igbo praise names, collective pronoun- we, the repetitive use of the negative prefix –re and party slogans as a persuasive means of communication in the speech. These expressions played the role of driving home the message in the speech. Finally this paper explores the effectiveness of the discourse techniques employed by the governor in his speech thus places this speech as a political speech in a political discourse. Keywords: Discourse analysis, discourse techniques, inaugural address and language.

46 Discourse Techniques in Chief Willie M. Obiano's Inaugural Address, “Expanding the Frontiers of Excellence…” Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu and Umeh, Rose Amaechi

Introduction narrowed down to linguistics analysis because Many scholars have defined language as an discourse is linguistics inclined.

impor tant tool of human communication and they have also identified language as an effective Olateju (2004:10) describes discourse analysis as means of human interaction. Ofoegbu (2008:1) an explicit, systematic account of structures, defines language as “the human system of strategies or processes of text or talk in terms of communication” He says man uses language for theoretical notions developed in any branch of his everyday interaction. Language according to linguistics. She believes that every process of Akindele and Adegbite (1999:1) is characterized discourse analysis must be sufficient to provide by a set of vocal sounds which can be decoded. for the information. She talks about accounting They describe language as a human phenomenon for every feature used in a work of discourse. She that has form which can be described in terms of finally submits that discourse analysis is the units of sound, words, morphemes, phrases, systematic in approach because it tries to analyze sentences and paragraph or discourse. They the language habit herein contained in a given finally submit that form refers to the means by discourse through empirical methods. which sounds are connected with meaning in language. What is Discourse Techniques This refers to the language used by authors/ Man uses language to communicate his individual speakers to achieve an aim in a given piece. This thoughts, inner feelings and personal simply means the language habit of a writer or psychological experiences and this is evident in speaker (Ofoegbu 2012:17). Many speakers the study. The governor has used language to employ discourse techniques in their speech and establish a social relationship between him and the aim is usually to drive home a point or sink his audience. His use of language in this speech is home a message. The techniques used vary from informative as well as persuasive. Language is speaker to speaker and this makes the study of used for effective communication. This paper discourse techniques unique because each focuses on the discourse techniques used by speaker employs techniques that may be unique Chief Willie Obiano. It is an eight page speech in to him. Our focus in this inaugural speech by which chief Obiano used appealing language to Chief Willie Obiano centres on the discourse interact with his audience techniques he used.

What is Discourse Analysis Discourse Techniques in Chief Willie M. This is the branch of linguistics which deals with Obiano's inaugural Speech the analysis of written, spoken or sign language. Obiano made use of discourse techniques in his No wonder, Woods (2006) asserts that discourse speech. He used diction and placement of words, analysis “is language plus context.” She says that figures of speech, code mixing and code discourse is basically concerned with language in switching, word-trading, speech vocatives, use. That is how language can be used in an figurative use of language and idiomatic identified context, to bring out its effectiveness. expressions, rhetorical questions, Igbo praise She believes that any act of carefully examining a names, collective pronoun- we, the repetitive use particular discourse, brings about its analysis. of the negative prefix –re and party slogans as a persuasive means of communication in the Johnstone (2008:2) believes that the process of speech. discourse analysis is a process of separating the two terms. She says that discourse is the actual Diction and Placement of Words instances of communicative action in the The Title: - “Expanding the Frontiers of medium of language. Johnstone (2008) believes Excellence …” indicates that there is a that analysis is ambiguous and should be relationship between the ex-governor and the

47 Discourse Techniques in Chief Willie M. Obiano's Inaugural Address, “Expanding the Frontiers of Excellence…” Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu and Umeh, Rose Amaechi incumbent; a limit in their activities which needs Coinages to be expanded. (See the front page 2 of the Chief Obiano used various coinages to drive

speec h). home his point to his audience.

The use of the punctuation mark-ellipsis Line 1 page 2: “Beloved Anambrarians” indicates that that expansion could go on and on, The use of “Anambrarians” in this first line and that the ex-governors' projects/structures shows whom the address is meant for. The and so on had excellent touches but need to be borrowed pattern of a Nigeria – citizen referred expanded by the in-coming Governor. to as “a Nigerian” is used by Obiano to address his audience. Speech Vocatives: Paragraph 2, line 1 - “Ndi Anambra” Pages 1 and 2 show the retinue of vocatives used Paragraph 3, line 1 - Ndi b'anyi by Chief Obiano. They are twenty-one lines. Page 3, paragraph 4, line 1: “Ndi Anambra” Page 7, paragraph 2, line 2: “Ndigbo Umunnem…” Line 1 - Your Excellency, the President, Page 6, paragraph 2, line 1, “Beloved Anambrarians...” Federal Republic of Nigeria, Page 6, paragraph 4, line 1, “Fellow Anambrarians…” Dr. Goodluck Ebele Jonathan Page 8, paragraph 4, line 1, Ndi Anambra nile, Ndi Igbo nile. Line 2 - The National Chairman of APGA – All Progressive Grand Page 6, paragraph 6: line 4: Alliance. “Bring home your dollar and your skills 'Dollar' symbolizes huge sums of money (United Line 3 - Your Excellency – the immediate States of America's currency) while “Skills” Past Governor of Anambra State symbolize the Igbo man's ingenuity and – Mr. Peter Obi and wife. entrepreneurship.

Lines 4-20 - Ladies and Gentlemen Page 2, paragraph 5: “… our brother, Dr. Innocent Chukwuma has Line 21 - Ndi Anambra, Nkeonye Chili launched Nigeria into a “new industrial orbit”… Yazeluoo! (See the attached speech) indigenous automobile; manufacturing limited in Nnewi. Obiano calls it “the narrative of the New The last vocative in Igbo used by Chief Obiano Anambra” indicates that he is writing mainly to an Igbo audience. This is a characteristic of a titled man's Page 8: greetings in Igbo land of which Chief Obiano is a “www.willie will work.com” titled man. I guess that the audience will applaud to such a coinage from their Governor and will see him as a He touched every aspect of the government in his workaholic and not as the past Governors who greetings. He did not jump or break any protocol. deceived Anambrarians and that Anambrarians This is a typical political vocative. It followed an would not think that another “Politricks” has organized order. His choice of words fall under emerged. the simple and everyday vocabulary. The vocatives he used was to draw the audience closer The governor has carefully used and repeated the home. He strategically used them to show that he above coinages to depict his extension of truly belonged to Anambra people. brotherhood, patriotism and love for his people, (“See Ndi Igbo, Umunnem” page 7), who elected him into office. His coinages suit grass-root political involvement. His pattern is not for the

48 Discourse Techniques in Chief Willie M. Obiano's Inaugural Address, “Expanding the Frontiers of Excellence…” Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu and Umeh, Rose Amaechi elites alone. This is typical of Nigerian political - Page 7: paragraph 2, line 2, speech pattern. “Ndigbo Umunnem” (which means my Igbo His placements of cer tain words side by side beloved brethren). create meaningful pictures in the minds of his audience. - Page 7, paragraph 4, line 3 – 5 “Ogadiliunumma;, … Umu-ada Anambra” The use of Code Mixing (the women of Anambra State, it shall be well Code mixing is the use of two different languages with you). in a given language discourse or a sentence string. The way he code mixed his speech, shows his - “Ndinnemaama! (All mothers, rejoice) knowledge of both the English language and Igbo language and it suggests he is bilingual and - Page 7, paragraph 4, line 7: proficient in both languages. “Ndiogaadilimma Ekenemunu;” which means, I greet every beloved one of you, For examples: It shall be well with you). page 2, paragraph 1; “Beloved Anambrarians…” page 3, paragraph 6: “Fellow Anambrarians…” - Page 8, lines 6 – 7: “Ndi Anambra nile, Ndi page 4, paragraph 5, line 1: “Fellow Anambrarians...” Igbo nile, tetanu n' ula na chi efogo? which page 6, paragraph 2, line 1: “Beloved Anambrarians...” means, All Anamabrarians, all Igbo race, rise up page 6, paragraph 4, line 1: Fellow Anambrarians…” from your slumber for it is dawn).

From the above, Chief Obiano used them as Though his inaugural speech vocatives cut across vocatives and at each one; there is a use of comma nations and tribes, Chief Obiano carefully and to signify his clarion call. This also indicates the repeatedly used code – switching to make his writer's call for unity of purpose. address homely. He does not care if other tribes or nations present understand his code-mixed The use of Code Switching expression. It is on a very rare occasion that he This is the use of two different languages, in two tried to explain their meanings in English and puts different sentences in a given discourse. The them in brackets. (See page 7, paragraph 4, lines governor again displayed his proficiency of the 3-5). His switching shows one who is at home Igbo and English languages with his people and not in diaspora. His consistent repetition shows his emphasis on his target Examples: audience – “Ndi Anambra, Ndigbo etc. Despite - Page 2, line 1: Ndi Anambra, Nkeonye Chili ya the fact that there were members of the zeluoo!” diplomatic community, representatives of donor (Which means … protocol..) agencies, gentlemen of the press and even the representative of the President, Federal Republic - Page 2: paragraph 3, line 1: “Ndi b'anyi” of Nigeria etc who were not from Anambra, did (which means my people”) not deter him from changing his style. He has a target audience in mind – “the Anambrarians”. - Page 6: paragraph 4, line 5: “ O n y e g h a n a n w a n n e y a , I g w e b u i k e , The Use of Igbo Praise Names Izukammananneji” Chief Obiano used some Igbo praise names to (United we stand, divided we fall). show the traditional attributes of a typical Igbo man. - Page 6 – paragraph 7, line 5 “Ana Igbo needs you” - page 3, paragraph 4, line 3, (The Igbo land needs you). “OKWUTEE!!! – to describe the dynamic and enthusiastic ex-governor – Chief Peter Obi.

49 Discourse Techniques in Chief Willie M. Obiano's Inaugural Address, “Expanding the Frontiers of Excellence…” Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu and Umeh, Rose Amaechi

- page 3, paragraph 4, line 6, cries for redrafting, re-focusing, re-designing, re- OHAMADIKE!!! - for their ebullient party modeling and reinvigorating structures and ideas c hair man, Chief Victor Umeh. run through the speech.

Use of Party Slogans Examples: The writer has carefully used slogans to show, his - “redraft” – page 4, paragraph 3, line 2, in the area political inclination. of security. - page 3, paragraph 5, line 3 KOKORONKOO!!! X 3 – (Slogan for - “re-orient our people” – page 4, paragraph 3, APGA) line 4, in the participation of the people as it concerns security. - page 3, paragraph 5, lines 7 - 9 “From Agulu to Aguleri” - “re-train, “re-equip” and “refocus” “Our From Obi to Obiano” security outfit so as to strengthen the police and the Law Enforcement Agencies in the state:. According to the party faithful and the writer, it shows continuity in Anambra State. For a - “re-design and remodel Awka” discourse analyst, it has rhythmic effect which is a poetic device, as well as word – trading used - page 6, lines 1 -3”.. we reinvigorate the family etc.” during campaigns. Apart from the use of the prefix 're', the writer Use of Quotes from Sages also used some words like “launch” aggressive, - page 2, paragraph 1; lines 3-4: “… advised “pillars”, “enablers” to depict his mood and Ndigbo that only wise political choices would intention for the state. ensure their survival as a nation within a nation” – Dim Chukwuemeka Odimegwu The use of Emphatic words Ojukwu. The use of the word 'launch' to introduce his Blueprint for his administration is remarkable. When - page 2, paragraph 3, lines 6-8 refers to ideas are launched, it signifies something that is Anambra (10 years ago) as a place where a small entirely new. Hence, on page 5, paragraph 1, line 2-3, clique of renegades had turned into a Chief Obiano nicknamed his Blueprint to what he “bankrupt and lawless fiefdom” – Prof Chinua called – the FOUR PILLARS of Anambra State Achebe. Wheel of Development. (Note the emphasis written in capital letters). The use of FOUR PILLARS will - page 2, paragraph 2, lines 6-7 “we must team to automatically boost the masses' moral. live together as brothers or perish together as fools” – Dr. Martin Luther, King Jnr. Chief Obiano calls the FOUR PILLARS, the “Treasure Box” of Anambra State and the This shows an erudite writer, making references Ignition through which we shall light up the to wise sayings to show the mood and tone of his ENABLERS. These ENABLERS are ten. From speech. education, health, environment etc to special infrastructure. This is an indication of hope for The Repetitive Use of the Prefix – “re” the people. Chief Obiano is of the opinion that the state has challenges for improvement, hence the use of the Again, the use of the word “healing” depicts prefix –'re'. The implication is that the writer is sickness and Chief Obiano clamours for a total not satisfied with the already existing structures healing in his administration. and performances of the ex-governor, and so

50 Discourse Techniques in Chief Willie M. Obiano's Inaugural Address, “Expanding the Frontiers of Excellence…” Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu and Umeh, Rose Amaechi

Page 6, paragraph, 4, lines 1-2 “Fellow The Use of the Pronoun “We -1st person plural Anambrarians, our land yearns for healing! It is The Use of the Pronoun “We – (1st person – our collecti v e responsibility to heal this land with plural) indicates involving the people in his love!” regime. That is participatory democracy. Examples abound in Furthermore, the word “clamour” for a befitting Page 3, paragraph 21: line 1: “we are regaining capital city for Anambra State shows that the ourselves – belief … existing one does not befit a capital city. we are reminding ourselves that a people…”

Page 4, paragraph 5, lines 1-2 Page 3, paragraph 1: line 1: “we can be master of “Fellow Anambrarians, your clamour for a capital our house; city that fully reflects the essence of our people will be addressed by my administration”. Page 3, paragraph 2: line 5: “we have no choice than to decide whether we are truly…” (I presume that the audience cheered, clapped and hailed the Governor). Page 3, paragraph 3: lines 3-4: “we must not forget to thank the ebullient chairman of our great party, The words “new day” show a new governance Chief Victor Umeh…” with lofty new ideas. Page 8, line 5. “It is a new day in Anambra State”. Page 3, paragraph 5: line 20: “we must also thank our great party men and women…” Page 5, paragraph 1: line 1: “we shall engage in a Page 4, paragraph 2: line 1: “we shall aggressively serious production of cassava…” address the challenge of power supply” … (a very big hope rising for the people who never Page 5, paragraph 1: line 11: “we will provide the experienced a 24 hr. unterrupted daily power enablement for Oil and Gas companies…” supply in a week).

Page 5, paragraph 1: line 17: “we shall provide an Use of Rhetorical Question enabling environment for our traders to switch The writer, Chief Obiano, uses rhetorical from importation to manufacturing…” questions to point further his confusion and disbelief in the mind of his audience about the Page 5, paragraph 2: line 3: “we shall light up the political imbalance in his state. These questions I ENABLERS like Education…” am sure received no answers during the presentation of the address. Those who are in the Page 5, paragraph 3: line 21: “when we create jobs centre of government will wave-off these and boost the earnings of workers, we strengthen rhetorical questions, but to an average Igbo man the family. who is not partisan, it would be a million – dollar question(s) which indicates that things have fallen Page 6, paragraph 1: line 1-3: “when we subsidize apart in governance. education ….. When we secure our communities …, we Examples reinvigorate the family etc. Page 6, paragraph 3: line 3-4: “where is the love that once led our people through the extreme Page 6, paragraph 4: line 10: “we are calling on adversities of war?” everyone to rethink and re-engage our heritage, our history, our families and our future”. Page 7, paragraph 2: line 4-5: “The hard question we must ask ourselves is; how well have we fared as a people with a political future?”

51 Discourse Techniques in Chief Willie M. Obiano's Inaugural Address, “Expanding the Frontiers of Excellence…” Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu and Umeh, Rose Amaechi

The Use of Figurative/Idiomatic Expressions roles or relationships are established and The Governor has used some Igbo Idiomatic regulated. expressions to dri v e home his call for Unity of purpose in his administration. According to This slogan, “from Obi – Obiano… “emanated Adegbite et al (2012:18), they observed that from the political campaign of APC and APGA. “African/Nigerian (Igbo writers like Chinua To the opposition parties like PDP, APC, LP etc, Achebe) have made English accommodate and the word “clamour” is annoying because they express African – Nigerian thoughts and ideas”. would have preferred their party to occupy the Anambra State Government House. Some Examples variables such as idiolect, dialect, tone, choice of Page 3, paragraph 31: line 6-71: “to decide words (Colloquialism, slangs etc) affect the whether we are truly the sons and daughters of communicative value of an expression. our fathers and true heirs to their long history of For example: pioneering excellence!” nke onye chili ya zeluo” (is dialectical) - “Kokorooko” … (APGA Political slang for a Page 6, paragraph 31: lines 1-3: “Over the years, new dawn) a cock is used to announce the we have allowed narrow interests to put a knife on arrival of a new dawn. the things that held us together and today, we can no longer act as one:. “Onye aghana nwa nne ya” – (is a proverbial dialect of people from the South – East Political Page 7, paragraph 5: lines 1-2: “Finally, I extend an Zone as well as APGA Party slogan. APC for Olive branch to my brothers, Senator Chris example has their symbol as “broom”. The Ngige, Ifeanyi Ubah, Tony Nwoye and other significance of broom is to sweep away bad candidates who ran for election with me:. governance and all unworthiness. These people mentioned are his political opponents and the Governor asks for peace. Is The significance of an umbrella, painted with peace realizable when cases are in court over who PDP Party colour symbolizes shelter and unity. won the 2014 Anambra gubernatorial election? The above collective meanings refer to the Use of Word -Trading and Symbols company of words. Words have a way of affecting Politicians use language and symbols as they deem each other in the environment in which they fit so as to achieve technical knockout of their occur. opponents. The speaker was not left out in this technique. For example Conclusion Conclusively the speech writer has applied Page 3, paragraph 5: effectively the some levels of Discourse Analysis. “Your clamour for continuity in Anambra State as As a discourse on politics, he looked at the captured in your slogans “From Agulu to language, use of coinages and extended meanings Aguleri” and from Obi to Obiano has finally been of words. Chief Obiano allowed certain words fulfilled”. This victory belongs to you all”. and expressions in their original African (Igbo) language for reasons that bear upon the style of For Adegbite et al (2012), the above usage and the writer. This was done, perhaps, to retain its coinage is called “Stylistic meaning which original texture and meaning and to capture the involves the meaning of words/sentences target audience interest. His inaugural address is according to the situation or context in which the humorous and lively. The use of ellipsis in the title expression is used.” Meaning can vary according page indicates that there are many rooms or areas to the situation and different registers or social for expansions in the state developmental use. Social meaning helps to reveal how social structures.

52 Discourse Techniques in Chief Willie M. Obiano's Inaugural Address, “Expanding the Frontiers of Excellence…” Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu and Umeh, Rose Amaechi

References Ofoegbu, Cyril (2008) Syntax: An Introductory Text. Akindele, Femi and Adegbite, Wale. (1999) The Enugu: Malchjay. Sociolo g y and P olitics of English in Nigeria. Ile- Ofoegbu C.O (2012) “Discourse Techniques in Ife: Debiyi-Iwa. Asika Emmanuel Ikechukwu's Omeile”. Journal of Arts and Contemporary Society. Adegbite Wale et al (2012). Use of English: A M i n n a : N i g e r 4 . 1 7 Manual on Communicative Skills for Tertiary –24.(www.cenresinpub.org) Institutions. Ile-Ife: University of Ife Press. Olateju, Moji. (2004) Discourse Analysis: Analyzing Johnstone, Barbara (2008) Discourse Analysis. Discourse in the ESL classroom. Ile-Ife: Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Obafemi Awolowo University Press Ltd. Obiano, M. Willie. (2014). “Expanding the Frontiers Woods, Nicola (2006) Describing Discourse: A of Excellence…” An Inaugural Address Practical Guide to Discourse Analysis. New presented by the Governor of Anambra York: Oxford University press. State, March 17, 2014. Yule, George (2007). The Study of Language. London: Cambridge University Press.

53 8

Towards a Pragmatic Approach to Understanding Modern Advertising

Pam, Keziah Jonah Department of English University of Jos And Dakat, Blessing Vou Department of English University of Jos

Abstract Ordinary and even literate people do not have any means of checking the truth of assertions made in an advertisement until it is too late. Meanings of adverts are most times deliberately made obscure. The usual and expected goal is to win people over and persuade them to do certain things they would not have ordinarily bothered to. Using Grice's theory of Conversational Implicature, we conclude that meaning is better arrived at in mercantile strategies via implicature and context.

54 Towards a Pragmatic Approach to Understanding Modern Advertising Pam, Keziah Jonah and Dakat, Blessing Vou

Introduction buy a particular product or change over to a type Communication is goal-oriented in that of service. An example of the visual display is contributors make mindful selections that suit what is found in banks today. The messages are their illocutionary goals in order to yield the usually typed and pasted at strategic points within desired utterance meaning. Leech (1983) views the banking hall. At other times, the adverts are communication as being “geared towards placed in electronic boards (rectangular problem-solving, a notion that saddles both the fluorescent lighted boxes) and allowed it to be speaker and the hearer with distinct, clear cut read at a slow pace of few words at a time. responsibilities that will make the interchange feasible” (p. x). Thus, communication of Boulton (1960) posits that, “the statements that whatever sort is a dynamic phenomenon that cannot be testified usually appeal more strongly to requires that participants actively play their our emotions and thus are probably more defined roles. While the speaker's role is to successful in attracting customers than those construct an utterance that conveys his/her that may be genuine declaration of facts” (pp. 90- illocutionary goal, the duty of the hearer is 1). In other words, Boulton means that figuring out the meaning of the utterance. ambiguous grammatical constructions tend to have positive effects on the buyers than the very Consequently, we presuppose that there are clear and intelligent constructions since the implicit meanings in the illocutions of visual certainty of prove is often not tested before adverts. There is more attached to the meaning of purchase. adverts than the common words used to transmit it. Words are carefully selected to persuade and Grice's Theory of Conversational Implicature appeal to the viewer's need. For instance, a The term 'implicature', attributed to the depressed person from another bank after losing philosopher Paul Grice, is presented in his some business opportunities of obtaining seminal article 'Logic and Conversation' (Grice, financial assistance from his bank would react to 1989). In Grice's approach, both 'what is this advert: “If your bank doesn't support your implicated' and 'what is said' are part of speaker business, you need a new bank”. He will want to meaning. 'What is said' is that part of meaning that know more about this 'new' bank so he may have a is established by truth-conditional semantics, switchover. The person's emotion is gradually while 'what is implicated' is that part of meaning won over and this means that communication has that cannot be captured by truth conditions and as taken place because the goal has been achieved. such belongs to pragmatics. Carston (2002) views Four adverts are deliberately sampled from two Implicature as “an ostensively communicated distinct fields to explore the relevance of assumption that is not an explicature; that is, a implicature and context in understanding the communicated assumption which is derived style of the language of advertising. solely via` processes of pragmatic inference” (p. 377). In other words implicatures are derived Language and Advertising purely from inferences. Two types of implicature Advertising is a type of communication aimed at are distinguished: conventional and persuading an audience (viewers, readers or conversational (Levinson, 2000:131). listeners) to purchase or take some action upon products, ideals or services. O'Donnell and Todd Meibauer (2009) points out that the most widely (1991) observe that the advertiser aims accepted type of implicature is conversational specifically at one thing, “He wishes to capture implicature. He considers implicatures vis-à-vis the attention of members of the audience by illocutions and says even if both are associated means of a short message mostly verbal and with an individual's speech act, these notions sometime visual as the case may be” (p. 107). The (implicatures and illocutions) refer to different message is geared towards influencing people to entities (since a speaker can say something and

55 Towards a Pragmatic Approach to Understanding Modern Advertising Pam, Keziah Jonah and Dakat, Blessing Vou imply another): an additional proposition, in the collaterals. This list is endless. As expectations case of implicature, versus a type of act such as a failed the posture of hands on cheek, thinking or promise, assertion, request etc., in the case of looking for solutions, become their hallmarks. illocution (p. 365). People utilize conversational implicature to circumvent explicitness in As regards 'new' bank, it is not difficult to answer conversation. They employ this to convey other because of the context. First, the 'new' bank is the hidden meanings beyond the literal bank where the advert is situated. Secondly, the (straightforward) meaning in conversation. Chen other man in the picture also points to the logo of (2010) simply puts it that conversational the bank in question. This resolves any form of implicature is “hidden meaning between the misinterpretations, 'traffic jam' or 'conversational lines” and “an implied meaning” in its common accidents' as Leech calls it. It therefore becomes sense” (p. 147). Expressing a similar proposition natural to arrive at the conclusion owing to the to Chen (2010), Xiaolong (2003) suggests that 'expected' implicature that the 'new bank' “conversational implicature does not refer to the provides great business opportunities for its literal meaning of a sentence studied by customers irrespective of social strata by way of semantics, but implicature of the specific context providing loans to improve business advantages. in pragmatic study” (p. 177). He terms the former “If your bank doesn't support your dreams, you as “sentence meaning” and the latter as need a new bank.” “utterance meaning”. When the two meanings are different, conversational implicature will appear. This advert has a portrait of a beautiful smiling It is pertinent to note that context plays a lady who is obviously looking into the future. momentous role in understanding 'utterance Right beside her is a mansion. We are not told in meaning'. Context requires us to look beyond the advert what we need to do for the bank to give word formation, sentence structure and meaning us such great buildings. Will it be right to conclude derived from the formal properties of language. that once a customer has a bank account with them, he automatically qualifies to have a mansion Sampled Data Analysis of his own? It is evident that the appropriate “If your bank doesn't give you a business implication of the advert is: 'the bank could advantage, you need a new bank.” support your dreams of having a mansion of that The sample of the advert above has the picture of sort (in the picture) and much more if you save a man with his right hand on his cheek apparently money with them'. Such obscure scenarios are thinking and another man pointing to the logo of usually and deliberately set to dabble at people's the bank in question. The posture of the former emotions. Customers are lured into opening man conjures a picture of one in quandary. We are accounts and saving huge sums. They do so and able to also name the man in the advert a business go home waiting endlessly for the bank to support man because we have background knowledge that their 'dreams'. every man's 'dream' as a matter of fact is having brighter prospects. Labeling this man in the This advert, like the first, is stated in the advert a businessman may not be wrong because imperative mood and thus serves as a challenge to the advert explicitly says so- “If your bank doesn't readers of the advert to swing into action. give you a business advantage”. Better prospects cannot be achieved by staying indoors. We are not “Sleep on Mouka, wake up in Dubai.” oblivious of the muddle businessmen plunge In this advert, we see a young lady lying on a themselves into. They dabble into so many things mattress. She wakes from sleep with surprise in a bid to be wealthy. For instance, they evident on her face and the beautiful city of Dubai (businessmen) crave for large business empires, with its magnificent tall storey's and edifices is multipurpose industries; take huge amounts as placed in front of her. 'Mouka' is a mattress. loans using the very abode their families live in as Ladies are known for hobbies of travelling

56 Towards a Pragmatic Approach to Understanding Modern Advertising Pam, Keziah Jonah and Dakat, Blessing Vou especially outside their country. Dubai, the city in also seen the mattress and wishes he is on it. Or he the northeastern Arab Emirates is deliberately slept on the mattress and is wishing he is back to it chosen. Dubai is a beautiful city people go on (mattress). This tells the audience or readers of vacations especially with the intention to shop. the advert that the same fate awaits them if they This is because of the low prices and wide range purchase the product. They stand a chance of to choices of the groceries. Ladies are also known having a sound sleep just like the barber who for their excellent flair for shopping. The choice remembers his bed at home even while at work. of Dubai is therefore deliberate. Dubai will of This can adversely be deduced to have a negative course be the dream city of every lady since she implicature, where the images may be interpreted may want to have a glimpse of its beauty and also to mean that, if one sleeps on mouka, he may be shop. Though not explicitly stated, this advert tempted to fall asleep even while at work by implies that if a person buys 'mouka' foam, he simply thinking about the pleasant experiences of gets a free ticket to Dubai. Though we are not sleeping on mouka. A would-be buyer who values told, but other consolation prices may be attached his job may be taken aback discovering that after to this promo just like any other promo. The star sleeping on mouka, all one does is to yearn for price of winning a free ticket to Dubai is more sleeping time. obviously not true. This is of course not stated too. All a customer knows is that he/she is simply The audiences of these adverts are expected to fill buying 'mouka' foam to stand a chance of going in the gaps by deriving the implicature (Grice to Dubai. The number of tickets to be given is 1969, Yule 1996, Brown and Yule 1983). also not stated. Again, just one ticket may be involved but the promo involves all cities in Conclusion Nigeria. It is made to look as if the purchase of Four adverts were purposefully chosen. Two of 'mouka' foam automatically qualifies the buyer to which are bank adverts and two of a mattress to a free ticket to Dubai. explore the relevance of context and implicatures in construing meaning of adverts across products How it is possible to sleep in one part of the and services of whatever sort. The audiences of world and wake up in another is absurd. To sleep the adverts are more often than not expected to in one part of the world and wake up in another rely on context in interpreting meaning especially may be possible only in wizardry or perhaps in where there are no clear linguistic items to fairy tales. It is also deducible that when one explicate the adverts. The first data exemplifies sleeps on mouka, he is likely to find his or herself this phenomenon. The complication comes with in Dubai by means of dreaming of oneself in the 'new' bank in question. This is however Dubai since dreams appear to be somewhat real resolved because the other man in the picture of especially at the time that one is having the dream. the advert points to the logo of the bank in The big question to this is 'what if the buyer of question. Besides, the location of the advert (i.e. mouka already resides in Dubai? Where will he in the bank premises) also supplies the answer to find himself after sleeping on it? Or are mouka the question 'which new bank?' This shows the foams not to be used in Dubai?' indivisibility of context to explicating adverts. “Sleep on mouka and not the job.” The view by Mey (2001:138) that, “the main point This advert has the picture of a young barber of conversational structure is to keep the flow of cutting another young man's hair. The barber conversation going, to avoid conversational though standing has his eyes closed as if he were 'accidents' and conversational 'traffic jams'… The sleeping and cutting the man's hair at the same techniques of good conversation management time. Beside the two men lay a mattress beautifully include some form of 'road assistance', by which a dressed. This implies that it feels so nice to sleep conversation that has halted, or has trouble on the mattress (mouka foam). The barber has maintaining the proper speed, can be helped

57 Towards a Pragmatic Approach to Understanding Modern Advertising Pam, Keziah Jonah and Dakat, Blessing Vou along” is apt. This is to say that for implicature to Leech, G. (1983). Principles of Pragmatics. London: be properly guided, certain conditions must be Longman. met, which Mey calls 'traffic rules', to avoid Levinson, S. (2000). Presumptive Meanings: The 'clashes'. Theory of Generalized Conversational Implicature. MIT Press. References Meibauer, J. (2009). “Implicature.” Mey, Jacob. Boulton, M. (1960). The Anatomy of Language. Concise Encyclopedia of Pragmatics. 2nd ed. London: Rutledge and Kegan Paul. Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 365- 378. Brown, G. & George Y. (1983). Discourse Analysis. Mey, J. (2001). Pragmatics: An Introduction. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Carston, R. (2002). Thoughts and Utterances: The O'Donnell, W. & Loreto T. (1991). Variety in Pragmatics of Explicit Communication. Oxford: Contemporary English. Irwin: Hyinan Ltd. Blackwell. Xiaolong, S. (2003). Outline of Linguistics. Chen, P. (2010). “On Pragmatic Strategies for Shanghai: Fudan University Press. Avoidance of Explicitness in Language.” Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford Canadian Center of Science and Education, Vol. University Press. 6, No.10: pp. 147-151. Grice, Paul H. (1969). Studies in the Way of Words. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

58 9

A Lexicostatistic Analysis of English and Igbo One Hundred Basic Vocabulary

Agu, Margaret Nonyerem Department of English, IBB University, Lapai, Niger State, Nigeria.

Abstract Vocabulary is the vital building block for speech and creative writing, yet little attention is given to word study in the language curriculum. There is no systematic and strategic plan by teachers as to which words to learn and the method to select such words for the social and educational needs of the learners. This study is necessitated as a means of showing that there are basic words that a child needs to acquire to be able to function well in the use of language and creative writing in particular. (Swadish (1972) 100 – item basic vocabulary). A child whose active vocabulary is limited cannot write well. Therefore, vocabulary study should be a vital component of the creative writing course. Swadish basic vocabulary items are translated into Igbo language with a view to finding out if they all exist in Igbo language; see if there are related cognates and draw attention of teachers of creative writing to the necessity of building words for their students speech and writing.The theoretical framework for this paper is the findings that Igbo has the basic words to function in speech and creative writing. There are no true cognates between the English and Igbo language. The paper therefore recommends a greater attention paid to vocabulary study in Igbo and English for effective productivity and communication competence in language use. Key words: Lexicostatistics, cognates, creative writing.

59 A Lexicostatistic Analysis of English and Igbo One Hundred Basic Vocabulary Agu, Margaret Nonyerem

Introduction S/No. English Igbo Lexeme Lexicostatisticsis the statistical study of the 1. I Mu vocabulary of a language, with special attention to 2. You Gi the historical links with other languages. In other 3. We Anyi 4. This Nkaa words, it is the statistical study of the vocabulary 5. That Nkozo of a language or languages for historical purposes 6. Who Onye or the study of languages and their vocabularies 7. What Gini by statistical methods for historical purposes. 8. Not Obughi Vocabulary is a relevant component of language 9. All Ha nile teaching and learning Words are vital tools in the 10. Many Otutu hands of a good writer and also for good speech. 11. One Ofu The use of words is pervasive in all the major 12. Two Abua areas of language study – listening, speaking, 13. Big Ibu 14. Long Ogologo reading and writing. Humans listen, speak, read 15. Small Ntakiri and write. Language activities as a matter of fact 16. Woman Nwanyi would be completely paralysed if devoid of 17. Man Nwoke words. In the major areas of language stated 18. Person Madu earlier, words are used to build up clauses, 19. Fish Azu phrases, sentences, paragraphs and essays. Words 20. Bird Nnunu are stringed together to build up speeches. 21. Dog Nkita Morphemes are put together to form words. 22. House Ulo 23. Tree Osisi Writers choose powerful and relevant words to 24. Seed Nkpuru conjure and put down ideas they imagine or have 25. Heaf Ahihia in mind. In other words, vocabulary is the “heart” 26. Root Ngborogwu of language study. Words in the spoken and 27. Bark Igbo written forms are used daily to communicate 28. Skin Akpukpoahu ideas thought and even emotions. When words 29. Flesh Uru are wrongly chosen, someone might be hurt and 30. Blood Obara misconstrued. The intended meaning of ideas, 31. Bone Okpukpo 32. Grease Mmanu ugbo thought and emotions are lost when words are 33. Egg Akwa chosen wrongly, communication is also bridged. 34. Horn Opi It isonly the right choice of words that would 35. Tail Odudu guarantee effective communication. 36. Feather Abuba Communication is the end product of any 37. Hair Agiri-isi language use. When words are wrongly used, 38. Head Isi ambiguity, vagueness which mare communication 39. Ear nti would set in. A writer should always choose words 40. Eye Anya that portray what he has in mind your 41. Nose Imi 42. Mouth Onu readers/audience determine the choice of words. 43. Tooth Eze 44. Tongue Ire 45. Claw mbo 46. foot Ukwu 47. Knee Ikpere

60 A Lexicostatistic Analysis of English and Igbo One Hundred Basic Vocabulary Agu, Margaret Nonyerem

48. Hand Aka 96. New Ohuu 49. Belly Afo 97. Good Oma 50. Neck Olu 98. Round Gburugburu 51. Breasts Ara 99. Dry Okpukpo 52. Heart Obi 100 Name Aha 53. Liver Umeji 54. Drink Nuo Swadesh (1972) posits that each language has a 55. Eat Rie core vocabulary that is more resistant to loss or 56. Bite Taa change than other parts of the vocabulary. The 57. See Hu core vocabulary of any language is central to the 58. Hear Nu use of that language and it is only through 59. Know Mara exploring the core vocabulary that users of any 60. Sleep Ura language will be able to trace the historical 61. Die Nwuo connection between languages. Comparison of 62. Kill Gbuo words from different languages reveals 63. Swim Gwuo-mmiri “cognates”. Cognates are words that descended 64. Fly Fee from a common ancestor language. When more 65. Walk Gaa than 90 percent of the core vocabulary of two 66. Come Bia languages could be identified as cognates, then 67. Lie Dina the two languages are closely related. This kind of 68. Sit Noruo list is widely used in comparative and historical 69. Stand Guzo linguistics. List such as this could be used in areas 70. Give Nye such as “semantic shift”. Cognates of two 71. Say Kwuo languages may drift apart due to historical 72. Sun Anwu semantic processes. 73. Moon Onwa 74. Star Kpakpando Wierzbicka 1992, 1996; Goddard and Wierzbick 75. Water Mmiri 1994; Goddard 2001 analysed a large range of 76. Rain Mmiri-ozuzo languages to try to put together a core set of 77. Stone Okwute universal lexemes. This approach to the study of 78. Sand Aja word meaning uses natural languages as a device 79. Earth Ala for their lexical analysis. 80. Cloud Ofurufu mbara-igwe 81. Smoke Anwuru Objectives: 82. Fire Oku The objectives of this study are: 83. Ash Ntu 1. To see whether Igbo learners possess Swadish 84. Burn Ree oku 100 – basic vocabulary items which is 85. Path Uzo necessary in vocabulary study and to see if 86. Mountain Elugwu there are true cognates in both languages 87. Red Obara - obara English and Igbo. 88. Green Akwukwo ndu 2. To highlight the importance of vocabulary 89. Yellow Edo - edo teaching and learning in any language study 90. White Ocha especially in creative writing. 91. Black Oji 3. Suggest ways of making language learners 92. Night Abali to build their active productive vocabulary 93. Hot Oku in language study. 94. Cold Oyi 4. Advocate for the inclusion of vocabulary 95. Full Ojuju study in the 'creative writing' curriculum at all levels of education.

61 A Lexicostatistic Analysis of English and Igbo One Hundred Basic Vocabulary Agu, Margaret Nonyerem

Methodology lBooks with rich vocabularies must be The data for this research was taken from Swadish recommended for learners to read both as main 100 – basic vocabulary items which were and supplementary texts. translated into Igbo language by the researchers, lWords should be learnt in and out of context. to get their equivalents in Igbo language. The Correct spellings must be emphasized. generation of the 100 – basic vocabulary items in lStudy registers in all fields, so as to be able to use Igbo would be used to ascertain if there are true the meta-language for all fields while writing. cognates in both English and Igbo. lLearn how words are used and the words that collocate or go together. The Need to Teach and Build a Strong lPlay vocabulary games such as scrabble, motility Vocabulary in an ESL Classroom games in reading. There are several games Vocabulary study is a core area in language patterned to teach synonyms, homophones and teaching and learning. It is central to language every root words. because without words, there would be no clauses, lParents should sensor or monitor what kind phrases and sentences in any language. Vocabulary can be seen as the total words in a language or the total of movies their children watch at home. This number of words known by an individual. It is is possible where such parents are educated. important to note that at this point emphasis is not on Illiterate parents to not know what is good an individual's ability to know all the words in his and bad. They sit with their children to watch language but rather for him to be able to apply the ones unwholesome materials presented as home he knows correctly and effectively in a given videos. communication event. lESL teachers should select books with good expressions, boldly printed and short good Reading goes hand-in-hand with vocabulary teaching, background etc, to encourage learners to since words are put together to form clauses, phrases, read. Such books should meet their social sentences, paragraphs and essays. The more reading a need. learner does the more vocabulary he/she comes in lFinally teachers should be trained and re- contact with and therefore learns. This is why the ESL trained, so as to be good models for teacher should encourage his student to read at least a learners. book in a week and as time goes on the speed and comprehension will increase. Due to poor reading Findings: culture in Nigeria language scholars have observed that Attention is not given to the learning of basic reading is unlikely the right source to teach vocabulary, vocabulary items in the ESL classroom. rather learners' interest have move to the media especially the home video but unfortunately most The study has generated 100 basic vocabulary videos are not produced using the standard English. items in Igbo and observed that there are not true cognates in course of the lexicostatistic Some newspaper editorials contain language errors, so study. it becomes another problem. Having identified these problems the ESL teacher must be careful in The study observed that students are no longer selecting ways to teach and build his students ready to read. They are only interest in what they vocabulary. can see and watch, such as home videos.

For example: The ESL teacher does not systematically select lRecommendation of the use of thesaurus what vocabulary items to teach, he does not dictionary. Use of dictionary must be even know which words are necessary for the encouraged by language teachers. Students social needs of his students. should move about with pocket dictionaries to learn new words.

62 A Lexicostatistic Analysis of English and Igbo One Hundred Basic Vocabulary Agu, Margaret Nonyerem

The downward trend in the quality of the Language learners should improve on their teachers we have presently does not make them receptive vocabulary in order to build their active good role models for the learners. productive vocabulary in language study.

Conclusion The study advocates for the inclusion of Vocabulary as the total number of words known vocabulary study in the 'creative writing' curriculum by an individual constitutes one of the central at all levels of education. issues in language teaching. It is important to note that at this point emphasis is not on an The ESL teacher should encourage his student to individual ability to know all the words in his read at least a book in a week and as time goes on the language but rather for him to be able to apply speed and comprehension will increase. the ones he knows correctly and effectively in a given communicative event. References Recommendations Agu, M.N. (2010) A Pragmatic Analysis of Igbo Languages are inter-linked in different ways: It is Proverbs. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. important that ESL learners should be exposed to Ahmadu Bello University Zaria. this fact in order to avoid over dependence on the Kress, G. and Leeuwen T.V.(2001) Multimodal target language. Discourse: The Modes and Media of Contemporary Communication. London: Arnold. There should be emphasis on vocabulary Labner, S. (2002) Understanding Semantics. London: teaching and learning in any language study Arnold Publisher. especially in creative writing. Saeed, J. L. (2007) Semantics. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing. Swadebsh (1972) 100 Items of Basic Vocabulary.

63 10

A Pragmatic Analysis of 'Leadership' Cartoons in Selected Nigerian Dailies

Agu, Margaret Nonyerem. Ph.D Department of English, IBB University, Lapai, P.M.B. 11, Niger State, Nigeria.

Abstract Perhaps one of the sternest yet satirical forms of communicating in modern times is cartoon. The study aims at examining the meaning construct which underlies the analysis of the semiotic elements inherent in the leadership cartoon discourse in Nigerian dailies. Cartoons as observed by this study, brings a synergy between the creative artistic texts and various presentations of signs which in turn achieves both entertainment as well as satirical presentation of the Nigerian leadership style. This paper is not targeted at ridiculing anybody, but it aims at exposing the problem people face while interpreting such artistic work. Thereare many Nigerian dailies of which similar study could be carried out, but this paper restricts itself to just one(Leadership Newspaper). Hence, to involve all the dailies in a research of this nature might be tasking. The paper suggests pragmatic approaches that could help readers of such dailies to interpret such cartoon with a view to understanding the underlying meanings of the cartoons as intended by the author. Keywords: Cartoon, semiotics, pragmatics Leadership, analysis.

64 A Pragmatic Analysis of 'Leadership' Cartoons in Selected Nigerian Dailies Agu, Margaret Nonyerem. Ph.D

Introduction Pictorial form of communication can be said to have The power of language makes man so distinct and existed as long as man himself. In Africa, proof of different from all other creatures. Language allows drawings, paintings and engravings- rock art which is man to communicate since the effective precursor of the cartoon- is available in a variety of communication means the appropriate use of sources and oddly enough was discovered earlier than language in a relevant content. This work intends to the European ones. Dating these have been rather investigate how communication is achieved among difficult for several reasons, but the exciting interlocutors and language has been used as a means Namibian discovery has been radiocarbon-dated to of conversation. In everyday interactions, we use about 27,000 years ago (Aarti, 29) Willett even posits language to communicate with other people either in that, since humankind appears to have originated in oral or written form. It has been observed that many Africa, it may well be said art, in this instance the newspaper readers do not show interest in cartoons cartoon, originated here. reading as the way they do to other part, of the Newspaper. Meanwhile, there are many things to Aarti, opines that “the word cartoon is loosely used to pass across to the readers through the cartoons. It is describe any drawing published originally in a entertaining and informative. periodical that makes its on print, with or without a caption”(191). Cartoons are visual communication Communication is the centre of human existence images that contain pragmatic meanings most often without which the world would be so boring. At satirical in nature while entertaining the reader. It is every point in life there is communication. Human important to note that only serious minds probe into beings communicate among each other and also with the pragmatic content of a cartoon. Some readers even animals. Communication is essential in the may simply end at the entertainment level thus growth and development of every society. Within the loosing the pragmatics of the text. Cartoons have gamut of existing communication modes that exist semiotic resources which make up meaning, and also such as verbal, non-verbal, written and visual, this create an effect on the reader. Readers most often are paper will focus only on the visual communication at the mercy of the frame pictures, thus missing the which captures communication through the use of main message/story that the cartoon contains. cartoons(Aarti, 22)defines visual communication as a display of information such as topography, Pragmatics: There are as many definitions as there photography, signs, symbols and designs. Cartoons are “pragmaticians”. Morris (1938) cited in Agu, (20) are commonly used in newspapers and magazines as appears to be the most modern usage of the term a subtle way of communicating ideas to their reading pragmatics which says that “pragmatics is the study audience. This paper therefore seeks to highlight the of the relation of signs to interpreters” but shortly pragmatic content of cartoons as presented by after that he modified it to “the relation of sign to Leadership Newspaper. their users.”Mey (1993) in a forward to his book Pragmatics: An Introduction; further defines Cartoon pragmatics as: Historically, the term 'cartoon' is derived from the The study of language from the point of Italian word “cartone” meaning paper. Cartoon was view of users of the choice they make, the used by painters for preliminary drawings on paper constraints they encounter using language which were then transferred either through tracing or in social interaction and the effects their use punching on to a surface which could be a ceiling or a of language has on other participants in an wall. Cartoon certainly ranks among the oldest core act of communication. content of mass media of communication. It is obvious; however, that this vital content of mass Yule (1996) defines pragmatics as “the study of media has received minimal research attention and or intended speakers meaning. These are meanings critical analysis in professional journals, series, books other than the ones solely derived from the etc. this oversight is actually what has sparked off the meanings of words used in phrases. He further desire for this study. described pragmatics as the study of invisible

65 A Pragmatic Analysis of 'Leadership' Cartoons in Selected Nigerian Dailies Agu, Margaret Nonyerem. Ph.D meaning or how we recognize what is meant even has been chosen for this study, this is to assist when it is not actually said or written. In order to readers in the analysis of the semiotic resources access this kind of meaning, there must be some inherent in cartoons. Multimodal discourse analysis shared assumptions and expectations. An is a synergy of language study with other resources investigation into the shared assumptions and such as images, gestures, action, sound and expectation provide insights into how more is scientific symbolism, which culminates into communicated than what is said. Pragmatics covers meaningful interpretation of language use. the study of language use and in particular the study of linguistic communication (Harrison, 201-202). Functions of Cartoons Going by these definitions of pragmatics it shows Ages and Bolieve (93) opine that cartoons perform that there is need to have the knowledge of the the following functions. pragmatic implication of the interpretation of cartoons in the dailies. This will help to have a better lComment on the news in order to bring these interpretation and understanding of these developments into focus. cartoons. lInform the readers as a friendly counselor of information bureau and champion of their Objective of Study rights. This study aims at focusing the attention of readers lProvide the means whereby persons with goods to the inherent pragmatic import of thenational and services to sell can advertise their wares. dailies. It also intends to expose the fact that there is lCampaign for desirable civil projects to help a serious underlying message or information in eliminate undesirable conditions. these funny stories of cartoons. Knowledge of the lInform readers objectively about what is pragmatic implication of cartoon interpretation happening in the community, country or world would enable the readers arrive at the accurate as well as to announce what possible events are meanings of cartoons. Thus enabling the author to be expected on the local national and achieves his objectives which is effective international levels. communication of the intended message. Presupposition: In the context of “doing things Theoretical Framework with words” Austin (19), presupposition are those Editors and broadcasters play important part in truths about the preposition that are shared by the shaping social reality. The impact of the mass participant concerning the context, speaker or the media to effect cognitive change among addressee, that are often taken for granted. There individuals, to structure their thinking has been are two major kinds of presuppositions recognized labelled the agenda setting function. Here may lay by linguists: semantic and pragmatic the most important effect of mass communication: presuppositions. Semantic presupposition refers to it ability to mentally order and organize our world logical relations that hold between sentences.It is an for us. In consonance with the above theory, integral part of sentence meaning. Semantic cartoon can be used as an effective tool for setting meaning is derived through a clear understanding agenda for public discourse. To appreciate this of words used in a sentence. Pragmatic point, it becomes imperative that cartoon focuses presupposition on the other hand refers to the on one or two out of many news events. Aarti, has it condition necessary for a speech act to be that the events(s) focused on automatically enjoys appropriate in a particular context. It is the more prominence and becomes an “agenda” for condition that individuals must meet for an public discourse (19). Political or editorial cartoon, utterance to make sense. for instance, have a very strongimpact in view of opinion steering and anchoring. Aarti,opines that Implicature: The term was first introduced by editorial cartoon does more of attention grabbing Grice 1967, 1968, cited in Lyons (76-77) into the of the audience on the matter arising as put forth by philosophy of language in his early William James the newspaper (223).Multimodal discourse analysis lectures. The notion of implicature rests upon the

66 A Pragmatic Analysis of 'Leadership' Cartoons in Selected Nigerian Dailies Agu, Margaret Nonyerem. Ph.D distinction between what is actually said and what is This text covers just a participant. He is portrayed to implicated but not entailed in saying what is said. be hiding inside a podium. He is dressed with a Leech (83) noted that the implication of the black cap on his head, black shirt and trousers with a statement black oversized shoe. The podium has seven microphones attached to it. The Actor's two hands “It's cold in here” could be: are raised. The image act in this text is that of offer. lThe heating system should be turned on Following Kress and Van Leeuwen (2006) every lThe host pays more heed to his fuel bills to the image performs two kinds of act: offer and comfort of his guests. demand. The latter usually request the viewer to do something while the former gives information. Implicature therefore is the act of communicating one thing while saying another. On the ideal of the frame the vector says; JONATHAN MISESS SLOT TO SPEAK AT AU Illustrating Governance in Nigeria MEETING – News. And the Actor says; Ah! Bros, With regards to Nigeria, the cartoon as a visual let me be frank if you were in my shoes, would you communication genre is noted to have gained tell the audience that Nigeria is doing well? The prominence with the political struggle against rhetorical relationship between the first expression colonialism in the early part of the 20thcentury. It and the second from the Actor is that of received a weighty mandate within the nationalist justification. The response justifies why he (the media of the day espousing anti-colonial interests actor) missed his slot to speak at the AU meeting. and sentiments. Through Akin Lasekan, famed as The podium is tagged AU@ 50 and some the first cartoonist in Nigeria and the West African microphones are tagged BBC, CNN, FRANCE Pilot newspaper for which he worked, cartoon was and MTV. established as a vital force within the political struggle to liberate Nigeria from British Goodluck Jonathan could not address the African colonization. This paper adopts the leadership Union meeting because of the pitiable state of his newspaper for its study. country. It is abruptly lugubrious that in a country like Nigeria regarded as the giant of Africa, is MAY 28, 2013 LEADERSHIP plagued with high rate of insecurity and other TEXT 11 challenges. Mechanism put in place are not adequate to put a halt to them. The selfish ambitions of the leaders will not allow them see what should be done. They have perpetually neglected what they should do as leaders. These show that this country(Nigeria) is not doing well. The colour of the president's dress 'black' shows that all is not well.

The glory of our nation is hidden behind that platform where Jonathan is hiding in this text. Generally, it is a shame for any president to miss his/her slot in the African Union especially very renowned countries like Nigeria. The destiny of other African countries actually lies on the shoulders of Nigeria.

67 A Pragmatic Analysis of 'Leadership' Cartoons in Selected Nigerian Dailies Agu, Margaret Nonyerem. Ph.D

MAY 27, 2013 LEADERSHIP MAY 13, 2013 LEADERSHIP TEXT 12 TEXT 13

This text holds one participant holding a This text put forward one participant in a bid to Dictionary. He seems to be confused with what he turning a giant stone that ordinarily will require encountered in the book. Close to him is a many people to turn over. The participant is dressed geometrical symbolism; a cross-like sign post. in a black uniform with red belt. There are other Beneath it are some grasses portraying the sign little stones on the ground that the participant has post as a tree. not actually turned. As he is engrossed with turning the biggest stone, he seems to be releasing toxic On the sign in this text, the vector says MY NAME fumes from his bowel. The image act in this text is HAS BROUGHT GOOD LUCK TO NIGERIA offer; giving the viewer some kind of information. – JONATHAN. The speech requires a rhetorical relationship of elaboration. Subsequently, The verbal process in this text is embedded in the enumerate the good things to justify the assertion stone the actor is turning is tagged GUNMEN, but the response from the actor is inappropriate. INSURGENTS, BOMBINGS and MILITIA The vector from the actor says “…Eeehn can GROUP. The actor is tagged SECURITY. On the someone help me here? It seems the meaning of New-real side of the frame is the vector from the GOOD LUCK has changed!” The book the actor actor “…Eehmmeehmm! We are trying our best. is holding is tagged DICTIONARY. No stone will be left unturned!” The image act in this text is offer. The actor informs the readers that This text makes a sarcastic statement on the status they will do their best to turn every stone. of the nation and the name of the president. Some people have concluded that there is a sharp The text posits that the security agents in this nation contract in the name of the president of this are doing their best to curb the insurgents in the country and the state of this nation. The nation is north and other vices in the nation.The statement retrogressing everyday, every sector is experiencing (…no stone will be left unturned) from the actor, challenge and even the masses are not finding these prove the fact that there are many vices in the nation situations easy yet people expect that the name of that need to be eradicated. One can therefore make the president should affect the nation. But on the a conclusive judgment that problems have eaten contrary, the experiences in this nation are bad deep the whole facet of the nation. luck, misfortune and series of unprecedented vices, such as what is happening in the north east Nigeria, kidnap of over 200 school girls at Chibok, bomb blast in Nyaya, Federal Capital, Nigeria and several extra- judicial killings.

68 A Pragmatic Analysis of 'Leadership' Cartoons in Selected Nigerian Dailies Agu, Margaret Nonyerem. Ph.D

democratic state has been violated. MAY 12, 2013 LEADERSHIP The text also directly points to an entity as being TEXT 14 responsible for all these crises. The umbrella and the colour combinations on the umbrella point to People Democratic Party. The ruling party is responsible for the misfortune befalling this nation. The goal mentions the activities of the people under the umbrella is jeopardizing the real meaning of democracy.

Conclusion From the analysis of these --- cartoons suffice it to conclude that cartoon communication has become an important tool used by Nigerian newspapers to pass serious messages to their readers. It is also highlighting the fact that within every cartoon you see is an embedding of a serious message meant for the reading population of that paper. The cartoons used here are political hence are carrying serious political messages. Although these serious messages are hedged, the educated or the elites and even language experts still understand what the cartoon is all about. There is often need to recourse to the semiotic constituents of the cartoon rather than seeing it as a mere something funny. Loosing the semiotic content of cartoon would also mean loss of meaning and intelligibility. When meaning is lost, communication also would be obstructed. Readers of cartoonsshare and interpret them from overt linguistic and sociological point of view.

From the above analysis it has been established that the pragmatic and discursive features of cartoon in political discourse are many so the interpreter needs to lookcritically to arrive at the real meaning of the cartoon. Pragmatic analysis of cartoon is a vital way of communicating to the readers, therefore there is need to look beyond the cartoon to arrive at the hedged meaning. Cartoon communication most often carries more messages than the spoken and written language. The visual mode of communication in cartoon is given more prominence at the expenses of the verbal, non- verbal and the written mode of communication.

References A a r t i , R . ( 2 0 1 1 ) G o o g l e v i s u a l communication.Retrieved on 26th February,

69 A Pragmatic Analysis of 'Leadership' Cartoons in Selected Nigerian Dailies Agu, Margaret Nonyerem. Ph.D

2013. 11, 554,May 12th, 2013 Akmajian, A. et al (2001) Linguistics: An Yule G. (1996) Study of Language. Cambridge: Introduction to Language and Cambridge University Press. Communication. Cambridge: MLT Press. Austin, J.L. (1962) How To Do Things With Words. London: Oxford University Press. Harrison S. (1981) Cartoon as Tool for Social Influence.Retrieved on 26th February, 2013. Harrison S. (1982) Cartoon Criticism Training and Creation. Retrieved 26th February, 2013. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/four- types-of-communication. html http://www.ohio.edu/visual literacy/jvl-issues achives http://www.ohio.edu/visual literacy/jvl-issues achives/jvsl(1) pp 29-34. J.L (2007) Pragmatics: An introduction (2nd ed..U.K: Blackwell Publishing. Leech, G. N. (1983) Principles of Pragmatics. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Mey J.L (2007) Pragmatics Mey, J.L. (2003) Pragmatics: An Introduction. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Osisanwo, W. (2003) Introduction to Discourse Analysis and Pragmatics.Ebute-meta Lagos: FemolusFetup. Re t r i e ve d o n 2 6 t h Fe b r u a r y, 2 0 1 3 . http//www.citrinitas com//history-of- vision Sabanci University, Istanche Turkey.A lecture note on the history of visual communication. Spring K. (1982) Cartoon Communication Study. Retrieved 26 t h Febr uar y, 2013. http://www.ksu.edu.as/sites/ksuarabic/r esearch/ncys/documents/r35 The Leadership Newspaper vol. 28, No. 11, 562 May 13th, 2013 The Leadership Newspaper vol. 28, No. 11, 563 May 27th, 2013 The Leadership Newspaper vol. 28, No.10, May 28th, 2013 The Leadership Newspaper vol. 28, No.10, May 30th, 2013 The Leadership Newspaper, vol. 28, No.

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Language Use in Communication: A Semiotic Perspective on Selected Igbo Cultural - Symbolic Objects

Okeeke, Fidelia Azuka Department of English Language Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University Igbariam Campus And Chukwu, Kenneth Uche Directorate of General Studies Federal University of Technology, Owerri

Abstract When human beings communicate, they do so in two major ways: verbal and non - verbal signs. Communication in any community is made possible by a conventional code system in which the people using it are mutually intelligible. Language is an essential tool for communicating different signs by different people and in different fields. The contextual nature of language affects its use, whether used directly or indirectly. It is used directly when there is a seeming correspondence between what is said and what is meant; in other words, the myth of semantic correspondence between sign and referent is revealed through direct use of language. Again, language may be used indirectly where it breaks the conventional denotative interpretation to allow meaning to be inferred indirectly. Thus, there exists a kind of triangular relationship among the concepts of semiotic tradition: the objects, the interpreter and their offspring (i.e. meaning). In other words, the meaning of the sign is only understood depending on the cultural interpretations given to it by its users. The concern in this paper is on the relationship between language and communication in Igbo socio cultural setting. From a semiotic perspective, some Igbo symbolic objects and their communicative meanings are examined to ascertain how such objects as 'kola nut' (oji), 'tender palm - frond' (omu nkwu) and 'white chalk' (nzu) come to depict 'ideas, states, situations, feelings and conditions outside of themselves'. This study is therefore, significant because it provides a way of looking at communication as it will exert a powerful impact on almost all the perspectives employed in semiotic theory. It is also relevant to some Igbo bilinguals who have little or no knowledge about most Igbo cultural - symbolic objects since they would learn to communicate effectively in certain situations where semiotic theories might be applied. Key terms: Language, communication, culture, semiotics, and symbols.

71 Language Use in Communication: A Semiotic Perspective on Selected Igbo Cultural - Symbolic Objects Okeeke, Fidelia Azuka and Chukwu, Kenneth Uche

Introduction generally known as Igbo, irrespective of dialect. The relevance of semiotics and semiotic theories Mutual intelligibility among users of a particular to both verbal and non-verbal communication language is important in order to understand the situations cannot be overemphasized. In both relationship expressed in a given sign and the forms of communication, every sign has meaning object it symbolises. and the potential to convey multiple meaning of signification, reference and meaning. Thus, This paper considers the application of semiotic semiotics is the study of signs which forms an interpretation to the decoding of such symbolic i m p o r t a n t t r a d i t i o n o f t h o u g h t i n uses as a gate-way. Yina (2011) rightly observes communication theory. that “semiotics” like discourse, stylistics, pragmatics and poetics provides analytical Language, which is made up of words and perspectives for studying men's communicative sentences, is used to express ideas and a nd other forms of signifying (meaning) thoughts. In most cases, ideas and thoughts are behaviour in specific social contexts”. And in line expressed without sounding the words of a with the purpose of this study, Sekoni in Yina language but through signs and symbols whose (2011) confirms that “semiotics” emphasizes the meanings would be decoded still using the communication character of all manifestation of conventional language of communication. Yet, culture. It provides an unusual opportunity for the different contexts where we communicate recognising the interpretation of the objective determine the language we use. Sometimes, we scientific and subjective / spiritual in the decide to use it directly to reveal the relationship construction and maintenance of culture”. between what is said and what is meant or we use Essentially, Igbo people have their culture or it indirectly leaving the listener or reader to behaviour or belief systems which are transmitted deduce or infer the intended meaning. by the use of symbolic objects. An explication of culture is reserved for succeeding section after It is therefore, the thrust of this paper to study that of language and communication. such communication situations in Igbo environments where certain communicative signs Language and communication and symbols are used to transfer meaning. For The question of what language is has always been instance, the uses of 'oji' (kola nut), 'nzu' (clay) taken very simple by some people but scholars and 'omu' (tender palm-leaf) in Igbo land, which from different persuasions have always seen it as a form the case study, have been sources of phenomenon that needs special concern. They curiosity that triggered this enquiry. The question have therefore given it different definitions some is, “what do they actually depict and in what of which are contradictory and others communicative situations are they relevant?” complementary. Maduekwe (2007) believes that: There is no doubt that such knowledge would language is the most sophisticated elude non-native speakers and, without doubt, communication tool of life and what it most native speakers who are not intelligible in means to be human. It is that distinctive the language and cultural beliefs of the Igbo human reality which serves as the means people. and end of behavior ordered and achieved within any given community, society or Igbo people are seen in scattered areas of nation at large. . . language is the tool for Nigeria, occupying the south - east parts: Enugu, processing information and for organizing Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi Imo States and by personal perceptions of self in relation to extension, south - south parts of Rivers and Cross one's surroundings…( 3 ). River States; and south - western parts: Asaba, Agbo, Isellukwu, Okpanam, Abraka, etc. They From her view, language determines how share the same cultural perspective in their individuals in a particular community behave, different communities and use a native language perceive things around them and interpret other

72 Language Use in Communication: A Semiotic Perspective on Selected Igbo Cultural - Symbolic Objects Okeeke, Fidelia Azuka and Chukwu, Kenneth Uche people's expressions of ideas. Meanwhile, Lyons know, rather than spell everything out, we in Syal and Jindal (2012) see language as “the rely on shared understanding to facilitate principal system of communication used by communication (363). particular groups of human beings within the particular society (linguistics community) of Obviously, the views above would not be achieved which they are members.” without the essential role of language in the form of symbols or codes which are meaningful to both The intention here is not to give the litany of all interlocutors. the definitions available but one thing significant about all the definitions is that they point to the Anigbogu, Mba and Eme (2001) on their own part primary function of language which is to facilitate refer to communication as “all forms of 'verbal' communication among users. Thus, it makes interaction among human beings such as transfer of ideas, beliefs, emotions, from one exchange of ideas, feelings, information, etc; person to another easier. Its essence to human whether by speaking or by writing” (including activities makes Syal and Jindal to assert that “all non-verbal forms, e.g. symbol). Okeke, and humans are blessed with language and it is specific Chukwu (2015) however, summarise that: property of humans only. Language is thus, species-specific and species-uniform.” different situations call for different modes of communication: speech, writing, direct The words of a language are used to symbolise a n d i n d i r e c t e x p r e s s i o n s e t c . specific concepts, ideas or objects. Concrete Communication involves a source objects like “oji” (kola nut), “omu” (tender palm transferring idea to the receiver through a leaf), and others, are given names with the words code. Such code could be graphic, phonic, of a language generally accepted and understood body touch, facial expression, eye contact, by people who use them and they are used to use of colour and other symbols that connote specific meanings. Language is therefore, promote meaning and interpretation in the a symbol system, though different languages use communication process, which ensure different symbols (Syal and Jindal, 2012). No accurate feedback (116). doubt, language makes man unique in his communication because it enables him to capture In view of the above, Igbo speech communities his social complexities in their various unique not only use speech and writing modes of forms and manners of occurrence. Thus, communication but also symbolic objects to Otagburuagu (1999) believes that “all normal depict meanings at different situations which are human beings communicate through this located in their culture. mode… An important point to note about the use of language in communication is that every Acquisition and transmission of culture language satisfies the communicative needs of through language the users.” This is true as human beings really People in a particular speech community are capture their experiences in their communication exposed to a cultural tradition as they grow up with others. acquiring certain attributes. The major means of transmitting a people's culture is through a Akmajian, Demers, Farmer and Harnish (2001) conventional language. The moment an individual see communication as: learns the language of his immediate a social affair, (that is) usually taking place environment, he simultaneously acquires the within the context of a fairly well defined culture of his people. This is expressed by Adibe social situation. In such a context, we rely (2009) agree that: on one another to share our conception of what the situation is. With the people we

73 Language Use in Communication: A Semiotic Perspective on Selected Igbo Cultural - Symbolic Objects Okeeke, Fidelia Azuka and Chukwu, Kenneth Uche

culture consists of patterns, explicit or exist between a sign and the object it represents or implicit, of or for behavior acquired and between a 'signifier'' and its ''signified''. transmitted by symbols, constituting distinctive achievement of human groups, There are key basic concepts that unify the including their embodiments in artifacts, semiotic tradition. Littlejohn and Foss (2008) the essential core of culture consists of identify 'sign' as a basic concept of semiotic traditional (i.e. historically derived and tradition and define it as “stimulus designating or selected) ideas and especially their attached indicating some other condition - just as when values; culture systems may, on the one smoke indicates the presence of fire.'' They also hand, be considered as products of action, identify the second basic one as 'symbol', which on the other as conditioning elements of they say usually designates a complex sign with further action (5). many meanings including highly personal ones. They further assert that semiotics refers to “how There is intricate relationship between culture signs come to represent objects, ideas, situations, and language as language is used in stipulating the feelings and conditions outside of themselves. rules that guide people's attitude and individuals Such representation is often mediated by the perceive their culture through language. Yet, it is conscious interpretation of the person, and any culture that governs language use. In view of this, interpretation or meaning for a sign will change Wardhaugh (1998) in Okeke (2010) asserts that from situation to situation”. “culture is whatever a person must know in order to function in a particular society.'' Developing The above explanations point to the fact that this knowledge demands effective use of meaning arise from a relationship among three symbolic forms to interpret the ideas, meanings things: the object (or referent), the person (or or knowledge embodied in communication. interpreter), and the sign - the three which form the semantic or semiotic triangle as labelled by Culture is actually transferred from generation to Ogden and Richards (1949) in Umera-Okeke generation, usually from the fore- bearers. Thus, (2008) below: Hudson (1996) agrees that culture is a kind of knowledge which we learn from other people, Thought (reference) either by direct instruction or by watching their behaviour (through a conversational language). How then can an individual who has no knowledge of his / her mother tongue understand what one cultural symbol or the other represents? Or, how does he or she learn the said Symbol(Form) referent (object) knowledge from others?

Semiotics: Symbol, referent and thought With reference to the above, Umera-Okeke (reference) in a triangular relationship explicates that words refer to things they name Halliday in Webster (2003) says that ''semiotics rather than signify and that the word is a evolves out of investigation of language as object composite of form and concept. Further, she says to enhance an understanding of meaning, and of that 'symbol' is the word, sentence or form; systems of meaning with varying modes of 'referent' or 'object' is the object in the world of realization.'' Also, the Oxford advanced learner's experience while 'thought or reference' is the dictionary (2010) defines semiotics as ''the signs concept. The dotted lines imply that there is no and symbols and of their meaning and use.'' direct link between the symbol and referent (i.e. Hence, Saeed (2003) sees semioticians as those between language and the world) but only who investigate the types of relationship that through the mediation of thought or reference.

74 Language Use in Communication: A Semiotic Perspective on Selected Igbo Cultural - Symbolic Objects Okeeke, Fidelia Azuka and Chukwu, Kenneth Uche

The symbol triggers off the meaning of the interpret, explain, judge and communicate the referent through the help of our minds. After all, meaning of the concept - semiotics, and combination of the letters D - O - O – R (DOOR) especially how some semioticians like Ferdinand constitutes the form and conjures up the meaning de Sassuare, Charles Morris, C.S. Peirce, Umberto in our minds (Umera-Okeke, 2008). Eco and others see and think about semiotics as a concept since theories govern how we approach Confirming this, Yina (2011) states that symbol is our worlds. Essentially, an examination of few where there is neither connection nor theories will suffice. resemblance between sign and object. According to him, a symbol communicates only because Peirce (1839-1914) gives a sign theory, or semiotic there is a conventional agreement among people which is an account of signification, representation, that it shall stand for what it does. A symbol is reference and meaning. His ideas about semiotic are therefore, a concrete event, object or mark that accounted for, under three broad stages, starting stands for something relatively abstract. with his idea on the structure of sign and Explicating this, Yina illustrates with the use of signification. Regarding Peirce's idea on basic sign cross (+), which stands for the great sacrifice of structure, signs consist of three interrelated parts: a Jesus Christ, i.e. his suffering and death on the sign, an object, and an interpretant. The sign in Peirce's cross. Most Christian churches therefore, bear the claim can be taken to be the signifier, e.g. dog sign of the cross ((+), indicating Christianity). (written word); object can be whatever is signified According to Yina, words are symbols that stand by the word 'dog' while the interpretant is taken to for objects. Thus, the word kola nut is a symbol be the understanding that we have of the sign / for an object with two cotyledons symbolizing object relation. In other words, interpretant is peace and unity (and other meanings) among central to the content of the sign because the different people in Igbo culture. meaning of the sign is only understood depending on the interpretation given to it by its users No doubt, the major character of communication (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/peirce- is to convey information, especially for the semiotics/). maintenance of culture, (from the encoder to the decoder) through a conventional means. A The signifying elements of signs call for communicator may decide to send his / her clarification. One might be confused about what message using verbal or non-verbal means as each Peirce actually means by 'sign' which according to goes to complement the other. him, are those elements referred to as “sign”, “representment”, “representation” and “ground”; what Semiotics: A theoretical review Plato referred to as “sign-vehicle”. To clarify this, this This work is anchored on the theoretical paper considers, for instance, a beehive on a tree as a framework known as semiotics. Interestingly, sign of bees. Not every characteristics of the semiotics with its focus on the signs and symbols, beehive plays a part in signifying the presence of integrates an amazing broad set of theories bees. The taste of honey in the beehive will vary dealing with language, discourse and non-verbal according to the species and size of the bees that actions. Examining the theories of semiotics will make it and also the size of the beehive. What is enable us to know how and why certain events central in this illustration is the casual connection occur. No single theory will ever reveal the whole that exists between the type of honey in the 'truth' or be able to totally address the subject of beehive and the bees. Since bees make beehive and investigation. Theories function as guide books honey, they signify bees. Thus, primary to the that help us understand, explain, interpret, judge beehive's ability to signify the bees is its physical and communicate (Littlejohn and Foss, 2008). An connection with the bees. This is a 'sign-vehicle' examination of semiotic theories will therefore, of the sign which to Peirce is only some elements emphasise our ability to better understand, of a sign that enable it signify its object.

75 Language Use in Communication: A Semiotic Perspective on Selected Igbo Cultural - Symbolic Objects Okeeke, Fidelia Azuka and Chukwu, Kenneth Uche

The object is another signifying element. Only any typology of signs may fail to explain how certain features of an object enable a sign to different kinds of signs may share the same mode signify it. This is why Peirce believes that the of production. He therefore, feels that the correct relationship between the object of a sign and the approach to developing unified semiotic theory sign that represents it is one of determination - should not be to propose a typology of signs but the object determines the sign. It is deduced from should be to provide a method of investigating this view that the object places certain constraints how sign-vehicle may be produced and or parameters that a sign must fall within if it is to interpreted. represent that object. Eco then, asserts that a general semiotic theory To illustrate this using the example above, the sign should include not only a theory of how signs may is the beehive and the object of the sign is the establish rules for systems of signification but a bees. The bees determine the sign, and if the theory of how signs may be produced and beehive should succeed as a sign for the bees, it interpreted. A theory of code may clarify aspect must show the physical presence of the bees. If it of signification, while a theory of sign - fails to do so, it fails to be a sign for that object. p r o d u c t i o n m a y c l a r i f y a s p e c t o f Essentially, not everything about bees is relevant 'communication'. He defines 'signification' as the to this constraining process. The bees might be semiotic event whereby a sign 'stands' for brown or black in colour, male or female, young something while 'communication' is the or old, big or small. As can be observed, the casual transmission of information from a source to a connection between it and the bees is the destination. He adds that a theory of sign - characteristics that it imposes on its signs, and it is production should include not only a theory of this connection that the sign must represent if it is communication but that of 'mentions' (i.e. to succeed in signifying the bees. referring to acts) and a theory of communicational acts. A theory of communication may explain how The interpretant has some features that make it to information may be transmitted from a source (or be characterised as the understanding we reach of content-continuum) through a channel (or expression- some sign/object relation. The understanding continuum) to a destination. In his view, a theory of area is that interpretant could be treated as 'mentions' may explain how signs may be used for translations assuming that Peirce called it naming things and for making statements about actual 'translatant'. Again, just like the sign/object situations and that a theory of communicational acts relation, Peirce believes sign/interpretant relation may explain how a sender may transmit verbal and non to be one of determination. In other words, sign - verbal messages to an addressee (http://www. determines an interpretant by using certain angelfire.com/md2/timewarp/eco.html). features of the way the sign signifies its object to Similar to Peirce, Charles Morris (1964) tends to generate our understanding. give account of signification, reference and meaning. Considering semiotic signs and Another scholar, Eco (1976) in his attempt on a meanings, he feels that human action involves theory of semiotics, gives a critique of the theory signs and meanings in three ways: that meaning of the signs is determined by the objects (i.e. things or event) to which they refer, lThe perception stage where the person and is a rejection of the nature that iconic signs becomes aware of a sign. must be in the likeness of their object. Eco lThe manipulation stage where the person explains that existence of the objects to which interprets the sign and decides how to signals or signs may correspond is not a necessary respond to it. condition for their signification. He criticises the lThe consummation stage where the person nature that a typology of signs may clarify the responds by giving feedback. nature of sign function and contends instead, that

76 Language Use in Communication: A Semiotic Perspective on Selected Igbo Cultural - Symbolic Objects Okeeke, Fidelia Azuka and Chukwu, Kenneth Uche

Also, Morris examines signs and values and distinguishes it from the Hausa specie (or oji categorises three connections: Hausa) which normally appears in two lobes. Igbo kola nut rarely has two lobes and is never eaten lDetachment where the person or system without being broken into pieces. Just like women maintains autonomy (independence). are forbidden from climbing a palm-tree in Igbo land, they do not also climb a kola nut tree nor lDominance where the person or system takes pluck down its fruits. precedence over, controls or dominates another person or system. The Igbo kola nut is accorded great importance that the 'man' of the family normally keeps it at lDependence where the person or system home to pray in the morning in appreciation to needs is controlled by or dominated by God as well as to welcome visitors during the day. another person or system (http://oregon In view of this, Ofomata (2004) and Amadiume state.edu/instruct/comm321/gwalker/semi (1988) share the view that kola nut is used to otics.htm). warmly welcome visitors in various occasions like traditional marriage (or during reception after Morris therefore, believes that people are white weddings), political gathering, house interpreters of signs necessitated by the warming ceremonies, settlement of disputes, in designative factor where an interpreter is directed oath taking, covenant rites, child naming to a particular object; the appraisive factor where ceremonies, reconciliation ceremonies, at the he highlights object qualities through proper beginning of meetings, and other situations. evaluation and the perspective aspect where oneis directed to respond in specific ways. Generally, kola nut connotes many ideas in the minds of Igbo people. It could signify love, The review so far, establishes the relevance of peaceful or cordial relationship, unity, friendship, semiotics and semiotic theories to both verbal joy, etc. Thus, Adibe (2008) cites Umeogu (1996) and non-verbal communicative situations. It also who asserts that “oji is a sign of acceptance, unity establishes that every sign has meaning and the of life and love. It equally symbolises hospitality”. potential for multiple meanings illustrated in the Similarly, Opata (2001) in Adibe agrees that “oji signification, reference and meaning. These serves as a symbol of peace and love on theories and others are therefore important to communal relationship….'' The significance of this study because they establish the bases upon kola nut in Igbo land cannot be overemphasised which effective communication and for while the Hausa people chew it, the Igbo interpretations of symbolic objects are achieved. people celebrate and value it so greatly. A semiotic examination of selected Igbo cultural symbolic objects is therefore the focus in the next Considering the significance of kola nut, Adibe section. also cites Ekwunife (2003) who observes that ''oji (kola nut) is used in the ritual prayer for Semiotic perspectives on kola-nut (oji Igbo), consecrating the day. It is also used in beginning white chalk (nzu) and tender palm frond meetings and other ritual purposes.'' This tells (omu nkwu) why two enemies cannot share the Igbo kola nut unless they have reconciled and accepted each Kola nut other. Kola nut therefore, stands for life and the Kola nut (oji) is an animate cultural object, a fruit necessity or right for individuals to exist. This produced by a special tree called kola nut which paper, however, examines the Igbo kola nut pieces primarily is used in entertaining visitors. The Igbo (ibe oji Igbo) from a semiotic perspective, having kola nut (oji Igbo) is an edible fruit that appears in observed that at its presentation, at various multiple lobes (sometimes up to seven) which occasions as mentioned above, it is prayed over

77 Language Use in Communication: A Semiotic Perspective on Selected Igbo Cultural - Symbolic Objects Okeeke, Fidelia Azuka and Chukwu, Kenneth Uche and broken by the elder present. Significantly, the lobes, it calls for celebration and according to Igbo people infer different meanings from the Okoye, it is not shared or eaten until participants number of lobes in a kola-nut. As said earlier, the have finished eating and drinking. However, in idea of meaning arises from a relationship among some Igbo setting, it signifies perfection and the object (or referent, 'oji'), the person (or requires a sacrifice to the village deity by the oldest interpreter or participants) and the sign (signified). man.

According to Okoye and Okoye (2009), mythical Although it is rare, kola nuts with eight lobes and explanation also surrounds the number of lobes a above is believed by most Igbo communities to kola nut has after breaking it. The Igbo kola nut signify that too much of everything is bad. Thus, may have up to seven lobes. A kola nut with one Okoye and Okoye (2009) observe that such kola lobe is frowned at because of their cultural belief nuts are not eaten but thrown away. that it signifies barrenness. In such a case, young There is no doubt now why kola nut is so highly men and women of child bearing age do not eat it. regarded and celebrated in Igbo land that the It is either thrown away or eaten only by the old moment it is presented, every discussion is men and women above child bearing age. The stopped until necessary prayers are said which same thing applies to a double-piece kola nut. must be in Igbo language as 'oji' does not 'hear'/ understand the English language. Participants In Igbo culture also, a kola nut which has three present also derive joy in partaking of it, at least, to lobes is accepted as a good one and is called 'oji share in the expected blessings or good luck. Ikenga'. It symbolises 'power/achievement and must be eaten by great or strong men whose White chalk (nzu) prowess is known among his people and beyond, This is another significant Igbo cultural object just like Okonkwo in Chinua Achebe's Things fall which has some symbolic or mystical meaning apart. Adibe (2008) also calls a three lobe kola nut and functions like the Igbo kola nut. This object 'oji okike' (kola nut of creativity) which symbolises which is made of white chalk substance is a fecundity in relation to creation deity. symbol of purity, passport for good luck as man Interestingly, the four-piece kola nut in Igbo involves in relationship with others and with the cultural setting symbolises a good omen and spirits. When native doctors (dibia) or chief represents the four Igbo market days: Eke, Orie, priests use the dust of the white chalk to paint Afo, and Nkwo. As a conventional kola nut, it is their eye-brows, it is to enable them sight eaten by every participant. This is what Amadiume piercingly into the spirit world during divination (1988) identifies as 'Oji awele' (good fortune) which and good will sharing. Adibe (2008) explains that implies that good fortune will be the portion of ''nzu'' (white chalk) is a ritual/mystical object for every participant that eats the kola nut. clearing the eyes ritually for spiritual exercise like when a traditional family head/leader offers a When a kola nut (oji Igbo) has five lobes, it morning prayer (igo ofo ututu); when a chief symbolises 'fertility' (oji omumu) or multiple- priest prays before a deity (igwa alusi okwu); when procreation. Usually, the sharer is asked to take a native doctor or diviner makes incantation, etc. the fifth lobe as it signifies that he has good luck It signifies their ability to see beyond the visible. while the remaining four are eaten by other As a matter of fact, when white chalk (nzu) is used participants. Hence, those within the child- in these manners, it signifies purity of moral bearing age benefit more from it. intentions and indicates immediately that the participant is cleansed for mutual interaction with In the situation where Igbo kola nut has six lobes, the spirit world. A traditional ritual priest uses it as it means that the spirits are hungry so the sixth first ritual before every other action just like a one is thrown away to them and the rest are shared Christian makes a sign of the cross to anchor on by the participants. As for kola nuts with seven the Trinity before praying to God. Thus, ''it serves

78 Language Use in Communication: A Semiotic Perspective on Selected Igbo Cultural - Symbolic Objects Okeeke, Fidelia Azuka and Chukwu, Kenneth Uche in some occasions as wake-up call for the priest Generally, Adibe declares that 'omu nkwu' (tender and the spirits. It serves for exclusive warning to leaves of palm frond) is a mystical symbol of the evil spirits and evil-minded persons when it is presence of ancestral spirits and Ala deity in their sprinkled on roads and on any threshold '' (Adibe, mediatorial role as peace makers. This is true of 2008). 'Nzu' (white chalk) therefore, signifies Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor's observation that wisdom, purity and holiness (clean heart) and a “when one out of two communities engaged in a symbol of mystical power. communal clash sends emissaries to the other community on a peace mission, the host Tender leaves of palm tree ( Omu nkwu) community can now tie the omu in a particular way “Omu nkwu” is an object culturally used to denote the community's willingness to enter in Igbo land for different purposes. In other into peace negotiations”. It is also used for words, it has different connotations depending on seclusion, and as power brokers. It could be used the context where it is used to communicate for all Igbo traditional sacred rituals, even without meaning. When tender leaves of palm tree (omu the priest officiating (Adibe, 2008). nkwu) are tied round a tree, (especially economic one), where the youth of a community are From the foregoing observations, it is clear that celebrating a masquerade dance during burial or what we call 'symbol' is simply the word, sentence 'Ikeji' festival, it is simply used to warn that or form. That which we call 'referent' is the object nobody should neither attempt to touch nor (animate or inanimate) in the world of experience destroy it. The same thing applies when it is while 'reference' (thought) is the concept. Yet, placed on a land where two people or villages there is no direct link between the symbol and the claim ownership of the same land. Tender leaves referent or between the signifier and the signified of palm tree in such context symbolise that but only through the mediation of thought or nobody should transgress on the land until peace reference. The symbol (word) which is arbitrary is restored to avoid an out -break of war. triggers off the meaning of referent (object) through the help of our mind. The words outside “Omu nkwu” is also used to symbolise the context where they are used mean another sacredness; for instance, if it is tied to a shrine, it thing depending on the cultural belief of the indicates that non-worshipers should keep off users. This is rightly observed by Adibe as he cites and avoid trespassing. Only the chief priests can Ejizu thus: “a sign properly understood implies enter the shrine to worship. This tells why Nwodu the existence of some intrinsic relationship and Fab-Ukozor (2003) cite Emeka ( 1998) who between the thing signified and the signifier confirms that “ the tender leaves of the oil palm precisely because they belong to the same cultural (omu) are very potent in Igbo symbolography ; context… and provoke the kind of sentiments knotted at the edge of, or used to rope round a and reactions associated with their referents…” location, they declare it out of bounds to all but the authorized” Essentially, cultural symbolic objects like the ones examined in this paper always evoke peace, the Also, Omu nkwu can be tied in front and at the sacred, seclusion, and so on; and express their back of a vehicle carrying a corpse to make for places in the lives of the people who own the easy passage. And during the burial ceremonies symbols. They are therefore, communication of very old and great personality, tender leaves of media held to be effectively charged, non-neutral palm tree are tied on a tree within the compound in their emotional and intellectual values. to symbolise that ritual masquerade (Achikwu) Moreover, they can also be envisaged as will appear and perform there at night and by that, possessing a spontaneous power in themselves, non-initiates, women and children are warned not projecting the mind toward the absolute (Ejizu in to come out. In other words, “omu nkwu” Adibe, 2008). symbolises seclusion and warning.

79 Language Use in Communication: A Semiotic Perspective on Selected Igbo Cultural - Symbolic Objects Okeeke, Fidelia Azuka and Chukwu, Kenneth Uche

Recommendations discovers that most Igbo people, especially the In order to enhance effective communication young ones, encounter challenges of intelligibility through language use in form of symbolic in their language as well as culture because they are objects, the following recommendations are not properly immersed in them. As a result of this, relevant: they lack the “shared understandings” of 1. Since culture is a kind of knowledge learnt symbolic objects which communicate specific from other people, Igbo people who are not meanings without actually being “spelt out”. mutually intelligible in their language and Sometimes too, the lack of knowledge occur as a symbolic objects should avail themselves of result of hatred, lack of interest and disloyalty to these knowledge by developing interest in Igbo culture by the real Igbos who have learning from others either by direct assimilated/internalised different cultural instruction or by watching their behaviour patterns/behaviours acquired and transmitted by through a conventional language and asking such symbols used in environments where they questions for clarifications. grew up. The resultant effect of this situation is 2. Parents should help matters by interacting therefore, loss of one's identity and estrangement with their children in the Igbo language and (psychological or emotional). teaching them early what most Igbo objects symbolise. This effort will be more References actualised if parents would, from time to Adibe, G. E. (2009). Igbo issues: Values,chi, akalaka, time, take their children to their villages ikenga, magic, agwu anmanipulation especially during festivities like the New Yam of divinities. Onitsha: Midfield Publishers festival, traditional marriage, Ikeji, child Limited. dedication, and others, as some of them do … (2008). Igbo mysticism: Power of Igbo not even know the location of their villages. traditional religion and society. Onitsha: Midfield Publishers Limited. Conclusion Language use in communication is governed by Akmajian, A., Dermers, R. A., Farmer, A. K. and culture. Knowledge of culture demand effective Harnish, R. M. (2001). Linguistics: An use of language or symbolic forms to interpret introduction to language and communication the ideas, meanings and knowledge embodied in (5th ed.). New Delhi: PrenticerHall Private communication. In different contexts where Ltd. symbolic objects are used, instead of spelling Amadiume, S. (1998). Omenala ndi di mma.Enugu: everything out, we rely on shared understandings Ochumba Press (Nig) Ltd. to actualise our purposes in communication. This Anigbogu, P.N., Mba,B.M. and Eme, .C.A. (2001). study discovers that Igbo speech communities Introduction to Linguistics. Awka: J.E.C.Ltd. not only use speech and writing modes of nd communication but also symbolic objects to Hudson, R.A. (1996). Sociolinguistics (2 ed.). depict meanings at different situations which are United Kingdom: Cambridge University located in their culture. Interestingly, the mutual Press. intelligibility which they share enables them to Littlejohn, .S.W. and Foss, K.A.(2008). Theories of th understand what each symbolic object represents, human communication (9 ed.). Belmont, even without spelling everything out. USA: Thomson and Wadsworth. Maduekwe, A .N. (2007). Principles and practice of Hence, this study on semiotic perspective of teaching english as a second Language. Lagos: some Igbo cultural objects establishes the basis Vitaman Educational Books. upon which effective communication and Ofomata, C.E. (2004). Ndezu utoasusu igbo. Enugu: interpretation are achieved. This study also Format Publishers (Nig) Ltd.

80 Language Use in Communication: A Semiotic Perspective on Selected Igbo Cultural - Symbolic Objects Okeeke, Fidelia Azuka and Chukwu, Kenneth Uche

Okeke, F. A. (2010). The role of language Otagburuagu, E.J. (1999). New perspectives in communication in the acquisition and business communication (rev.enl. ed.), transfer of culture in a developing nation. Awka: Meks Publishers Ltd. In Briggs, L. A. (Ed.), International Journal Saeed, J.I. (2003). Semantics (2nd ed.). USA: Blackwell of Educational Development, 1(2), 115 - 122. Publishing. Okeke, F.A. and Chukwu, .K.U. (2013). Semiotics Syal, P. and Jindal .D.V. (2012). An introduction to a n d s y m b o l i s m i n l i t e r a r y linguistics: Language, grammar and communication: A study of George semantics (2nd ed.). New Delhi: PHI Learning Orwell's animal farm. In Nnolim, C.E., Private Limited. Ezeigbo, A.A. and Chuma-Udeh Ngozi Webster, J.J. Ed. (2003). Collected works of M.A.K (Eds.), Proceedings from the 1st international Halliday on language and linguistics. conference of the Department of English, on Vol.3, London: Continuum. language, literature and national consciousness. Yina, G. (2011). Semiotics of Tiv oral poetry. Makurdi: Onitsha: Divine Touch Ind. Press Ltd. ABOKI Publishers. http://plato.stanford. Okoye, P.I.N. and Okoye, H.C. (2009). Introduction edu/entries/peirce-semiotics/ retrieved to oral literature: The igbo experience. Awka- November15, 2012 from Stanford Anambra: Amaka Dreams Ltd. encyclopedia of philosophy.http://oregonstate. Oxford advanced learner's dictionary (2010). New edu/instruct/comm321/gwalker/semiotics.ht York: Oxford University Press. m retrieved November 15, 2012. http:// www.angelfire.com/md2/timewarp/eco.html retrieved November 15, 2012.

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SECTION3 3 3 B: ; Literature

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Beyond the Tragic Abyss: Transcending Absurdist Limits in Camus's Fiction .

Dr. Abba A Abba Department of English, Edwin Clark University, Kiagbodo-Ughelli.

Abstract So much critical works have examined Camus's The Plague as an allegorical representation of the Nazi terror in France as well as an exploration of Camus's Absurdist philosophy. From the latter perspective, the thematic preoccupation of the work is likened to the Sisyphean myth of man's abiding condemnation to meaningless toil. Although these criticisms are insightful in interpreting the work, they hardly illuminate the tragic hopefulness that enables the central character to transcend mere passive struggle, and hit boldly at the door of cruel fate in order to wrest freedom for the community. As this paper argues, Camus's idea of the absurd is rooted in the tragic sense of life in which man's confrontation with the 'more than man' is affirmed and reaffirmed. Although the argument in Camus's The Myth of Sisyphus that suicide is not legitimate, has further implication for the entire European disaster, the myth dwells on the premise that even within the limits of nihilism it is possible to find the means to proceed. But as this paper insists, The Plague moves further than this mere attempt at existence to meditate on spirited and defiant interrogation of the forces that torment man's soul. It is, as Camus would suggest "a lucid invitation to live and to create, in the very midst of the desert" (3). Thus the paper concludes that unlike the Sisyphean figure in his flaccid acceptance of his fate, the tragic optimist in The Plague, remains an avower of the universal instinct. He is in short, a figure of Nietzsche's the Ubermensch (the overman), that titanically striving individual who struggles because he must. He is celebrated in the narrative not only for the testimony which his actions give to the human spirit but for their lyrical invocation of a humanity that refuses to sink in to tragic defeat, even when the crush is inevitable. Keywords: Tragedy, Defiance, Terror, Affirmation, Freedom, Absurdism.

83 Beyond the Tragic Abyss: Transcending Absurdist Limits in Camus's Fiction Dr. Abba A Abba .

Introduction the present. Nietzsche's theory of tragedy Critical studies on Camus's The Plague centrally departed from Schopenhauer's in its rejection of dwell on the text as an allegory of the Nazi terror the latter's pessimistic stare into the abyss which in France. Much of this scholarship goes beyond leads to resignation. “Oh how far removed I was this allegorical evaluation to examine the text as at that time from precisely this whole attitude of an exploration of Camus's Absurdist philosophy, resignation!” (10). Nietzsche imagines that when a likening its vision to the Sisyphean myth of man's titanically striving individual peers into the abyss abiding condemnation to meaningless toil. from strength of will, he would suffer the Although these criticisms are insightful in unintelligible and merciless truth of existence, but interpreting the work, they hardly illuminate the not without affirmation, for in this suffering, he tragic hopefulness that enables the central would become one with what he was, i.e., the will character to transcend mere passive struggle, and itself, leaving behind the illusion of individuation. hit boldly at the door of cruel fate in order to The individual thus “fuses with and is lost in what extort freedom for the community. Camus's idea truly exceeds intellectual light, in the pulsating of the absurd certainly, is rooted in this tragic process of the ground of existence, leaving sense of life in which man's confrontation with behind the illusions of individuation, causality, the 'more than man' is affirmed and reaffirmed. space, and time” (Wallis 88-89). The result of Although the argument of Camus's The Myth of becoming one with all the power and justification Sisyphus, that despite the meaninglessness of life is self transcending joyous affirmation. Thus and the cruelty of its creator, “suicide is not beyond evaluation, the will holds sway, ceaselessly legitimate” (3) has further implication for the exceeding itself. French terror and the entire European disaster, the myth dwells on the premise that even within Retracing Nietzsche's path, Camus has a flash of the limits of nihilism it is possible to find the apprehension that “the Athenian who re-emerged means to proceed. Yet, The Plague moves further from the true darkness, terrorized, displaced, and than this mere attempt at existence to meditate on exhausted, found in the tragic poetry brilliant spirited and defiant interrogation of the forces illusions-shining representations-still dripping that torment man's soul. It is, as Camus would with existence, and in them the lust for life was suggest, "a lucid invitation to live and to create, in rekindled” (Duncan 67). Adhering to this the very midst of the desert" (3). Unlike the intellectual tradition, Camus adopts the absurd as Sisyphean figure in his 'Hamletian' vacillations his starting point. And because hope and suicide from the dilemma of suicide to the flaccid are not redeeming reactions to a life of acceptance of his fate without question, the tragic meaningless struggles, the man trapped in the optimist in The Plague, remains an avower of the absurdist abyss must affirm his individuality by universal instinct. He is in short, a figure of confronting his fate. This affirmation of human Nietzsche's the Ubermensch (the Overman), that life is “the core of Camus's absurdist reasoning titanically striving individual who struggles (288). It is in this sense that Dr Rieux, the because he must. protagonist in The Plague belongs in the category of Nietzsche's the Ubermensch. This individual is Unlike Plato, Camus does not appeal to celebrated in the narrative not only for the transcendence in support of his values. In fact, testimony which his actions give to the human “the idea of transcendence had been considerably spirit but for their lyrical invocation of a humanity discredited before Camus's lifetime owing to that refuses to sink in to tragic defeat, even when persuasive negations inherent in the philosophy this trounce is inevitable. of his immediate predecessors” (Thorson 283). In fact, Nietzsche, one of such predecessors and In tragedy, which Aristotle sees as “a story of Camus's great influence undertook a biting suffering,” man finds himself in confrontation critique of transcendentalism and its abiding with “the more than man” (Sophocles, Oedipus the predilection to distract man from the reality of King, L.36). But this individual, despite the

84 Beyond the Tragic Abyss: Transcending Absurdist Limits in Camus's Fiction Dr. Abba A Abba . disproportionate power relations between him bright-red with blood; and finally death. For and his fate, is endowed with a courageous spirit Father Paneloux, this event is accountable to the such that, though he will end up caged by the retributive righteousness of God. His idea about movement of necessity, he will also be seen to the plague links him to Hamlet in his realization have put up a fight against it with all his strength. of the futility of human action, that no one can do As Bygrave argues, the futility of the contest with anything “to change the eternal essence of the powers ranged against the character things” (Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy 10). The notwithstanding, the facts of resistance is what priest insists that the proper attitude to the plague counts; it “ennobles him and through the is not struggle but resignation. For instance, while suffering it generates, he gains an emotional delivering his first sermon in the church, he points resonance which is quite different from that of out clearly that the disease is a visitation of God's the merely passive victim” (Bygrave 4; Akwanya, punishment on the errant town. For him, God Discourse Analysis 64). The connectedness of views the peoples' hedonistic life as abominable tragedy to mythic ideation indicates that the and decides to punish them with the plague. He pattern of tragic rule makes it impossible for the tells them emphatically: “Calamity has come on caged individual to be able to change its laws. In you, my brethren, and, my brethren you deserved Greek tragedy, for instance, “the choral odes it” (89). reflect on the action, connecting it to the founding laws of the universe and human society, In The Plague, breaking down the instinct that is and bringing out the factor of human limitation in natural to man is the task which Paneloux assigns understanding these laws, or changing them or to the transcendence. He leads the Oran people escaping the consequences of breaching them” who make up his congregation to a confrontation (Akwanya 64). This is what tragedy is and what it with the sense of defeat, distress, and must always be. Thus this paper, contending that irredeemability that are attached to their fate. But The Plague is not a meditation on submissive Dr Rieux opposes this passive obedience to divine trudging in the face of ill fortune, attempts to authority, what Hill describes as “a transitional show that Dr. Rieux, like the Overman finds conception of providence, one moving away freedom through the struggle to transcend the from passive obedience towards activity for the conventional reflexes of the common herd in the relief of man's estate” (237). Rieux finds terror pilgrimage to freedom. and destruction in the perpetual elemental strife that characterizes life in Oran but does not Confronting Tragic Defeat surrender to it. The experience confronting him, In tragedy, the human condition is often and the entire people of Oran is, as Donne conceived as the locus of the confrontation indicates, of “events which make men curse their against divine forces in which the man destined to life, detest the day of their birth, desecrate the suffer must inescapably encounter defeat either in light of heaven, even censure God, and charge his experiential world or in the world of concrete him with cruelty and injustice” (111. vii. 10). Dr. experience. Constraint in The Plague arises from Rieux finds Paneloux's rationalization of the this instrument of necessity. The plague event disease inadequate. He refuses to accept the begins by calling forth rats to die in hallways, explanation and justification for the suffering and foyers, and streets. Then it moves on to humans. excruciating death of Othon's son, that perhaps Its mode of being differs from any previous the people of Oran must learn to love what they experience in Oran: joints racked with pain from cannot understand. Rieux argues that it is better pus-filled, hardened buboes with only temporary to resist than love what one cannot understand. relief by the blood spurts of lancing; high fevers He sees tragic misery in the narrative as an exacerbated by thirst and engendering spasms expression of the stultifying structure imposed on and delirium; in later pneumonic cases, chest- the people by Paneloux's God and it is against this wrenching coughs to extirpate balls of sputum force that he wages his battle. Like Adrugio in

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Anthonio and Mellida, Rieux believes that “The with defiance, and with the faith that the plague is earth, this monstrous animal/ That eats her a disease against which a cure must be found; children is blind and deaf ” (111. 1. 27-8). hence he defiantly searches for that cure. It is In different ways, the plague event initiates a through his affirmative presence that Oran seeks tragic struggle. It comes with all the tragic consolation in the face of her tragic misery. This is discontent, the unwearied and unsatisfied striving different from Sisyphus' conception of his plight in the face of necessity. The narrative attempts to in The Myth of Sisyphus. Condemned to an endless represent both religious and tragic paradox as toil of pushing a boulder up a mountain, and ambiguous and contradictory. Indeed, God's love watching it roll down each time it gets to the top, for his creatures is juxtaposed with the terror that Sisyphus trudges on. He does not question the is latent in his wrath. It is a paradox which Dr. rationale behind his torment but merely faces his Rieux attempts to resist, an attempt that connects assignment in a gleeful drudgery. The sense of the him with Nietzsche's 'titanically striving absurd in Camus's other novel, The Stranger is individual.' He is located at the centre of the fight. perhaps the most complex. Here Mersault's In fact, he is the first to encounter a dead rat feeling of detachment from his actions and which foretells the terror about to descend upon thoughts, his impassionate description of his the town. But as a self-determining hero, he mother's death and remorselessness after his demonstrably shows “the humanist conception murder of the Arab attempt to clarify Camus's of man as essentially free, dynamic and aspiring” earlier conception that no serious thought should (Dollimore 112). be spared on the things of this world. However, in The Plague, he seems to have a flash of fresh What complicates the tragic sequence in the insights into the value of life and the beauty of narrative is the aloneness and the sense of human striving which suggests an endorsement imprisonment, both at the level of the individual of self affirmation. Dr Rieux embraces resistance and that of the community. The town and the as a mode of confronting the terror, a resistance characters are trapped on the verges of terror and against mortality and the universe's despair. But unlike other characters, Rieux shows meaninglessness and incoherence. Unlike in The a unique way of accepting the situation and Myth of Sisyphus where there is passive acceptance striving towards communal liberation. He of fate, and where Sisyphus battles with personal acknowledges that “in every exuberant joy, there tragic experience, defiance in The Plague moves is heard an undertone of terror or else a wilful from the individual to the collective against tragic lament over an irrecoverable loss” (Nietzsche 2). enemy. And as Camus would indicate, “I revolt, This he demonstrates through cheerfulness in the therefore we are” (The Rebel 22). This paradoxical midst of the catastrophe. statement leads to the question: How can an I lead to a we? How does “we are” follow from “I Moving Beyond the Tragic Abyss revolt”? How can the individual's experience of In Aristotle's tragic theory, tragic suffering may absurdity, and the resistance to it, stem from, arise from one's own action but it may also derive, produce, imply, or entail the wider social sense of as Camus conceives, from the existence of an injustice and solidarity? Paneloux is a self- unjust and cruel universe where the gods are conscious individual who isolates himself from unkind, unfeeling or simply non-existent. But the the towns-people. In his initial sermons, he hero must put up a fight rather than relapse into passionately uses the accusative pronoun “you” to resignation. Such is the response of Dr. Rieux, talk about Oran's sins thereby exonerating "the tragic optimist of the novel" (Abba 131). He himself and establishing a distance from them. He acknowledges that the situation is unfathomable however grows in wisdom when he recognizes but refuses to accept that nothing can be done that all are “kindred sufferers” doomed together about it. As a strong-willed individual, neither to a life of pestilential struggle. Now he reverts to resignation nor suicide is an option. He fights on the self-inclusive pronoun “we” in order to affirm

86 Beyond the Tragic Abyss: Transcending Absurdist Limits in Camus's Fiction Dr. Abba A Abba . the life of solidarity. Sisyphus carries his burden other terrible experiences in life teach men to take on his own wide back although his voice seems to thought. So the plague event with its underlying belong to all mankind. terror cannot be justified as a means of teaching people wisdom. However, Dr. Rieux rejects that any solution is to be found in religion. He rather argues that the Dr. Rieux finds it difficult to reconcile God's love plague situation is an experience that must be as presented by Paneloux and the terrible resisted to affirm the human capacity to bear experience unleashed on the people by the same contradictions. The mode of resistance is to God of love: “I'm fumbling in the dark, struggling attend to the needs of the infected people. In his to make something out. But I've long ceased argument with Paneloux, he rejects a God that finding that original" (119). He sees in Paneloux delights in punishing his own and even finds it an innocent bystander who approaches the reprehensible for anyone to cast his trust in such a situation in the town from a distance, like one who God. As he indicates, if he believed in an all- has never confronted terror himself: powerful God he would cease curing the sick and Paneloux is a man of learning, a scholar. leave that to Him: He hasn't come in contact with death; But no one in the world believed in a God of that's why he can speak with such that sort; no, not even Paneloux, who assurance of the truth—with a capital T. believed that he believed in such a God. And But every country priest who visits his this was proved by the fact that no one ever parishioners and has heard a man gasping threw himself on Providence completely. for breath on his deathbed thinks as I do. Anyhow, in this respect Rieux believed He'd try to relieve human suffering before himself to be on the right road-in fighting trying to point out its excellence (119). against creation as he found it (120). Rieux himself has come in contact with death, Thus The Plague proposes that “there is no with seeing people die in agony and this superhuman happiness, no eternity outside of the experience places him in a vantage position to curve of the days ... I can see no point in the know what it means to face the terror of death. happiness of angels” (Camus, Notebooks 90). This is an experience which he believes that Hence the direction of thoughts is that there is Paneloux, living in the safe and quiet cove of his nothing beyond this world, this life, and the priestly world, has never had. It is the same kind immediacy of the present. We see this in Rieux's of expression which Ofeyi uses to describe what implacable fury and persistent scorn of he terms the illusions of the Aiyero in Soyinka's Paneloux's 'habits of thoughts' (Akwanya) Season of Anomy: “It's rather like those white because Paneloux represents for him whatever monks who have stayed within their citadels of threatens human will to action. Tarrou, seeking stone, shut off from the real world of evil, his opinion on Paneloux's sermon asks him: offering little candle-puffs of piety on behalf of "What did you think of Paneloux's sermon, the hideous hunger of the living world and even, Doctor?" His reply shows that he views Paneloux presumptuously, of the hunger of the dead” (25). as representing all Christianity in the novel: I've This accounts for why Rieux tells Paneloux in the seen too much of hospitals to relish any idea of course of their disagreement over the rhetoric of collective punishment. But, as you know, salvation and resistance to terror: "What I hate is Christians sometimes say that sort of thing death and disease, as you well know. And whether without really thinking it. They're better than they you wish it or not, we're allies, facing them and seem (118). Rieux similarly rejects what Paneloux fighting them together" (203-4). conceives as the good side of the plague; that “it opens men's eyes and forces them to take In his Lyrical Essays, Camus sets two attitudes in thought" (119). For him, apart from the plague, opposition. The first is what he regards as

87 Beyond the Tragic Abyss: Transcending Absurdist Limits in Camus's Fiction Dr. Abba A Abba .

“religion-based fears such as religious warnings “instead of unverifiable faith in God and afterlife, about pride, concern for one's immortal soul, it is better to feel one's love for certain men, to hope for an afterlife, resignation about the know there is always a place where the heart can present and preoccupation with God” (89). find rest, these are already many certainties for Against this Christian perspective, Camus places one man's life” (90). The stultifying terror that what he regards as self-evident facts: that death is envelopes Oran and its people makes the world of inevitable and there is nothing beyond life. Dr Oran for him a “sick world, rotten at the heart” Rieux looks beyond this Camusian insight and (Donne 242). As Dollimore is apt to observe, in insists on facing the plague experience without such circumstance, “even those who survive are flinching. For him, freedom lies with conscious liable to experience considerable pain and sickness striving without hope in any transcendent power. during a life of comparatively brief expectation” Camus rejects Christian hope and asserts in his (98). Hence to argue that the plague is as a result of Notebooks: “Reject the delusions of hope” (76), Oran's sins, according to Erasmus, does not equally which is the underlying vision of Nietzsche's exonerate Paneloux's God from blame. He sees discussion of Pandora's Box in Human All Too such gesture as a condemnation rather than a Human. According to Nietzsche, "All the evils of celebration of God. Rejecting the idea of disease as humankind, including plagues and diseases, have punishment for sins, Erasmus states: been let loose on the world by Zeus, but the Suppose for a moment that it were true in a remaining evil- hope, is kept hidden away in the certain sense that God works in us good box and treasured… humans have come to see and evil, and rewards his own good works hope as their greatest good, while Zeus, knowing in us, and punishes his evil works in us … better, has meant it as the greatest source of Who will be able to bring himself to love trouble: it is after all, the reason why humans let God with all his heart when he created hell themselves be tormented because they anticipate seething with eternal torments in order to an ultimate reward" (58). Following this punish His own misdeeds in His victims as Nietzschean attitude, Camus looks at hope in though He took delight in human God's intervention in human plight as disastrous torments (quoted in Dollimore 92)? because it is inimical to the spirit of human struggle. For him, hope in Providence is often If Oran is brought low by her sins, as the priest based on the belief that it is better to look away alleges, then the sins, as Donne argues, are part of from the here and now toward something to divine plan, at least to the extent that the original come afterwards instead of embracing action as sin, from which all other sin stems, is part of that “praxis” in the present situation to alleviate plan: “man has ruined himself and God in his suffering. As Camus insists, all hope for an wisdom not only permits the process to continue afterlife should be abandoned, indeed thinking but he actually wills it” (99). Oran is created ugly about it should be rejected: “I do not believe that and empty and it seems that it is a place where “life death is the gateway to another life. For me, it is a is poisoned in the fountain, perished at the core, closed door” (Notebooks 76). Although facing withered in the root” (13) and “both man and the tragic misery would be bitter, it however leads to world are almost created lame” (192). positive direction: “Between this sky and the faces turned towards it there is nothing on which to Rieux, despite the seeming hopelessness of the hang a mythology, a literature, an ethic, or a situation believes, however, that efforts ought to religion only stones, flesh, stars, and those truths be made to resist it. Leading the medical the hand can touch” (90). This insight demands community, Rieux finds himself in conflict with rejecting “all the later on of this world, in order to not only colleagues unwilling to recognize the lay claim to my present wealth” (103), and this degree of the problem, but also the town's other wealth is what Christian hope, for him, asks the two institutions, the religious faith epitomized by individual to give up. Camus argues further that Paneloux and the bureaucratic government

88 Beyond the Tragic Abyss: Transcending Absurdist Limits in Camus's Fiction Dr. Abba A Abba . represented by the prefect and the magistrate, Works Cited Othon. As he hastens to convince his colleagues Abba, A. A. “Terror and Tragic Optimism as and the town's prefect of the necessity to combat Sustaining Constructs in Camus's The this illness immediately, the novel reaches its lague and Soyinka's Season of Anomy.”Ph.D. absurdist conclusion. Knowing whether this Thesis, Department of English and disease is bubonic plague is no more the issue Literary Studies, University of Nigeria, than is trying to know if life has meaning; the key Nsukka, November 2014. point is responding to the challenge as if saving Akwanya, A.N. Discourse Analysis and Dramatic lives does matter. In reply to a challenge to the Literature. Enugu: Acena, 1998. diagnosis of plague, Dr. Rieux retorts, “You're Aristotle. “Poetics.” Dramatic Theory and stating the problem wrongly. It's not a question of Criticism: From Greeks to Grotowski. Ed. the term I use; it's a question of time” (48). Bernard F. Dukore. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Whether the causative agent is correctly named or Winston, 1974. identified in a scientific sense is not as important Bernays, Jakob. Aristotle's Theory of Tragedy. Ed. as the doctor's imploration to save them while Giorgio Collins and Mazzino Montinari Berlin: they still can. Merill, 1980. Bonk, R. “Medicine as an Absurdist Quest in Conclusion Albert Camus's The Plague.” A-Journal 2 Tragedy remains unfulfilled until the man (2010): 1-20. destined to fall is overthrown. The tragic quest for Bronner, Stephen Eric. Camus: Portrait of a cure in The Plague remains futile until the Moralist. Minneapolis: University of movement of necessity completes its course. Minnesota Press, 1999. While the relentless ravages of the plague endure, Camus, Albert. The Plague. New York: Alfred A. the instrument of necessity runs its full course, Knopf, 1948. unperturbed by the efforts at curbing it, and like a ---. The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays. flash of lightning, disappears as inexplicably as it New York: appears. Thus there is no apparent victory arising Alfred A. Knopf, 1955. from human efforts. Not knowing if meaning ---. The Rebel. New York: Alfred A. exists, but nonetheless acting as if life had Knopf, 1956. meaning, Dr. Rieux in his tragic optimism ---. Resistance, Rebellion, and Death. New perseveres in his quest. While some resign to their York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961. fate, others seek blame, and a few choose to resist ---. Lyrical and Critical Essays. New York: the terror. Dr. Rieux cannot accept the authority's Alfred A. Knopf, 1968. inadequacy to remedy the ever so fatal plague and ---. The Stranger. New York: Vintage, 1988. however accepts that it is everyone's duty to do ---. Notebooks 1935-1942. New York: whatever is possible in preserving life. His Marlowe, 1996. resistance shows that “(A)bsolute faith is placed ---. “Neither Victims nor Executioners”. in man's own inner being ... for whatever Camus at Combat: Writing 1944-47. Ed. J. authority there is, all comes from within” (Suzuki Lavi-Vatensi. Princeton: Princeton 44. As this paper surmises, the hero's freedom University Press, 2006. comes from this acknowledgment that the life ---. Actuelles: Écrits Politiques. Paris: that prevails is the life of the spirit, the life in Gallimard, 1950. which the spirit is triumphant over the lure of Cools, Arthur. “Selfhood as the Locus of the resignation, suicide or defeat. In his tragic Tragic in Paul Ricoeur's Soi-Même Comme hopefulness, therefore, to affirm is to overcome. Un Autre.” In Locus of Tragedy: Studies in Contemporary Phenomenology. Eds. Arthur Cools, Thomas Crombez, Rosa Slegers, Johan Taels. Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff and VSP, 2008.

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Davis, C. “Interpreting La Peste”. The Romantic Review Cambridge University Press, 1996. 85.1 (1994): 137-143. ---. On the Genealogy of Morals: A Polemic. Trans. Dobson, M. “Epidemics and the Geography of Walter Kaufmann. New York: Vintage, 1967. Disease.” Ed. I. Loudon. Western Medicine: an Print. Plato. The Republic. Trans. G. M. Illustrated History. Oxford: Oxford University A. Grube. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1974. Press, 1997. Rhein, P.H. “An Invitation to Happiness: Publication Dollimore, Jonathan, “Two Concepts of Mimesis: and Reception of La Peste.” In Albert Camus, Renaissance Literary Theory and The Revenger's Revised edition. Boston: Twayne, 1989. Tragedy”, Themes in Drama. Ed. James Simpson, David. Albert Camus. Internet Encyclopaedia of Redmond, Cambridge: Cambridge University Philosophy. Depaul University. Updated March Press, 1980. 21, 2005. [email protected]. Web. ---. Radical Tragedy: Religion, Ideology and Power in Sophocles. Oedipus the King. New York: Dover the Drama of Shakespeare and His Contemporaries. Publishers, 1991. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. Soyinka, Wole. Season of Anomy. London: Rex Donne, John. Devotions. Ed. A. Raspa, Montreal: Collings, 1973. McGill-Queen's University Press, 1975. Sprintzen, David. Camus: A Critical Examination. ---. Sermons, Complete Poetry and Selected Prose. Ed. Philadephia: Temple UP, 1988. John Hayward, London: Nonesuch, 1929. ---. “A Tragic Vision for a New Millenium: The Duncan, John. Culture, Tragedy and Pessimism in Contemporary Relevance of Albert Nietzsche's Birth of Tragedy. PhaenEx 1. Camus.” Philosophy of Literature. College of 2(fall/winter 2006): 47-70. Long Island University 2.4 (2013): Eagleton, Terry. Holy Terror. UK: Oxford University 4-11. Web. Press, 2005. Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro. An Introduction to Zen Gale. The Plague E-notes. Gale, 2002. Buddhism. 1st Evergreen Black Cat http://www.enotes.com/plague/copyright. Edition. New York: Grove Press, 1964. web Tansey, E. M. “From the Germ Theory to 1945.” Ed. Jefferies, Richard. “Apocalyptic Solidarity” African I. Loudon. Western Medicine: an Illustrated Affairs. 6.1 (2011): 282-94. History. Oxford: Oxford University Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Birth of Tragedy and the Press, 1997. Genealogy of Morals. Trans. Francis Golffing. Thorson, Thomas London. “Albert Camus and the Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1956. Rights of Man.” Ethics 74. 4 (1964): 283- ---. The Will to Power. New York: Doubleday, 298. 1968. Wallis, T. R. Neoplatonism. London: Duckworth, ---. Human, All Too Human: A Book for Free 1972. Spirits. Trans. R. J. Hollingdale. Cambridge:

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Colonial Perception and Re-imaging the African Identity in Achebe's Things Fall Apart

Abel Joseph Department of English and Literary Studies Federal University Lokoja

Abstract Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart offers an important paradigm alternative perception of the African and yields the foundational premise upon which African cultural nationalism and literary discourse have been built. Things Fall Apart has remained a critical text in the interrogation of long held perceptions of the African especially in such texts as Joyce Cary's Mister Johnson and Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness. Indeed, Achebe proceeds in the process of negotiating and constructing the identity of the African image through a deliberate and sustained projection of those distinct values that define the African essence. Thus, Things Fall Apart effectively appropriates colonial language in its delineation of African culture and history; and engages in the process of re-imaging of the African by undermining the colonial conceptualizations of the African. This paper is thus interested in Achebe's mapping of the African historical and cultural topography in a way which draws significant impact on the decolonization process and the transformative role of the Things Fall Apart in the evolution of African literature from its position of marginality. Key words: perception, re-imaging, marginality

91 Colonial Perception and Re-imaging the African Identity in Achebe's Things Fall Apart Abel Joseph

Introduction Philip Darby argues that “it was the Europeans In many different ways, literature has the power to who introduced the politics of difference and define and place an entire people and their thereby provided an impulse for Africans to humanity within a context of social and political present their world in shades of otherness” (138). relevance such that a near holistic understanding This is why Mister Johnson by Joyce Cary of the people's history can be easily apprehended. becomes Achebe's initial reference point. Most of the literature on and about Africa has Pursuing this argument further, Achebe places been that which had been written by western Conrad within this category as according to him, anthropologists, adventurers and explorers who “Heart of Darkness projects the image of Africa had a defined image and perception of Africa and as the 'the other world', the antithesis of Europe its people. It is in this context that the views and and therefore of civilization, a place where a opinions of these earliest European adventurers man's vaunted intelligence and refinement are in Africa helped in shaping the very nature of finally mocked by triumphant bestiality” (120). European critical thinking of Africa and thus Instances of such definitions and notions about defined the impressions held of the African. The the African were major motifs in the works of paper is therefore concerned about the 'restoring' many European scholars. Before the emergence a as it were, the image of the African image that book like Things Fall Apart, western literature suffered the colonial perception and that dealt with Africa was constructing Africans marginalisation. The text thus cuts through the in uncomplimentary terms. Conrad's Heart of inglorious perception of the African and Darkness, Joyce Cary's Mister Johnson, and in the intervenes in the representing an alternative works of Elspeth Huxley, Henry Rider Haggard image of the African in the full exploit of his and others are particular examples of texts that culture and tradition. In essence, Things Fall did not only question but failed to recognise the Apart represents the definition of Africa in its full humanity in the African. cultural context. According to C.L. Innes: Things Fall Apart is a celebration of by a In Things Fall Apart, Achebe succeeds in novelist of a warrior, Okonkwo, and of demonstrating that there were civilizations the pre-Christian culture he strove to throughout the African continent organized on preserve. ...it is an attempt to recreate and their own terms, which while not perfect, were redefine a way of life, its language not remotely savage or inhuman. He used Things and its modes of thought and perception, Fall Apart as an opportunity to recast both the in the language and form of the image of Africa and Africans in a much more colonizing culture (71). balanced or realistic way. In the words of Ali Mazrui, Things Fall Apart is “a view from within- Chinua Achebe argues that there were certain both ethnically and racially. ...it is a work of ethnic desires and utterances “in Western psychology to candour and honesty” (189). Creating a sense of set Africa up as a foil in Europe, a place of balance in the representation of the African negations at once remote and vaguely familiar in cultural dynamics and landscape is significant in comparison with which Europe's own state of its postcolonial ramifications. To Chimamanda spiritual grace will be manifest” (119). It is in this Adichie, Things Fall Apart is the African novel context that the concept of re-imaging of the most read-and arguably most loved-by Africans, a African identity becomes significant in the sense novel published when 'African novel' meant of Achebe's reconstruction of the battered image European accounts of 'native' life. Achebe was an of the African through the portrayal of those unapologetic member of the generation of values and norms that define African cultural and African writers who were 'writing back,' traditional topography. In other words, Things challenging the stock of Western images of their Fall Apart is a bold effort at correcting and re- homeland, but his work was not burdened by its imaging the distortions. intent” (91). It is in this vein that Things Fall Apart portrays a society in its full contours and

92 Colonial Perception and Re-imaging the African Identity in Achebe's Things Fall Apart Abel Joseph colours; a society experiencing its own tensions palpable feeling of failure, which is drawn in bold and readjusting to accommodate new reality. With relief by the tragedy of Okonkwo the symbol and characters like Okonkwo, these tensions become representation of the Umuofia communal value palpable as they become emblematic of the whose tragic end encapsulates the collective struggle to negotiate an understanding of the new tragedy of the Umuofia community. In this reality. context Things Fall Apart is as passionate as it is captivating in its representation of the sentiments The portrayal of the African as an interesting of the people who's cultural and traditional is object of anthropological colonial gaze and a experiencing a systemic and fundamental assault. cynical tourism industry has been the major determinant in the emergence of Achebe's It is significant that African literature emerged as Things Fall Apart. In no uncertain terms, the a broad field that was driven by the concern to novel has provided the leadership for reinstate the dignity of the African that had been contemporary African novels to challenge these bruised by the forces of imperial colonialist colonial impressions, and attempting to reinstate intrusion bent on 'civilizing' the 'natives'; inspired those traditional values that are the core of by Europe's own messianic quest. Although African cultural lifestyle and tradition. Ferdinand Africanist scholars like Walter Rodney in How Oyono in Houseboy, perhaps drawing from Europe Underdeveloped Africa (1972), Franz Achebe's example unmasks the hypocrisy of the Fanon in The Wretched of the Earth (1963) and colonialists especially the impression that fuels Chinweizu in The West and the Rest of Us (1975) the condescending attitude towards the African- have advanced compellingly convincing the native and the primitive; a situation that arguments on Europe's driving motivation for the encourages the further dehumanisation of the political and cultural subjugation of Africa purely African as seen in the ways in which Toundi on economic considerations. In order to achieve Onduo, the houseboy is treated. His treatment in this, there was a systemic flow of both cultural the hands of the colonialists is a reflection of and economic hegemonic tendencies that what Africans suffered in the hands of European perpetuated the colonial domination that pushed colonialists. This treatment is echoed in the terse the African to a marginal point of reference and but pungent question, “what are we blackmen thus created a crisis of self for the benefit of the who are called French?” (4) European in his imperialist expansionist quest. However, the colonised eventually pushed Things Fall Apart provides not only a through the alienating processes to find his own philosophical reconstruction of colonialist voice and chart his own path to define his own inventions of Africa but also, enunciates an identity, and in the words of Ashcroft, Griffiths evocative essence in its ontological implication of and Tiffin, “marginality thus became an interdisciplinarity as the narrative draws from the unprecedented source of creative energy” (12). It rich cadence of Africa's cultural history. As a is in this context that Chinua Achebe's Things Fall prototypical text, Things Fall Apart depicts the Apart provides a ground breaking metaphor of a disruption of traditional order of life expressed 'carrier' of the African collective essence. in the tension and conflicts occasioned by Accordingly, to Adebayo Williams, Achebe is colonialist politics. The text explores the changes “arguably Africa's most influential and most and reorganization of the social order. We admired writer of the postcolonial epoch….” (8). therefore aim to establish a cross-disciplinary Achebe himself makes the point that Things Fall forum in which to discuss the evidential and Apart is a response to Joyce Cary's Mister cultural significance of orality and its deployment Johnson. “…it was an act of atonement with my in the text. The text demonstrates a bold and lucid past, the ritual return and homage of a prodigal exploration of the invasion of a people and a son”. He goes on to argue that: community by the colonialists. There is a high and

93 Colonial Perception and Re-imaging the African Identity in Achebe's Things Fall Apart Abel Joseph

Through a combination of fate and There is the engagement with the assumed reality critical insertion in the postcolonial which had been created by the Hegelian process, the young novelist found philosophy and Darwinian concepts of history himself saddled with the task of and racial evolution which primed Africa as a excavating the colonial debris, subject of inquiry and a project that became the detoxifying the lingering efficacy of its responsibility of Europe to salvage and nurture to ideological apparatuses, and laying the civilization and modernity. The subjectification foundation for an authentically African of the African for the political and economic literary experience (11) expansion of Europe manifested itself in the deliberate undermining of both cultural and This response from Achebe is indicative of the political institutions that define the nexus and consciousness of some early African writers as essential values of the African. In Achebe, they provided counter narratives to western therefore, there is the manifestation of the assumptions and perceptions. Achebe thus African essence defined through such traditional provides a cultural narrative that signifies a institutions as gods, priests, festivals, rites and contestation of the western historiographical rituals which embody the entire African beliefs about African history and its culture. cosmology. Through the intrusion of western Drawing from African oral and traditional story values, structural and fundamental changes telling motifs and concepts, a holistic picture of ruptured the African cultural milieu and 'things African socio-cultural and trado-historical fell apart'. Achebe's titled work draws allusion landscape is drawn. This representation does not from the Yeats' pessimistic poem of 1920 titled appear only as a narrative but in its evocativeness 'The Second Coming' to show the changes and and resonance of life and existence bound up in a the chaos that has been unleashed on the world. unified existence of spirits, deities and gods. The compelling nature of Yeats' poem offers a glimpse into an impending future catastrophe for In Things Fall Apart, there is an encapsulation of humanity. the many dimensions of the African cultural topography which, quite often, has remained a Thus, Things Fall Apart is not just the story of an complex phenomenon for many of European isolated Igbo society but offers itself to the writers. Consequently, there have been metaphor of an expansive African cultural space. misinterpretations, misrepresentations and It depicts a society embroiled in its own internal confusions that have largely characterized even tensions and contradictions but also capable of the contexts of some European narratives on negotiating these problems. The text essentially Africa. Thus, characters and motifs are offers a fundamental challenge to the European irreverently constructed such that they fit into notions of seeing Africa only through the lenses predetermined notions of what should be Africa. of racial illusions. As Palmer succinctly puts it, In this regard it is highly improbable to see Things Fall Apart was a magnificent and characters that appear rational in thought and much needed exercise in cultural and conception, or capable of engaging in issues of historical reclamation. Fully rising to all virtue or high moral stake. Characters often the demands of his role as both novelist appear in stereotypical and representational and teacher, Achebe sought to teach, not forms as indolent, lazy, child-like, uncontrollable; only Europeans and the West in general, often, incapable of engaging in any productive but also Africans who lacked knowledge venture. In this institutional representation, the of their history, of the grandeur, dignity, key issue has been to define the African in a one majesty and order of traditional African dimensional frame of scorn or pity such that an life (261). ideological justification is provided for the eventual colonization and expropriation of the African continent.

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Palmer's views point to the significant role and African essence and spirit that had been position that Things Fall Apart has come to subverted by European historiographers and occupy as a major aesthetic instrument of cultural anthropologists. Arguing further, Snead opines and political nationalism. that: By borrowing his title from Yeats' As James Snead argues: pessimistically cyclical poem 'The Second …Achebe's novels do not merely Coming', Achebe similarly rewrites the text insinuate the unaware reader into a both of European historicism and of the foreign and putatively inferior cyclical view that was its hopeful antidote... consciousness; they suggest a natural and If for Yeats (as for Spengler and other indeed actual place for African cultures modernist philosophers of history), the alongside or even admixed with transition from barbarism (or paganism) to European ones. The presence of the Christian era would be followed by an 'anthropological' detail in Achebe might unknown, presumably negative circle, in present verisimilitude for a reader fluent which 'things fall apart', Achebe reverses in Ibo customs, but for a European this view to highlight the negative impact reader, it constitutes a veritable that this hypothetically 'positive' Christian declaration of war on the practice of phase has already had upon the 'falling- dividing cultures and fictions into strict apart' of African culture (242). national groupings (241). The implications of 'things fall apart' in the third Snead's view undoubtedly reinforces the stanza of “The Second Coming” which might at argument that Achebe deliberately subverts the the first glance appear as an insignificant thread misconception of the European of the African of sentence, is further deepened by following-'the trado-cultural space. He does this by inscribing centre cannot hold; Mere anarchy is loosed upon and fusing into his narrative essentially African the world”. In these phrases therefore, there is a narrative motifs that add candour to the texture sense in which an imminent collapse of order is of the conversations in the text. Indeed, James being foretold. Snead's argument is instructive of Snead further argues that “...Achebe's novels Things Fall Apart as signifying a visioning of an provide an unexpectedly tricky reading ominous and catastrophic future for the world, experience for their western audience, using wily and in this case, the African world. It is in this narrative stratagems to undermine national and regard that the eventual European onslaught on racial illusions” (241). There is therefore the ways the African society and latter cultural dislocation in which European assumptions are contested in Africa created a rupture of an essence. and deconstructed through a deliberate narrative stratagem that draws from, and embodies an By quoting '...Mere anarchy is loosed upon the [Igbo] African cultural essence and reality. In this world' Achebe demonstrates the full import of regard, Snead argues that Achebe uses indigenous Yeats' poem which illustrates chaos and disorder Igbo words in sentences without translating such: as inevitable interruptions of the order of society. He [Unoka] could hear in his mind's ear In the Umuofia community, it is played out in the the blood-stirring and intricate rhythms ways that the traditional-cultural life of the people of the ekwe and the ulu and the ogene, is truncated and taken out of their control. By and he could hear his own flute weaving interrupting the cultural flow of the Umuofia in and out of them, decorating them with people through the subtle introduction of the a colourful and plaintive tune [5]. Christian God, the white man succeeded in creating a disorder in the cultural and religious life The refusal to translate some of the Igbo words of the people. Consequently, the basis upon by Achebe is deliberate and simply intended to which the people lived and celebrated life was not highlight a cultural narrative that re-inscribes the only questioned but altered.

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Engaging the Socio-cultural and Religious in Umuofia, Okonkwo accidentally kills the man's Contexts of the African World in Things Fall sixteen year old son. Consequently, “the only Apart course open to Okonkwo was to flee from the In a significant way, Things Fall Apart represents clan. It was a crime against the earth goddess to the cultivation of a native literary awareness for kill a clansman, and a man who committed it must both cultural and political nationalism. Well flee from the land” (87). If the Umuofia beyond the aesthetic valuations that define their community was to be the jungle inhabited by existence as literary productions, Gikandi argues savages, surely, Okonkwo with all his strength and that “Achebe's novels had become an essential accomplishments would have resisted going on referent for the African cultural context” (7). exile to his mother's village, Mbanta. Certainly it is Indeed, the cultural and traditional picture of the a society in which no one, irrespective of his African landscape which Things Fall Apart as a social status was above the law. Achebe is also text provides more or less stands as an quite critical of some characters and some of the institutional representation of an African cultural traditions in Umuofia. Okonkwo for example, is space. The subject which the text deals with presented as an irascible and choleric character operates as counter narratives in the whose emotional decisions are almost near or representation and redefinition of the African. In indeed always catastrophic for him. Okonkwo significant ways, the Umuofia community did not shot at and almost killed his second wife over a fit the Eurocentric conceptions of the African minor incidence of woman “who had merely cut jungle. In Things Fall Apart the difference in a few leaves” from a banana tree to wrap some terms of the European conceptualization of food (27). When Ikemefuna was killed, it was Africa and the African reality that exists are Obierika who had the presence of mind to clearly significantly illustrated. In the opening sentences state that what Okonkwo did “will not please the in Things Fall Apart the narrator says “Okonkwo Earth” (46). Although Achebe re-presents the was well known throughout the nine villages and image of an African society that is fully grounded even beyond. His fame rested on solid personal and organised in its own unique way, but he was achievements” (3); “... Fortunately, among these not hesitant in revealing any ugly incidents in the people a man was judged according to his worth community. Thus, he does not always present the and not according to the worth of his father.... idyllic society especially in instances such as the Age was respected among his people, but mutilation of dead bodies of ogbanje so that their achievement was revered” (6). What these spirits do not return to haunt their mothers, or in descriptions suggest is contrary to the stereotype the killing of twins. Suicide too, was an which had defined the African as indolent, abominable act and was so unequivocally inherently lazy and incapable of being rational. condemned. The encounter between the District Here the sense of the homo economicus plays Commissioner and the men who had led him to out as man, and in this case, Okonkwo strives to where Okonkwo's body was hanging after his carve his identity outside the referent of his suicide is very instructive of the strong legacy of father, Unoka. tradition. “...perhaps your men can help us bring him down and bury him', said Obierika.... 'It is What Achebe demonstrates here is a strategic against our custom'... 'It is an abomination for a counter representation and silencing of the man to take his own life. It is an offence against European anthropologists' narrative and myth of the Earth, and a man who commits it will not be the impenetrable jungle of darkness that was buried by his clansmen. His body is evil, and only Africa. What emerges is an Umuofia society that strangers may touch it....” (147). exists on a well defined corporate structure complete with cultural ideals and traditional Achebe shows that the Umuofia community was institutions regulating the affairs of the people. At not a disorganized settlement; it was a community the funeral of Ezeudu, a great man and the oldest of nine villages that had structures and layers of organised activity and lived more on a prescribed

96 Colonial Perception and Re-imaging the African Identity in Achebe's Things Fall Apart Abel Joseph but unwritten code. Every activity and You have offended neither the gods nor engagement had a calculated ambience around it. your fathers. And when a man is at peace Visitors are well treated; where kola nut is offered with his gods and his ancestors, his to the guest with reverence irrespective of how harvest will be good or bad according to poor the host is as shown by Okonkwo's father, the strength of his arm. You, Unoka, are Unoka when Okoye visited him to ask for the known in all the clan for the weakness of repayment of his two hundred cowries (5). It was your matchet and your hoe. When your also a community where the language was usually neighbours go out with their axe to cut celebrated through the elegance of proverbs down virgin forests, you sow your yams since “among the Ibo the art of conversation is on exhausted farms that take no labour to regarded very highly, and proverbs are the palm- clear. They cross seven rivers to make oil with which words are eaten” (5). Festivals and their farms; you stay home and offer ceremonies were usually elaborate and expensive, sacrifices to a reluctant soil. Go home and taking of chieftaincy titles, marriage ceremonies work like a man (13). and deaths especially those of the aged. The priestess' rebuke of Unoka clearly suggests The different categories of groups ranging from that this was a community that was intolerant of age-grade, lineage, and council of elders or indolence and complacency. There is no ndichie, the Oracle of the Hills and Caves were indication here that laziness was condoned as essentially social, cultural and, to a large extent virtually all members of the community with the political cum administrative. Through these exception of Unoka were shown to be various groups Achebe responds to the industrious and hardworking. This part of the Eurocentric perceptions about Africa by narrative provides a counter to the illusions and providing a sociological counter discourse yarns spurned about Africa being a society of lazy wherein Africa is shown in her full cultural and indolent people. splendour. Here, the Umuofia community is one that is completely subsumed in its traditional The point, therefore, is that colonialists in their religion where gods and deities such Ani, zeal for the establishment and institutionalization Ojukwu, Ifejioku are revered and venerated. It of European cultural legacies in Africa ignored was a society that had reverence for the divine as these core elements of communality and industry the people consulted the Oracle of the Hills and that defined the African essence. Indeed, during Caves: “The Oracle was called Agbala, and people Okonkwo's exile, he was visited by his friend come from far and near to consult it. They came Obierika who informed him of the destruction when misfortune dogged their steps or when they of the Abame community which had killed a had a dispute with their neighbours. They came to white man. “The elders consulted their Oracle discover what the future held for them or to and it told them that the strange man would break consult the spirits of their departed fathers” (12) their clan and spread destruction among them....” Umuofia people hardly engage in any serious (97) Shortly after this, “stories were already adventure or enterprise without first consulting gaining ground that the white man had not only with the oracles. As was the case the gods never brought a religion but also a government. It was permitted indolence or laziness as Okonkwo's said that they had built a place of judgement in father, Unoka found out when he consulted Umuofia to protect the followers of their Agbala on “why he always had a miserable religion.”(110). Okonkwo's friend, Obierika harvest” (12). The Agbala priestess sternly admits thus: rebuked him thus:

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It is already too late.... 'Our own men and Abiola Irele argues that Things Fall Apart our sons have joined the ranks of the “expanded the human perspective of the early stranger. They have joined his religion and novels in English, which had begun to take a they help to uphold his government.... measure of the drastic reordering of African lives The white man is very clever. He came by Western cultural impositions” (8). Indeed the quietly and peacefully with his religion. text's legacy lies in its total apprehension of the We were amused at his foolishness and traditional African reality in the wake of allowed him to stay. Now he has won our European invasion of its cultural legacies through brothers, and our clan can no longer act colonization. By redefining the African in his like one. He has put a knife on the things primary space with all the splendour of his that held us together and we have fallen culture, Achebe upholds the identity of the apart (124). African in an anti-colonial mode. Accordingly, Helen Chukwuma sums up Achebe's works thus: The implication of the metaphor of the knife In Achebe's work, we have the interface demonstrates a sense of the severance of the of literature, culture, history, religion, African from his essence in the sense in which politics and governance, all geared toward Obierika laments before the District revolution. He was indeed a revolutionary Commissioner in reference to his late friend, writer who wanted positive change in the Okonkwo: “That man was one of the greatest life and affairs of the black race in men in Umuofia. You drove him to kill himself; particular and humanity in general (14). now he will be buried like a dog...” (147). The anger and tone of resignation in Obierika's voice Achebe's revolution was an intellectual one in is indicative of the people's frustration with the which he subtly deployed the aesthetics of a Whiteman as a destabilising agent. To a great narrative mode to counter the colonial perception extent, therefore, Okonkwo's tragedy brings to an and the stereotyping of the African. It is in this end the Umuofians loss of both traditional and regard that he became the unconscious forerunner political power. Consequently, all power was of Africa's literary response to the West. shifted into the hands of the colonialist. Having lost its political and cultural freedom, the writing As C.L. Innes argues, of Africa's history was left at the hands of Achebe's novel becomes the “mouth with colonialist administrators who chose to write which to tell of their sufferings,” and, in according to their myopic conception of Africa, its mixture of historical, anthropological 'The Pacification of the Primitive Tribes of the and fictional elements, provides an Lower Niger'. It is this inscription and the implicit answer to the denial of the definition of the African as 'primitive' and 'tribal' validity of the poetic in the “real” world which is the source of European 'civilising' (85). mission in Africa. It is equally against such narrow perceptions by the coloniser does Achebe direct The creation of Okonkwo as a character that is a his gaze as he educates the white man on what dignified symbol of culture and tradition is indeed constitutes culture, which culture provides indicative of a people that are proud of their the ideal standards for measuring civilisation. It is heritage. Much more than a literary text therefore, in this context that Yeats' poem becomes Things Fall Apart provides a deeper historical and instructive in its referent to the coloniser as that cultural counter discourse to European Other that made things to fall apart in Africa. discourses about Africa. Not only has Things Fall Apart recreated Africa differently from the Conclusion imagined visions of colonialist writers but it, in a It is remarkable that Chinua Achebe's Things Fall significant way provided a platform for Apart published in 1958 still remains an enigmatic continuing discussions on the nature and and compelling novel even in the 21st century. contexts of postcolonial literature in Africa.

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Works Cited Innes, C. Lyn. The Devil's Own Mirror: The Achebe, Chinua. “An Image of Africa” in Robert Irishman and the African in Modern Hammer (ed) Joseph Conrad: Third Literature. Washington: Three Continents World Perspectives. Washington D.C.: Press, 1990. Three Crown Press, 1990. Irele, Abiola F. “Introduction: Perspectives on the Achebe, Chinua. Morning Yet on Creation Day. African novel” in F. Abiola Irele (ed) The London: Heinemann Ltd., 1975. Cambridge Companion to the African Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. “Chinua Achebe at novel. Cambridge: Cambridge University 82: We Remember Differently” in Nana Press, 2009. Ayebia Clarke and James Currey (ed). Mazrui, Ali A. Things Fall Apart Revisited: The Chinua Achebe: Tributes and Reflections. Poetry and the Prose” in Nana Ayebia Oxfordshire, UK: Ayebia Clarke Clarke and James Currey (ed). Chinua Publishing, 2014. Achebe: Tributes and Reflections. Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin Oxfordshire, UK: Ayebia Clarke (ed).The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Publishing, 2014. Practic in Post-colonial Literatures. Oyono, Ferdinand. Houseboy, London: London: Routledge, 1989. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1960 Chukwuma, Helen. “Remembering and Palmer, Eustace. “A Tribute to Chinua Achebe: Honoring Professor Chinua Achebe: 1930- The Father of Modern African Literature” 2013” in Journal of African Literature in Nana Ayebia Clarke and James Currey Association (JALA). Volume 8, No.2, (ed) Chinua Achebe: Tributes and Winter/Spring 2014. Reflections. Oxfordshire, UK: Ayebia Darby, Philip. The Fiction of Imperialism: Clarke Publishing Limited, 2014. Reading Between International Relations Snead, James. “European pedigrees/African and Post-colonialism. London: Cassell, contagions: nationality, narrative, and 1998. community in Tutuola, Achebe, and Reed” Gikandi, Simon. “Chinua Achebe and the in Homi K. Bhabha (ed) Nation and Invention of African Culture” in Abiola Narration. London and New York: Irele and Kenneth Harrow (ed) Research in Routledge, 1990. African Literatures (Nationalism). Volume Williams, Adebayo. “The Autumn of the Literary 32, Number 3, Fall, 2001. Patriarch: Chinua Achebe and the Politics of Remembering” in Research in African Literatures Vol.32, No.3, Fall, 2001.

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Beyond Pardon in Niger-Delta Politics: Exploitation and Disillusionment in Chimeka Garricks Tomorrow Died Yesterday and Tanure Ojaide's The Activist

Dr Cornel Onyemauche Ujowundu Department of English and Literary Studies Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University Igbariam Campus

Abstract Ever since the advent of the colonial masters in our midst, the Nigerian society is rife with many forms of disillusionment, frustration, dehumanisation resulting from bad governance and poor followership. Thus, Chimeka Garricks' Tomorrow Died Yesterday and Tanure Ojaide's The Activist satirised the corruption among the ruling class and the effects in the society. The novelists showed us the society reeking in corruption that gave birth to the literature of post-independence disillusionment. Therefore, instances of oppression, exploitation, corruption, suppression, cruelty, intimidation, man's inhumanity against his fellow man and, above all, class consciousness as it affects the relationship between the rich and the poor as portrayed by the writers, have been the bane of the society. In Tanure Ojaide's The Activist, the leaders are shown to be excessively corrupt and exercising brute force in the political scene. The insensitivity and lack of regard for the lives of the people by the leaders were vividly explored. In Chimeka Garricks' Tomorrow Died Yesterday, the writer showed us how the expectations of the Niger- Delta, the Asiama Community, were shattered. The writer exposed the political activism in his community. Though oil was discovered in Asiama land, the people were denied the major sources of good living. The people faced hardship; some died of hunger and starvation and their women were raped by some corrupt militants. It is believed that the novelists succeeded in exposing the issues that undermine the lives of the people; hence they set out to address those ills in order to usher in rebirth, reformation and development. Keywords: Exploitation, Betrayal, Disillusionment, Militancy, Corruption, Pains, Frustration, Degradation.

100 Beyond Pardon in Niger-Delta Politics: Exploitation and Disillusionment in Chimeka Garricks Tomorrow Died Yesterday and Tanure Ojaide's The Activist Dr. Cornel Onyemauche Ujowundu

Introduction The writer cannot expect to be excused Literature serves as a mirror, a channel through from the task of re-education and which the social, political, cultural and economic regeneration that must be done for he is issues that ravage a given society are explored. As after all . . . as Ezekiel Mphahlele says in such, there is a correlation between art and life, his African Image . . . the sensitive point hence literature deals with people and their of his community (59). experiences in a given milieu. However, most pioneers of African literature dwelt more in the The writer has to face the challenges posed by the area of cultural nationalism. Their efforts were problems of social ills. This led the writers to directed towards enhancing the status of the change to writing novels that reflect the problems Blackman and to correct the poor opinion of in the system of government and life in general. black people held in most European and Novels like A Man of the People, Anthills of the American countries. Savannah, Violence, Heroes, The Contract, Devil on the Cross, The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born and These writers showed that Africa has dynamic recently The Activist, Tomorrow Died Yesterday, social, economic and political institutions before Teachers on Strike, Wizard of the Crow, Devil on the the advent of the white man. European norms Cross, Waiting for an Angel, Half of a Yellow Sun, etc. and values were superimposed on the people of emerged to portray happenings in post- Africa and the writers of the period joined the independent African society. Achebe stresses the movement of cultural revivalism to bring point further in these words: Africans back to their rich cultural heritage. This Most of Africa is today politically free; resulted in such socio-cultural novels like Things there are many independent African Fall Apart, Arrow of God and The African Child. states, managing their own affairs . . . sometimes very badly. A new situation But before the attainment of independence in has arisen. One of the writers' main Nigeria in 1960, many thought that immediately function has always been to expose and the white man left the seat of power, the road to attack injustice. Should we keep the old an egalitarian society would open. They hoped theme of racial injustice when new that misery, degradation, political and economic injustice has sprouted all around us? I exploitation would stop. But, ironically, these ills think not (138). rather than diminish, increased with the departure of the white man and the handing over of the There were widespread cases of political riots, mantle of leadership to Africans. marginalisation, exploitation, materialism, brazen corruption, electoral malpractices and wanton According to Alexander Madiebo in The Nigerian killings in which hundreds of the people lost their Revolution and the Biafran War: lives. In some cases, the army had to be called in to Growth of nationalism and subsequent quell the riots. The people were disappointed with emergence of political parties were based independence and wished for the good old times ond, therefore, had no unifying effect on the when the white man was at the helm of affairs. people . . . Rather, it was the people themselves who were the main victims of Furthermore, the national assembly/parliament pon tribal rather than national interests was reduced to an inter tribal battlefield and alitical power struggle which were supposed physical violence erupted from time to time to remove foreign domination (9). between the various ethnic groups that make up the federation. Then after the struggle for independence, a new task arose for the committed writer. Hence, The conflicts brought about by tribal and sectoral Chinua Achebe in Morning Yet on Creation Day interests grew in great intensity and brought believes that: about the final drifting apart of the peoples of

101 Beyond Pardon in Niger-Delta Politics: Exploitation and Disillusionment in Chimeka Garricks Tomorrow Died Yesterday and Tanure Ojaide's The Activist Dr. Cornel Onyemauche Ujowundu

Nigeria. In fact, the politicians were so incapable nepotism, disrespect, dictatorship, materialism, of providing genuine leadership that within six planlessness and unfulfilled promises heralded the years of independence, Nigeria became a pool of fight for equality and an egalitarian society in corruption, political confusion, insensitivity, Nigeria. That is why this paper wants to study the exploitation and abuse of power and office. The novels published within these past ten years in political leaders of the immediate post- Nigeria in order to ascertain how the novelists have independent Nigeria exploited the differences that fared in exploring events in our contemporary existed between the various ethnic groups for their society. own selfish political gains. The resultant disunity distorted and complicated efforts made by the The theoretical framework for this paper is government to develop the country. Marxism, a political philosophy and economic worldview based upon a materialist interpretation So both Chimeka Garricks and Tanure Ojaide, as of history, a theory of social change and an atheist the most acknowledged novelists in recent times, view of human liberation. It refers to the social, try to look into the problems and dilemmas of the economic and political doctrines of Karl Marx, current political dispensation and other crime rates Friedrich Engels, and their disciples. According to in their various societies. The novelists felt that time C.H. Holman in A Handbook to Literature, had come for the abandonment of the old literary It assumes the independent reality of themes for immediate political and social problems matter and its priority over mind that threaten the delicate bases of the country's (dialectical materialism). It teaches a theory unity. The situation of the country seems to be of value based upon labour, the economic critical that many felt the need for reappraisal. The determination of all social actions and writer “as the sensitive point of his community (or institutions, the class struggle as the basic country)” had to change as well. Solomon Iyasere pattern in history, the inevitable seizure of agrees with Achebe and puts it this way: power through the revolution of the I think we have spent too much time proletariat, and the ultimate establishment renovating the shrines of our ancestors. It is of a classless society (304-5). time we stepped out into the present to seek the painful truth and meaning buried Some of these features of Marxism are discernable underneath its bloated surface. Thus, our in the works of Tanure Ojaide and Chimeka literature must move from that of an elite Garricks. For instance, the economic class to that of exploring the anguished state determination of social actions is demonstrated to of our present condition (5). a certain extent in Chimeka Garricks' Tomorrow Died Yesterday as well as in Tanure Ojaide's The Activist. So, the works under study justify the claims of the The actions of the principal characters are dictated novelists that the people have realised that they are by economic compulsions. They not only highlight still suffering. They still find themselves as the problems in the society but points to a way out messengers, paupers, hewers of wood and eaters of of them. leftovers, this time for their own brothers, “the black white men” (John Ekwere, Reflections, 27). Therefore, since literature is virtually engaged in the living situations of men and women, and also As a result of the exploitation of the masses by the displays life in all its rich variety, it is expected to few at the top, the novelists as the watchdog of the teach good behaviour and to condemn evil in society took up their pens to expose and attack this society. It is expected to mirror the lives of the predominant case of man's inhumanity to man and people and to improve their minds so that they crimes in their various societies within the shores would be able to learn from the experiences and of Africa and other developing countries. These the fate of the characters in the various works of rampant cases of exploitation, marginalisation, art. crime, political corruption, immorality, despair,

102 Beyond Pardon in Niger-Delta Politics: Exploitation and Disillusionment in Chimeka Garricks Tomorrow Died Yesterday and Tanure Ojaide's The Activist Dr. Cornel Onyemauche Ujowundu

Oppression, Betrayal and Environmental The novel focuses on the lives of four young men Degradation in Chimeka Garricks who struggle to live by their values in a difficult Tomorrow Died Yesterday and morally challenging environment. The story is written in no chronological order. It centres on Chimeka Garricks wrote Tomorrow Died Yesterday Doye Koko, alias Doughboy; Amaibi Akassa; to inform the world of his view on the Niger- Kaniye Rufus and Tubo who are childhood Delta crisis and of the rise of militancy in friends and natives of Asiama (the oil land). The Nigeria. Tomorrow Died Yesterday is a literary Niger-Delta region produces most of Nigeria's oil composition conveying moral truth mixed with and since the early 1990s has experienced a lot of fictional characters and their personal conflicts caused by tensions between oil experiences. The novel has five books and each companies and the Niger-Delta's ethnic minority episode is named after the narrator or a major groups who feel they are being exploited. This has character or incident. The novel explored various led to increased militarisation in the area and themes like suffering, pain, disappointment, kidnapping of foreign oil workers. It is against this poverty, exploitation, above all tyranny and backdrop that Chimeka Garricks writes. oppression. The work focuses on tyranny and oppression and also their attendant consequences The novel starts in 2003, when a routine kidnapping on the people under a despotic leadership. of a foreign oil worker by Doughboy (Doye) goes terribly wrong. This kidnapping leads to a chain of The novel is set in the post-colonial Nigeria. It x- events that reunites the four friends. Kaniye is a rays the tyrannical leadership seen in the Niger- lawyer in the group, although he has not practiced Delta region and exploitation at its peak. The law in years and owns a restaurant. Tubo is the self- novelist takes us through the lives of ordinary centred one who works with the Imperial Oil people and the effect of the harsh experiences on Company at the centre of the story. Doye them. Garricks made use of a fictional town (Doughboy) is the leader of a militant oil group that Asiama, an oil rich town located in the heart of the kidnaps foreign Imperial Oil workers and Amaibi is Niger-Delta region as the setting of the story. the lecturer and activist in the group. The author brings to light the main cause that led to the Niger-Delta militancy which the Tomorrow Died Yesterday spans three decades. Part government does not want the world to know way through the book, we go back to 1970, the about. In his author's note, Chimeka states: year all four boys were born. The novel flicks back and forth between 2003/4, when the kidnapping I know now that I wrote this story as a occurred and the series of unfortunate events that form of catharsis, to try to make sense unfolded afterwards, and key moments in each of out of all the madness, and to tell some the boys' lives—the 70s, 80s and 90s. We get of the truth, as I understand it. Besides, I glimpses of each of the boys' childhood, how they was fed up with the fact that the only became friends, the eventual demise of their “voices” of the people of Niger-Delta friendship, and the events that shaped their lives was either the political class or the self- and made them who they are. styled “militants,” (two equally appalling choices in my view). I was also tired of It explores one of the major challenges facing the hypocrisy of the people of the Nigeria today-oil. Chimeka Garricks manages to Niger-Delta, my people, who are the real capture it all in his book—oil bunkering, oil victims but have refused to take the lead militancy, the impact oil has had on the everyday responsibility of their own roles in the Nigerian living in the Niger-Delta region, the calamity that has befallen them (ii). corrupt politicians and employees of oil companies and how people try and live their lives in this situation.

103 Beyond Pardon in Niger-Delta Politics: Exploitation and Disillusionment in Chimeka Garricks Tomorrow Died Yesterday and Tanure Ojaide's The Activist Dr. Cornel Onyemauche Ujowundu

The novel explored chiefly pain, suffering, Wali, the tyrant chief security of the Imperial Oil corruption, dehumanisation, exploitation, Company. Amaibi was charged for aligning with inhumanity, money mongering and ruthlessness, militants when it was they (the Imperial Oil staff) all of which are aspects of the central that begged Amaibi to help out. The government focus—tyranny and oppression. The first used this medium to oppress and dehumanise portrayal of tyranny and oppression can be seen Amaibi who had been challenging them all along. in Amaibi's description of his mode of arrest to Amaibi's words to Kaniye while in the prison gave Kaniye. Amaibi says: a clear message of what his life was like. Amaibi They came into my house very early one says: morning, almost a squadron of them. . . . No leader from the Niger-Delta has They smashed down my door, gone to court with the government commando-style. They arrested me . . . In against him, and came out a free man, I bed. I didn't resist then. They shot me. I wont be the first. I'm certain of that, still don't know why (55). twenty senior advocates can't save me. I'm going down, Kaniye, no matter who I get The tyrannical nature of the government can be to defend me. In the circumstances, I'd seen in the above statement. Amaibi being an prefer to go down fighting . . . (36). upright man and an activist kicked against the governmental control of the oil companies which Amaibi is seen as one of those voices in the drilled from Asiama. The governments were only society who refuse to be shut down by the interested in the revenues the oil companies oppressive system of government, even at the generate. They never looked into the affairs of the point of death. Sir James Rufus, Kaniye's father oil town or provide basic amenities or and a senior advocate, also voiced out the infrastructural development. The oil companies tyrannical nature of the government when lacked provisions for proper industrial waste Kaniye sort his advise to help in Amaibi's trial in disposal, thereby polluting the Asiama River, court. Sir James had this to say: environment and causing the death of aquatic The government wants Amaibi out of the animals which are the town's source of livelihood. way. In this country, the government is These and many more Amaibi kicked against the mafia. Everything has already been because Asiama is a town made up of mostly arranged. The trial will be merely to fishermen, the natives lived at the mercy of the rubber stamp his predetermined companies. Amaibi went as far as suing the conviction. And the rest, as they say, will government to court with the help of his friend be history (69). Barrister Kaniye Rufus. He even organised rallies that picks on the governmental neglect of the Garricks used Tomorrow Died Yesterday to also tell Asiama community which got the governing the world of the circumstances surrounding the body agitated and sought for a way to bring Niger-Delta crisis cum militancy. Niger-Deltans Amaibi down. suffered exploitation and neglect not only from the government but also from some of their own Soon, the government found a way by the people who enrich their pockets at the expense of Imperial Oil Company using Amaibi as an the community. This, Garricks made known in his intermediary between Doye Koko (Amaibi's author's note and used the character Chief Dumo childhood friend and the head militant) and the Ikaki to satirise those selfish politicians found in Imperial Oil Company. Amaibi agreed, took the the society and also show the corrupt nature of ransom to Juju Island in exchange for the Imperial the human mind. Oil staff manager who was kidnapped by the militants, not knowing that the hostage had Chief Dumo Ikaki, a member of the Asiama already died. The government soon made a case Council of Chiefs and the special adviser to the out of Amaibi's selfless help with the help of governor on special duties likes to be at the helm

104 Beyond Pardon in Niger-Delta Politics: Exploitation and Disillusionment in Chimeka Garricks Tomorrow Died Yesterday and Tanure Ojaide's The Activist Dr. Cornel Onyemauche Ujowundu of affairs. Dumo's position in the government is also seen on the side of Dumo Ikaki who should have been able to bring about pretends to have other affairs of Asiama at heart infrastructural development in Asiama only to exploit, oppress and misappropriate funds Community but all he was after was to enrich meant for them. For instance, Chief Ikaki's himself the more. He master-minded the arrest company, Tortoise Shell, deserted the contract of Amaibi because Amaibi's involvement in the given to them to clean up the oil spillage on the ransom delivery cut the percentage he and the Asiama River. He is also the brain behind the Imperial Oil staff executives were to get from the dehumanising experiences Asiama town got from money. His tyrannical and oppressive nature can the soldiers after they agitated for monetary be seen when his company Tortoise Shell was compensation for an oil spillage on the river. given the contract to secure a generator by Imperial Oil Company, which is to give electricity The novelist used the actions of the soldiers in the to Asiama Community. He used the contract as an novel to satirise the military. The soldiers sent to avenue for money laundering and oppression. Asiama terrorised the natives, which portray This can be seen in the words of Tubo, an tyranny and oppression in their actions. The Imperial Oil staff: soldiers bludgeoned and manhandled the people Tortoise Shell bought a second-hand without mercy. They killed, raped and battered the contraption from one Asian country. It inhabitants. The soldiers grouse is that Asiama powered parts of Asiama town for all of natives were responsible for the death of a soldier twenty-three days before falling apart. I who slipped off a boat and was mangled by blades say parts of Asiama town because the of the outboard engine during the demonstration whole town was never completely wired. at Asiama Base Camp. So, they dealt mercilessly Coincidentally, it was the houses of Chief with the natives. The soldiers shot sporadically, Ikaki's enemies that were not wired (72). killing many people, Mpaka Doye's father inclusive. They lay all the villagers on the floor, Chief Ikaki, being the head of the Asiama both young and old, and even made a man eat his Council of Chiefs, intimidated the chiefs with his own excreta. They flogged and humiliated Doye governmental position and runs the chiefs' the Amayanabo by making him do the frog jump council with an iron fist. He is also the before his subjects. Amayanabo's puppet-master because he compels the Amayanabo to do whatever he says. He even They caught the Amayanabo hiding in the royal banished Sir James and his loyalists from Asiama mausoleum. They beat him. They cursed him for because they challenged his authority. not being able to control his kingdom. Then they made him hold his ears, squat and jump around on In his author's note, Garricks said: “. . . I was also his haunches (376). tired of the hypocrisy of the people of the Niger- Delta my people, who are the real victims, but have They caught Amaibi and his wife Dise hiding refused to take lead responsibility for their own inside the church, raped Dise till she passed out roles in the calamity that has befallen them” (iii). and made her husband watch while they raped his wife. The rape of Dise had a chain reaction on her Garricks used another word in the novel as the and her husband Amaibi. Dise lost her pregnancy Niger-Deltans turn everything into a money- in the rape process and also had a psychological making venture, especially when Asiama lost depression which affected her lifestyle. Amaibi on some of its natives in a pipeline explosion in one the other hand, could not handle the incident, of the bunkers. The Asiama Council of Chiefs which cost him his marriage to Dise. The doom sought for monetary compensation from the spelt by the soldiers on Asiama changed the town government instead of agitating for means to as it affected each and every member of Asiama secure the pipelines from oil bunkers. Hypocrisy negatively.

105 Beyond Pardon in Niger-Delta Politics: Exploitation and Disillusionment in Chimeka Garricks Tomorrow Died Yesterday and Tanure Ojaide's The Activist Dr. Cornel Onyemauche Ujowundu

The novelist used Kaniye's words to Doye to kidnapping and bombing of oil installations, bring to light the government's nonchalant and which forms the basis of the storyline. insensitive attitude towards the plight of the people. Kaniye had this to say to Doye when he Garricks uses Doye to tell the world that one was asked to sue the soldiers to court: raised under a tyrannical and oppressive situation If Asiama people make enough noise, the would be a lot worse than what nurtured him. The best that can happen is that the military novelist also used the characters to satirise the government will set up a panel of inquiry people found in the society who try to battle/fight or some other bullshit committee who will evil with evil, thereby going astray as power find that the atrocities were committed by intoxicates. The story is actually relevant to any unknown soldiers, acting outside their human community where dictatorship, command. Case closed (374). exploitation, tyranny and oppression are practised. Thus, the novel is a satire on the Niger- All these show the oppressive nature of the Delta struggle and the factors that led to it. The government who would do everything possible to author employs devices such as irony and sarcasm shut down any voice that tries to protest or ask to convey his message. He writes in his author's questions. Doye Koko, Doughboy's predicament note: is to tell the world the cause of the Niger-Delta As I write these words in October 2009, struggle/militancy and also the effect of tyranny the pandemic has spread all across Nigeria, and oppression on the oppressed. Doye is born and the kidnappers less discriminatory in under a harsh condition with a tyrant as a father their choice of victims. Recently, I heard who always oppressed his family with ranting and this rumour about the kidnap of a beating. As a kid, Doye is very aggressive and “vulcaniser” (an artisan tyre-mender) for a always tries to intimidate his peers, a leaf he ransom of N30,000 (about $197 US). The borrowed from his father Mpaka. Doye has been Niger-Delta struggle has become a tragedy frustrated all his life, starting from his tyrannical so bizarre that one has to search for father, Mpaka's constant beating and desertion by comedy in it just to remain sane. his wife, Doye's mother, the death of Soboye his only brother, which resulted from oil bunkering Man's Inhumanity to Fellow Man in Tanure which affected Doye by not going for a Ojaide's The Activist scholarship examination. The intimidation he got The Activist is also a novel that makes a bold from the soldiers that came to Asiama, his father's revolutionary statement about the injustices, cold murder by the soldiers and finally his denial corruption, sabotage, exploitation and inequality of a job opportunity in the Imperial Oil Company that are evident in our country Nigeria. It is even when he emerged the best in the interview. regarded as a monumental literary achievement and a passionate exploration of Nigeria's political Doye from his tender age built a strong wall complexity and social tension of recent decades. around himself which thickened with harsh experiences as time passes. These experiences In the novel, the nameless protagonist, clearly a made him hostile and violent. He saw the symbol of the patriotic and visionary Nigerian, government activities with the oil companies as a irrespective of ethnicity, trades the bliss of life slap on their faces and a rape of their land because overseas and joins the bandwagon to develop his the natives were not compensated and were given native land in this deeply moving narrative linked the least job in the companies. He took upon by conflicting ties of moral concern, human right himself to fight the government and formed a abuses, environmental pollution, honour, group called the “Asiama Freedom Army,” which courage, patriotic love, betrayal, tragedy and with time metamorphosed into militancy. The triumph. group was credited with oil bunkering,

106 Beyond Pardon in Niger-Delta Politics: Exploitation and Disillusionment in Chimeka Garricks Tomorrow Died Yesterday and Tanure Ojaide's The Activist Dr. Cornel Onyemauche Ujowundu

It is a memorable narrative, populated with land but were not enjoying it, rather they were characters so vital and real. A truly riveting and intimidated and maltreated. startling tale enriched with colourful and highly sophisticated writing. The militants (Egba Boys) began to kidnap the white men of Ben Oil, the government officers, The novel is also a programmed attack on the oil the rich etc. to get money from them and help the multinationals that sponsor military coups in needy of the land. Africa in order for them to have a stronghold for their exploitative acts. These multinationals prop Tanure Ojaide brought together different up the military dictatorship that brutally represses characters that met at the end of the novel. Pere the populace as the exploitation goes on. Thus, who was a different character met with The white Europe portrays how literature encodes a Activist and they began to shake the society. The people's way of life as it affects privileges, the love Activist and Pere met with Chief Ishaka who is an and moves of the Ijaw, Itsekiri and Urhobo of the exceptional chief among others. He refused the Niger Delta. Their rich cuisine, songs and dances, bribes given to him by the government and the the rhythmic and enchanting pidgin English, the multinational Ben Oil Company. He never socio-history of the Boma boys, now “area boys,” married many wives and sent his children to the legends of mammy water, the water goddess, school. One of the children became a member of Egba, Egbesu and others create alluring and the Bell's Oil Company who was taken to exotic world in the din of environmental Amsterdam. holocaust, In all, the novel advocates unity for the tribes. The women demonstrated, with Ebi Emasheyi as their Vice President. They almost wanted to go The Activist has an elaborate, almost leisurely plot nude but could not as a result of government in which the novelist attempts weaving the interference. strands of the story together. The characters are memorable and approximate those in real life. The Activist and Pere joined bunkering business Ebi, Pere, Tob, Shaka, Dr Mukoro, Omagbemi, and they became millionaires. Pere became the Dennis all represent recognisable individuals. But owner of the best hotel in Niger-Delta while The The Activist, apart from being nameless, does not Activist became the owner of the award winning demonstrate his activism except for his recall of newspaper. protests he participated in, while in America. The woman, The Activist, Pere, Ebi, Dr Mukoro's Thus, the entire story is woven around the central son met towards the end of the story, thereby character, the Activist. He had the aim of contributing their efforts and making Niger-Delta changing the impoverished society of his people. a better place. They fought Bell Oil with their He wanted a change for the Niger-Delta people. strength and came out victorious. He hated the intimidation by the multinational Bell's Oil Company and the government in The Activist became the governor of the Niger- power. The people around him never really Delta people and Ebi emerged as the first lady. believed that he came back to stay for good in The Activist's vision made him escape death Nigeria from God's own land. When he came narrowly and taken abroad, came back and back he met Ebi; he became aware of the brought his society to normal. The novel is set in traditional ways that he had forgotten. Niger-Delta of Nigeria. It was set during the incidence of oil exploitation of Niger-Delta. It Meanwhile, the militants who paid respect to the exposes the ills of the society at the periods in god of war and vengeance fought the same causes time. Ojaide captured the environment of the as The Activist. They had the Nigerian oil on their society and the consequences of such action.

107 Beyond Pardon in Niger-Delta Politics: Exploitation and Disillusionment in Chimeka Garricks Tomorrow Died Yesterday and Tanure Ojaide's The Activist Dr. Cornel Onyemauche Ujowundu

So, at the centre of the episodically crafted novel In fact, the setting of the novel can be said to be is The Activist, the main character whose passion contemporary, the reality of the date as “here and and nobility is the measurement of his human now” living with us. This is aptly seen in the disposition, leaving behind the greener pasture of graphic description of the day, the events the United States. He arrived home with a captured in the novels which tallies with actually pertinent mission—the emancipation of his what is happening in the Niger-Delta now. people. In his favoured list of allies in the struggle Through some of these events that have made are the effervescent and strong willed Ebi and headlines recently in Nigeria and outside the Pere, propelled resourcefully to overcome several country, we can be sure that we are examining a defeats. recent text. As seen in these lines: Pere made more inquiries about bunkering The Activist with his huge luggage of academic and learnt how multifaced it was. Every credentials, foreign exposure, international information business in petroleum diplomacy and deliberate adaptation of core produces was considered bunkering. values of many celebrated human virtues, Diverting the tankers taking fuel from the remains by far the egghead with intimidating refinery to a roadside to sell drums of fuel agenda to last a mission span. While in Ebi, the to hustlers was bunkering (152). gender log is fundamentally and adequately represented. The modest grace to stand erect in a Bunkering business in recent times has become society marooned in male dominance and Nigeria's greatest undoing in respect of her oil enforcing nationalistic instincts into the local revenue. This has become hydra-headed problem women that need enfranchisement to wrestle for owing to the uncovering that both the leaders and their right defined the feminine weight. Pere, at the led, rich and poor seek the opportunity which the end of the ladder, weathered through the ever way in order to enrich their pockets. And, squalid sloughs of poverty and parental recently, the United States intelligence report has squabbles in his bid to outlive squalor, rejection it that “Nigeria looses to bunkering as much of and unemployment. His painstaking emergence her oil that she formally exports to the from the corridors of affluence and influence international market.” The novel is vividly tend to voice hope to the numerous youths running concurrent with our time. In the same scavenging the streets in dire search of vein, there are other related situations that have emancipation and identity. formed a discussion agenda in current Nigeria. For instance, the next extract says: These represent the very different vital This was done especially when there was stratification from which the battle rages on in the fuel scarcity and petrol station owners Niger-Delta, for what the region termed callous were so happy to receive their supplies exploitation, and has vowed to fight to the finish. that they did not check the accuracy of The exploitation is manifest in the reaction of the the fuel amount because they knew they students against the forces they regard with would gain by adjusting their fuel pumps suspicion, portrayed by graveness of the to their advantage (152-3). contention sizing them up on one side and the federal military government and Bell Oil Fuel scarcity in Nigeria has also become a public Company on the other. Although we are offered a malaise affecting virtually the important sectors reason to become optimistic when The Activist of the nation's economy and while it ups market triumphed, and became the governor. But the and service fares, it completes its damage in untold reaction of both the government and the grinding to miserable halt several businesses oil corporation in respect to the path chosen by which lack the connection to source petrol from the new governor sustained our anxiety. the influential hoarders.

108 Beyond Pardon in Niger-Delta Politics: Exploitation and Disillusionment in Chimeka Garricks Tomorrow Died Yesterday and Tanure Ojaide's The Activist Dr. Cornel Onyemauche Ujowundu

We must also fortify our realistic claim that we are Let Bell Oil and the federal military dealing with a novel which content is as current as government stop killing us slowly. We the new millennium. The period in question also cannot sit and watch our land made has realistic reminiscences of what has happened unliveable by outsiders, we will continue to outside Nigeria in recent time, and this event fight to hand over the land, waters, and air gains entrance in The Activist as the following of our birth to our children in a liveable lines say: state (267). Though guarded by mobile police and army boys . . . these very guards . . . would And true to their pleading and warning, the three rather get fat tips from the civilian principal actors involved in the conflict have not bunkering lords than do their military known peace until date, the federal government has duty of guarding the pipelines . . . they not reduced the number of Nigerian soldiers preferred being posted to Liberia where deployed to the region to checkmate the activities they could have a free range to loot and and onslaughts of the local militants against oil rape in the name of peace-keeping than corporations' infrastructures. The several oil guarding oil pipelines (153). conglomerates doing business in the area have not as well known peace and have continued paying The novelist also drew up lists of events that yield heavy ransoms as brutal demands of the militants substances to the reality of the Niger-Delta. The before expatriate workers are freed from hostages squalor in the region is put side by side with Abuja and kidnapping nets. As for the militants themselves, our nation's capital city thus: it has been as well a constant preparedness for reprisal Several ethnic clashes broke out in the expected from the federal government's army, police, Niger-Delta. The Itsekiri, Izon and and other para-military agencies pushed daily to Urhobo . . . The Izon . . . despite their guard the nation's oil hub. large population felt something should be done once and for all to stop it, if not in In the novel, this value of patriotism is epitomised Abuja but in the Niger-Delta where they in The Activist weighted with the current wave of lived (231). uncertainty and disenchantment torturing the nation and her citizens, everyone looking for a way The novelist also presents an instance of constant out of the land, those already outside the shores occurrence that we have come to identify the area of the land refusing a return home. Transparency with: International, Green Peace, and Paris Club has Bell Oil knew very well that there was a ranked the country as one of the most corrupt, blow out but did not ask for its fire-fighting repulsively polluted, and dangerously indebted to team to put out the fire. The Uto River was financial institutions world over. One wonders literarily burning. Evergreen plants, dry what nerves The Activist is built with. He is a leaves, all became combustible materials. determination driven by passionate zeal; in the The poisonous methyric gas fumes first phase of the novel titled “The Return,” the engulfed plants, wildlife and humans main character through series of his experiences around for days (261). with the local people portrayed his willingness to push through the several phases of impediments This represents a true picture of the real Delta, along the way to the emancipation of his people. even in the present, a situation of constant threat to life, and premonition. A scenario of instability and Home was his Niger-Delta state in Nigeria . . . The unrest, this is forthrightly a graphic description of Activist was a different type of person. He loved what Nigerians read almost daily on the pages of his people and their ways . . . while abroad, he dailies about the Niger-Delta region. The lines always longed to return home and live among his following inadvertently pre-empt observations: own people . . . He saw the problems at hand as a tug of war between the dictatorial military and the

109 Beyond Pardon in Niger-Delta Politics: Exploitation and Disillusionment in Chimeka Garricks Tomorrow Died Yesterday and Tanure Ojaide's The Activist Dr. Cornel Onyemauche Ujowundu civilians . . . He wanted to throw his small weight society in The Activist, someone must engage in on the side of his people (21). some fraud if survival is to be converted from mere wish to reality. Even the taxi man that drove In real life situation, so many had toed the same The Activist on arrival from the United States path, and many are still doing the same. The holds firmly to the doctrine as well. And his novelist also traced what effects the long remark on dropping The Activist worked dictatorship of military government has left on prophetically into a reality: “Continue to work the masses of the nation. The Activist confirmed hard. You go be rich.” “Oga self you go see for that his job involves more than conveying his yourself, nobody go tell you say life hard for here,” militant protests to the attention of those that the taxi drive reiterated before he drove off ” (18). hold sway at Abuja. He must do more to dissuade the people from their pessimism and What he said actually came to fulfillment. The retrogressive complacency. He began to feel the Activist in collaboration with Pere engaged in oil thought of disenchanted Nigerians on his way bunkering in order to fund their mission of right from the airport to the hotel where he hoped emancipation. Before then, Pere had met Owumi to lodge for the night: who has spiced up his life with money made from Every where for country dry well well, e illegal bunkering: dry pass harmattan self ” . . . “you no fit be Owumi described the process of some body for this our country now bunkering to Pere and it looked so unless you steal . . .” “If you work hard, simple—“But what of soldiers and police you go be rich too,” The Activist advised. guarding everywhere there are oil “Not for here! If you work hard self and pipelines?” Pere asked. “Police and soja you no steal, na poor man you go die,” the no be Nigerian?” Owumi asked in reply . . driver responded (16-17) . “you don see goat dey guard cassava leaves? Or you don see pigeon dey guard This same atmosphere of hopelessness remains corn?” Owumi asked Pere (145-50). prevalent across the land. This has resulted in parents giving their daughters for commercial Furthermore, the novelist keeps unmasking both prostitution overseas in deliberate connivance the army officers and influential businessmen with international pimps. Meanwhile, The who are making inordinate fortunes from illegal Activist was made to feel that he has made an bunkering. The local chiefs and the oil companies unforgivable mistake, coming from enlightened are given serious taunts and knocks for colleagues in the Niger-Delta University, people collaborating with the exploiters to deceive the thought knowledgeably broadened to have people, that is, after the local chiefs had collected triumphed over such crudity and backwardness: some fat sums from the oil companies (322-4). “People were stealing, prostitution, killing and The author's indictment is really living here with committing other heinous crimes to make money, us. He is presenting a real life story to us and to look for devious ways to go abroad, “Let him hoping it strikes our apprehension. live in our hell and see whether he can survive . . .” one said (41). Conclusion From the novels under study, we can conclude Through the novel, the narrator smears the that the spirit, which propelled the literature of different stratification of the Nigerian society post-independence in Africa, is indeed the spirit with the sharpest fangs of indictment. From the of disillusionment, anger, oppression and federal government to the military, the oil hopelessness. African novels after independence companies, the local chiefs, and even the are protest literature. The writers are firm in the revolutionists themselves, everyone is prone to forefront of the society towards progressivism. corruption, and see virtually nothing in it. To the The writers are protesting against the corrupt and

110 Beyond Pardon in Niger-Delta Politics: Exploitation and Disillusionment in Chimeka Garricks Tomorrow Died Yesterday and Tanure Ojaide's The Activist Dr. Cornel Onyemauche Ujowundu immoral leadership of the African politicians. Just the Niger-Delta folk memory. The novel, like what is obtainable in Chimeka Garricks' however, has its faults. The events portrayed Tomorrow Died Yesterday, Ngozi Chuma-Udeh's appear too real so that at times it is difficult to say Teachers on Strike and other African novels like Ayi whether this is a novel or a book on socio- Kwei Armah's The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born, economic history of the Niger-Delta people. Alex la Guma's A Walk in the Night, Helon There are also spelling errors just as several Habila's Waiting for an Angel, etc., which explore Urhobo words in the novel should have been the social problems of disillusionment, italicised. unemployment, brutality, insecurity, harassment, betrayal of trust, injustice, violence, revenge and However, despite the vast wealth created by wickedness. petroleum, the benefits to the impoverished indigenes of the area of production (Niger-Delta Chimeka Garricks' Tomorrow Died Yesterday shows region) have been too infinitesimal. This problem the leaders to be excessively corrupt and has persisted with the Niger-Delta youths and the exercising brute force in the political scene. The government getting to a dagger drawn position. insensitivity and lack of regard for the lives of the The natives cry out of hunger and starvation. No people by the leaders were vividly explored. good roads, electricity and good schools are built in the region. The Niger-Delta graduates are The novel portrayed realistic details of eruption unemployed for years. Most of the jobs in the oil of conflicts between the youths in the Niger- companies are not given to them but to the Delta, Asiama community, the invading oil Hausas or Yorubas. The bitter antagonism companies and the federal government. Over the between the many ethnic groups inhabiting the wanton destruction and merciless exploitation of Niger-Delta and the government continues to rise Asiama environment by the foreign oil over how the government denies them their rights corporations which was encouraged by the and over the extraction of oil and the distribution federal government. pattern of the subsequent wealth accruing to the people. The violence between the forces brings Tanure Ojaide's The Activist sought to expose the unspeakable hardship to the indigenes. implications of the actions of leaders on the people. We see that the myopic behaviour of Many of the Niger-Delta youths became leaders subject the populace to much suffering militants, kidnapping the Imperial Oil expatriates and hardship, hence the masses have to react at and demanding for ransom, just to survive. one point or the other. The environment of the Asiama land faced with a lot of challenges and Niger-Delta in Nigeria continues to be populated damages, the violence they unleash is unbearable. and made uninhabitable with little or no The women were raped by the invading army who consideration for the indigenes of the area whose tried to stop the demonstrations. livelihood also depends on economic activities around the Niger-Delta. The oil companies, Amaibi, one of the narrators in the novel, was therefore, are due for the scathing denunciation in shot on his leg because he was there to stop the Ojaide's The Activist. government and some boys in the oil companies from taking a cut out of the ransom demanded by The novel thrives on imagery as can be seen in the the militants. He was jailed for months without author's description of the Niger-Delta treatment and without trial. landscape, which is at times frightening and at other times enchanting. The novel abounds with The author exposes the leaders as corrupt. The proverbs, symbolism, flashback, dramatisation chiefs of the Niger-Delta are seen as corrupt. and instances of inter-textuality in Ojaide's Chief Ikaki who was given a huge sum of money creative corpus, at great deal of which constitute to work on the community's electricity project

111 Beyond Pardon in Niger-Delta Politics: Exploitation and Disillusionment in Chimeka Garricks Tomorrow Died Yesterday and Tanure Ojaide's The Activist Dr. Cornel Onyemauche Ujowundu appropriated the money given to him. We see the Ekwere, John. Socio-Political Thoughts in African leaders playing with the lives of the citizens and Literature. California: Indiana Press, 2012. the damages caused by the Imperial Oil Garrick, Chimeka. Tomorrow Died Yesterday. Port Company. The novel establishes the corrupt and Harcourt: Paperworth Books, 2010. fraudulent forces which stand between the Habila, Helon. Waiting for an Angel. New York: government and the people. The novel looks Penguin Books, 2003. beyond the turmoil of oil spillage which kills Ifejirika, Echezona. Introduction to Literary Theory, aquatic life in Asiama River in the Niger-Delta Criticism and Practice. Awka: Mabcom and makes them bewildered. Systems, 2014. Babatope, E. Coups: African and the Barracks Revolts. The novel looked beyond the anger of the Niger- Enugu: Fourth Dimension, 2001. Deltans as they were denied all the good things of Bebler, Anton. Military Rule in Africa. New York: life by the government. It looks beyond the pains Pracgar, 1975. of repression, the death of Niger-Delta youths as Enright, D.J. Memories of a Mendicant Professor. they strive for survival when nothing was given to London: Oxford University Press, 1969. them. They lost hope and were highly Madiebo, Alexander. The Nigerian Revolution and the disappointed. Biafran War. Enugu: Fourth Dimensions, 1984. Thus, from the political class to the military Tanure Ojaide. The Activist. Ibadan: Pharaphina, leaders, down to the civil society, what we have 2006. seen in the societies portrayed are shattered hopes Ujowundu, Cornel. A Guide to Studies in the Novel. and disillusionment as a result of the existence of Onitsha: Bels Books, 2007. moral vacuum, political, social and economic Wa Thiong'O, Ngugi. Homecoming. London: problems. Heinemann, 1992. Sunday Sun, July 28, 2009. Works Cited http://www.spectator.co.uk./books/2/part- Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms, 4th ed. w/thhonlhttp://ww/amazon.ca.waiting_angel_ Nation and P. Rushton, 1987. novel-helo_habila/dp/0393051935. Achebe, Chinua. Morning Yet on Creation Day. London: Heinemann, 1981.

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Ridiculing Our Dark Practices: The Exploitation of Womanhood in Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo's Trafficked and Ngozi Chuma-Udeh's Echoes of a New Dawn

Ujowundu, Cornel Onyemauche Department of English Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University Igbariam Campus And Revd Onyeachulam, Sylvanus G.C. Cathedral Church of St Gabriel Umueri, Anambra East LGA

Abstract In all ramifications, women cry out that they are exploited by the society. They are seen, not heard; their image battered and their roles not appreciated. This proposal is on the image and role of women mostly in African society, and especially in the Igbo society. Women cry out against exploitation, intimidation, domestic violence, rape, sexual harassment and all other attendant evils committed against them. In Adimora-Ezeigbo's Trafficked, young, innocent and naive girls are taken advantage of, and sold out for prostitution and other money making ventures by those they trusted. At the end of the day, humiliation, dehumanisation and even demented lives become the fate of women, contrary to expectations as can be seen in the cases of Nneoma, Efe, Alice, Fola and the others. Women are used, condemned and dumped by the men. So, it is envisaged that women, especially modern feminists, should look at the problems, not as a matter of fighting for rights and privileges, but something they must let the society understand that they need equal opportunities as human beings. Lucia in Chuma-Udeh's Echoes of a New Dawn cries against the inhuman treatment in widowhood that women face. The denials and humiliation as seen should be stopped as women deserve better life even after the death of their husbands. This paper advocates the emancipation of women, as well as calls for their proper integration in all facets of life in our societies. Keywords: exploitation, emancipation, trafficking, domestic violence, prostitution, widowhood rites, dehumanisation, tradition, womanhood

113 Ridiculing Our Dark Practices: The Exploitation of Womanhood in Trafficked and Echoes of a New Dawn Ujowundu, Cornel Onyemauche and Revd Onyeachulam, Sylvanus G.C.

Introduction cultures of the world testify to this assertion. In Literature as a work of art mirrors the society; it this regard, she indicates that women's problems speaks, affects and exposes the life of man vary in the impact of negative cultural practices. through the experiences and challenges he faces In the same vein, Nworgu Patrick commenting in his immediate environment and the society at on Ebere Ezenweke's claim, emphasises that: large. It also shows the responsibilities and Educationally, women are discriminated limitations of being a female in a male dominated against. Parents prefer to send male society. To Cornel O. Ujowundu in A Guide to children to school to the exclusion of the Studies in the Novel, girls . . . In the traditional society, women A woman is often overwhelmed by the are not allowed to control their hard- responsibilities in her life—those created earned income. It is considered normal by the society and those created by for wives to hand over the hard earned herself. She is expected to perform her money to their husband for proper traditional roles, efficiently run her home, control, disbursement or safekeeping. If and be a good wife, a super-mother, and a the woman dares raise an objection to supportive member of the extended such unholy practice, she is maligned, family. She is expected to contribute to cajoled and criticised as a social misfit. the family income. And she must Such a woman may stand the risk of perform creditably at her job or business being sent packing (74). to be recognised or to make progress. And this task she has to accomplish in a To Nworgu, women are helpless in the society culture where she is taught that she is because they are “rightless” and voiceless due to inferior to her male counterpart (206). the cultural practices of the past which still constitute serious conflicts in our contemporary Thus, women are traditionally regarded as mere society. All through history, the oppression of tools of necessity; housewives, child bearers, women is invariably constant, a part of global home tenders and gratifiers of men's sexual dilemma, ageless, systematic and deep rooted. passions. They are left out of decision-making Nmah Paul in his book Women's Right in Igbo Land processes in their communities. There are even states: certain things women are not supposed to do, Igbo women, like the majority of Africa's which are reserved exclusively for men. population, are subject to inequalities in the political, social, economic and In the society, women were consistently bruised cultural fields. Women's attitude to their and brutalised. This was mostly imposed on them traditional role have varied from by their male counterparts. Women were acceptance, that has tended to condition regarded as the weaker vessels and also as sex the non-utilisation of formal guarantees objects and political pawns in the games played by of equality (4). men. Two instances are seen in the beginning of creation as recorded in the Bible, in the sense that Women's potentials has unfortunately been God created the first man (Adam) before he limited and has not fully been tapped because of created the first woman (Eve). The implication of socio-cultural prejudices and practices. Akachi this is that man is seen as the lord and hero to the Adimora-Ezeigbo's Trafficked is aimed at woman. examining human trafficking, exploitation, dehumanisation, oppression, sexual harassment, According to Ebere Ezenweke in her book A poverty, corruption and betrayal, which have Hindrance to Women Potentials, “women have eaten up the conscience of certain individuals in suffered tremendous marginalisation and show the country. From the novel, it was poverty that of superiority complex in the past” (2). Many made Nneoma go in search of the job in which

114 Ridiculing Our Dark Practices: The Exploitation of Womanhood in Trafficked and Echoes of a New Dawn Ujowundu, Cornel Onyemauche and Revd Onyeachulam, Sylvanus G.C. she was tricked into going overseas. Little did she For personal reasons, I fled from home know that she was to do an indecent job of one Friday morning without telling my prostitution. Ujowundu says that Nneoma was family. A friend and classmate had told forced into prostitution in Europe against her me some weeks before that some people wish. That she abandoned her fiancée and family had helped her secure a teaching for greener pastures abroad, not knowing that appointment in the United Kingdom and exploitation and betrayal await her there. she would introduce me to them and I could come with her (126). In Echoes of a New Dawn, Ngozi Chuma-Udeh exposed the evil deeds of this remote part of the Based on the assurance for a better job and the society and absurd treatment given to women urge to help alleviate the poor state of her family, which many people have seen and are probably Nneoma innocently and ignorantly took the bait. quiet about or have refused to admit because of She continues: fear. Lucia had to undergo painful mourning rites So I head for her hometown, which is because of the death of her husband. She was near mine, to find out if the invitation is given the watered used to wipe the corpse of her still open. It is, and we travelled to Lagos husband to drink so as to prove she had no hand together to meet her sponsors. In no in killing her husband. Anita, in comforting her, time, they got passports and flight tickets recounted her ordeal when she was forced to for us, and keep them. They showed us have sex with the chief priest and his two dwarf pictures of the schools where we'll be attendants, all in the name of spiritual cleansing teaching and give us appointment letters and had to live the remainder of her life with the signed by people with English names reminder of that awful event by the presence of (127). the child she beget in that one-time stand. Sometimes some of the women die of these Such deceit readily influenced the naive girls maltreatments and it is concluded that they killed whose mindset was to secure gainful employment their husbands and the spirit of the dead has to help themselves and their families, not come for them, whereas the women probably knowing that humiliation and exploitation await could not bear it any longer. them abroad. Surprisingly to Nneoma, they were made to swear an oath with “a Bible and an image Exploitation Through Trafficking in Akachi of an arusi” (128). This, she says, was so that they Adimora-Ezeigbo's Trafficked will not go contrary to the agreement reached. As Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo's Trafficked talks about she tells Efe: certain girls—Nneoma, Efe, Fola, Alice, We are six young women between the etc.—who were deceived on the idea of a better ages of seventeen and twenty. They tell life, only for them to be taken overseas and turned us we will have plenty of time to pay into sex workers. The two women, Madam Gold back our debts to the agency when we and Madam Dollar, employed clever tricks or start earning money. While in Lagos, we strategies which lured the girls into travelling with relate with just two people, Eddie and them. These tricks worked through the use of Maria. Everything seems normal. They adverts, pictures of the schools which they were joke with us as if we were their younger made to believe that they would work in, and also sisters. I am so happy and thank my chi . by issuing employment letters to them. As the . . The only thing that worries me is that novelist says, Nneoma narrated the story of her we have to take an oath and they tell us travel abroad to Efe thus: the consequences will be severe if we disregard the terms of the agreement, disobey them or cut links without settling our debts . . . (127).

115 Ridiculing Our Dark Practices: The Exploitation of Womanhood in Trafficked and Echoes of a New Dawn Ujowundu, Cornel Onyemauche and Revd Onyeachulam, Sylvanus G.C.

Nneoma's sad experiences are similar to that of rich Ozo Nkwu of Ihite-Agu village, and Efe. When they were at the Murtala Mohammed Ofomata would be the next Ozo Nkwu of Ihite- International Airport, Eddie and Maria withdrew Agu at the death of his father. Nneoma decided as they were handed over to others who explained to run away from home irrespective of the task that Eddie and Maria were their Nigerian ahead of her as the wife of the next Ozo Nkwu, contacts, and that “they will get to Italy before and joined a number of girls in Lagos where they travelling to Britain” (128). As Nneoma laments: were selected as qualified teachers on the trip to In Italy I discover I am trafficked. I have overseas. The surprising thing was that no single no say in the matter. There's a woman boy qualified in the interview. She left home called Madam Dollar—nothing comes without a word of her whereabouts to her family between her and money. She owns us and and this put her family in a sad mood, making the man, whom we learnt to call Captain them have sleepless nights and troublesome days is her bodyguard. She keeps us prisoners without the hope of her return. in her flat. Life is hell in Rome—we are always walking at night, selling sex to Nneoma's sensibilities were jolted badly as she Italian men and foreigners . . . As soon as found herself face to face with a completely we arrive, she sells my friend. I have not different job assignment which earned her much set eyes on her since (128). beating and bruises each time she refused sex to Madam Dollar's customers. As she told her story Nneoma feels dehumanised and devastated by to Efe, “sometimes, while we are standing in the the life she was forced to live while abroad as it red light area where other prostitutes line up, was contrary to her expectations. As she tells Efe youths come shouting, 'Puta Puta!' At such in the novel: moments, I am completely overwhelmed by I am completely devastated by the life I'm shame” (130). forced to live: hit the night street, waiting for customers, winter, spring, summer She served in Madam Dollar's hotel as a and autumn. I come back at dawn, wash, prostitute for three years before she was bought eat and sleep till it all begins again at and transferred by Baron to the United Kingdom nightfall (129). (UK). She was denied access to her documents and passport. She always received severe beatings In fact, the novel started from the middle, when from Baron any time she refused him sex. She was the trafficked girls were deported back to Nigeria. not allowed to walk on the street of UK alone. The author employed a flashback technique to She only went out with Baron or those who paid give us an insight into the protagonist's childhood Baron for her sex services who later brought her experiences; we were also introduced to her home. father Ogukwe Ekwe, who was a clerk in the According to Nneoma as she recounted her sad Internal Revenue Department in the Ministry of story: Finance before he retired and the mother Adaeze, Baron sends the other girls to brothels a petty trader in the village market. Nneoma and keeps me in his flat. Instead of happens to be her father's favourite. Her father's putting me on the street, he brings men to preference to her stems in his belief that Nneoma the flat. Baron is a sadist. He rapes and was his mother's incarnate. So he pampered her a beats me. I refuse when customers want lot. The over pampering of Nneoma made her oral or anal sex and insist they use never to allow any other of her siblings to sit on condoms and I'm sometimes assaulted their father's leg whenever he is home. for this. Baron locks me up in the flat, and does not allow me to go out except when Nneoma was so beautiful and intelligent that she he takes me with him (132). was betrothed to Ofomata, the first son of the

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Nneoma ran away from the car of Baron on one Humiliating Widowhood Rites in Ngozi of their trips and she left with some money and Chuma-Udeh's Echoes of a New Dawn started roaming the streets of UK and was arrested Chuma-Udeh Ngozi's Echoes of a New Dawn is a by the immigration officers who discovered that novel centred on the traditional and barbaric she had no residential permits with her and she oppression given to women all in the name of pleaded with them not to kill her. She was arrested mourning their husbands. The author personally together with other girls and after some time in the described it thus: “A retrogressive, pessimistic, UK, they were deported back to Nigeria. Nneoma outdated and useless culture” which should be recounted how she escaped from Baron, how she abolished. We see women who are beaten, their met Dr Chindo Okehi, the university lecturer, how hair are shaved, they are made to stay in a tattered she was caught and eventually deported to Nigeria hut with ashes all over their bodies for two weeks, and brought to the Oasis. According to her: they are made to take their bath with dirty water Many months later when he takes me out used in cleaning their dead husband's body after for shopping, I'm alert all the time with my two weeks, that is, if they are not forced to drink money hidden in my clothes, ready to it. They are to sleep with the dead body of their escape if an opportunity presents itself. husband and stay with it all through the night On this occasion, he stops for a second to even though it already smells. They are even raped buy a newspaper and as soon as he turns in the name of cleansing away spirits of the dead. his back I open the door gently and get out. I do not look back until I have disappeared All these are done to women when their husbands round the corner of the next street. I run die, but no one thinks about the men being put and run and run until I'm out of breath. I through the same shameful treatment when their have no idea where I am but I keep going in wives die. the direction opposite the place I left Baron (133). Chuma-Udeh used Lucia, a woman who was born in Lumais, to black American parents. She is Nneoma's escape was dramatic and even had not from Africa but married an African man. She divine connection as Baron and his cohorts could was used to expose man's inhumanity to man, all not locate her until she was deported. As she says in in the name of custom and tradition. The novel the novel: began with Lucia in the “mourning hut of ashes” I roam the city for two days until a Nigerian as they termed it. It was raining and Lucia got woman I meet, Chindo Okehi, takes me scared but she could not express herself for she is home. She is a university teacher. Later she not to be heard. It is believed that a woman introduces me to a Nigerian man, in whose “sitting in ashes” does not have any opinion to house I live until the police raid. Within express. She lamented: “Where is the long arm of days, I am deported and brought to Oasis civilization? Where has modern . . . why a society . (134). . . animals” (4).

There was a bus awaiting the Trafficked at the As far as Ngozi was concerned, her character was airport which later conveyed them all to the Oasis asking these questions because she was actually Youth Centre for Skill Development (OYCSD) being treated like an animal. She painted a painful premises where they were given accommodation. picture of intimidation on a woman by her fellow This centre was owned by four women, though women. The umuada are believed to be daughters they got support from both government and of the family who came to take care of the private sectors. The girls were allowed to pick any activities of the burial to make sure everything is trade of their choice and Nneoma picked carried out in the right way. tailoring while Efe took to hair dressing and they become close friends, hence they started discussing and sharing their problems.

117 Ridiculing Our Dark Practices: The Exploitation of Womanhood in Trafficked and Echoes of a New Dawn Ujowundu, Cornel Onyemauche and Revd Onyeachulam, Sylvanus G.C.

They sit with the mourning woman, deny her Lucia had to meet other women who had passed everything, including her toiletries, which is every through the ikwa ajadu rites to intimate her on woman's necessity. The woman is reduced to a their experiences. However, most of them were living dead. Lucia was encaged and dehumanised. wallowing in fear and humiliation, but she was She knew nothing about Africa before her able to convince the three she met. They were marriage and the little she learnt did not help her Christians and two of them lived in the mission, prepare in any way for this dehumanising way of which got Lucia to wonder the irony of how such mourning. She learnt a lot during her barbaric and fetish traditions should exist side by honeymoon, especially when her husband took side with the church. The ugly satanic traditional her to the Gobaret Minaret at Katsina, there she rites turn most women into maniacs. learnt about purdah where a woman is kept in seclusion and not allowed to see anyone, with “Ba Anita told how she was raped by the chief priest shiga” written on the door leading to her room. and two dwarfs all in the name of cleansing, only Abdul explained to her: to wake up in the hospital two weeks later It means “no entry” . . . maket place (26). pregnant with a dwarf. This was the result of She just could not believe it but Abdul spiritual cleansing. went further to explain it, saying: It is the culture madam . . . our culture (27). “Why The Ike sister also told how she was made to should the society be so much against swear stark naked in the presence of the elders in women (27). a shrine just to prove her innocence. As if that was not enough, she was made to carry the basket Lucia asked these questions not knowing the containing the man's dead body and walk round culture and traditions of her husband's village. her village. She was even to drink the water got She also learnt about female circumcision, which from the cleansing of the decomposing corpse of is very primitive and unhealthy. Women pass her husband, only for them to flee when they through all these without complaining. There is found out that her husband was not dead, that no one to speak for them and they are not heard they have been punishing her ignorantly. and even when heard, their suggestions are not considered because they are women. Chuma-Udeh brought all these out to prove that women are human beings and should be treated In this novel, Chuma-Udeh Ngozi exposed the as such. She exposed the evil acts and deeds of evil deeds carried out on women. These women this remote part of the society and absurd are treated this way with men watching them and treatment given to women which many people ignoring the suffering but they won't allow such have seen and are probably quiet about or have treatments on their wives at home. The daughters refused to admit. Women are supposed to be the of the village do not even marry from their village vital part of the society. They deserve respect and for fear of the future. When Nez wanted to marry must be listened to when they speak. She tries to Celia, Nkemdiri's friend, who was from their tell the world that women bear forth fruits and village, Celia's mother refused because of the every man is born of a woman. Therefore, any traditional mourning customs which were very barbaric treatment given to women must be terrible. Most women cannot stand to see their stopped. children pass through such punishment in the name of mourning. Looking at this novel, we see that women want to be heard and valued in the society. They are All these are what women pass through and its against the absurd treatments given to them in more painful because the men are not treated different communities and they want these to be alike. They are not humiliated, imprisoned and stopped. They want the voices of women to be embarrassed in the name of mourning their heard and their suggestions considered. wives.

118 Ridiculing Our Dark Practices: The Exploitation of Womanhood in Trafficked and Echoes of a New Dawn Ujowundu, Cornel Onyemauche and Revd Onyeachulam, Sylvanus G.C.

Conclusion flee the country due to her family's wretchedness Throughout history, women have always at the age of 19 to make a living, only to get their struggled to gain equality, respect and the same and find out that she has been trafficked. When rights as men. This has been difficult because of she discovered that she has been tricked, she did patriarchy, an ideology in which men are said to everything possible to get back home and as a be superior to women. Women are seen as less result of no document, she was deported back to important and do not have any say in the society Nigeria. In Nigeria, she could not stand the and only good in bed, and to so many men as shame of her past life, i.e. her being forced to sell punching bag. This ideology has permeated the her body. As a result of that she passed through social structures of societies throughout the emotional trauma and finds it difficult to get back world and as a result, even in the new millennium, to her parents and her betrothed, Ofomata, who women are still struggling for rights that most have even paid her bride price before her sudden men take for granted. disappearance.

Hence, women are clamouring to be liberated In Echoes of a New Dawn by Chuma-Udeh Ngozi, from all forms of discrimination so as to enable it was all about a barbaric, outdated, retrogressive them fit into the society, just as their male and useless custom. The author gave us an insight counterparts. In most societies and cultures, of what women pass through during the burial women are enslaved, subjugated, humiliated and rites of their husband, in the hands of the chief dehumanised. The origin of this distorted view priest, the dwarf and umuada. of women can be traced back to the ancient times. Even Aristotle in hi Poetics argued that “women This stupid tradition made the women go were not full human beings and that the nature of through excruciating pains leaving them in women were not that of a full human person” sorrow. The novel showed how Lucia was able to (88). His view was that women by nature were push both the chief priest and his accomplice defiant, not to be trusted and to be looked down into the hole dug for her husband's corpse. The upon. It is a universal phenomenon that women novel thus recommended a new dawn in the lives are not given equal rights with men and this led to of the widows and Lucia was presented to us as their being subjected to many inhuman the heroine of survival to the oppressed widow. treatments in the society. Women are made to play the second fiddle—inferior role—in the These novels, Trafficked by Akachi Adimora- society, family, social gatherings, politics and in Ezeigbo and Echoes of a New Dawn by Ngozi national issues. Chuma-Udeh are true feminist campaigns and a message for the eradication of social injustices Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo's Trafficked is and inequalities that leave women in a principally the story of Nneoma, an intelligent disadvantaged condition. The authors believe teenager who was tricked into going abroad with that the continued dogged campaign against the the promise of decent job. Spurred by the evils of marginalisation of women should not increasingly tightening grip of poverty on her abate until equality is won. family, and a rather cheeky quarrel with her fiancé, she decides to abandon her family and her Works Cited lover and fled in search of the famed green Adimora-Ezeigbo, Akachi. Children of the Eagle. pastures. She found herself forced to serve the Lagos: Literamed Publications, 2005. sex market in Europe, and after eight years of --- Trafficked. Lagos: Lantern Books, 2008. abuse, she was deported back to Nigeria in shame Chuma-Udeh, Ngozi. Echoes of a New Dawn. and without a penny. Nneoma, a very beautiful Onitsha: Malchjay, 2007. and intelligent girl, the second child of her --- Trends and Issues in Nigerian Literature. parents, and also her father's favourite, decided to Onitsha: Base 5 Press, 2007.

119 Ridiculing Our Dark Practices: The Exploitation of Womanhood in Trafficked and Echoes of a New Dawn Ujowundu, Cornel Onyemauche and Revd Onyeachulam, Sylvanus G.C.

Emecheta, Buchi. The Slave Girl. London: Allison Nmah, P.E. Women's right in Igboland: A Christian and Busby, 1977. Reappraisal. Aba: Soul Winners, 2003. Ezenweke, Ebere. A Hindrance to Women Potentials. Nnolim, Charles E. Issues in African Literature. Ibadan: Longman, 2011. Ye n o g o a : Tr e a s u r e Re s o u r c e Emenyonu, Ernest. Studies on the Nigerian Novels. Communications, 2009. Ibadan: Heinemann Publishers, 1991. Ujowundu, Cornel O. A Guide to Studies in the Ezeokwu, I. Women Right—A Global Challenge. Novel. Onitsha: Sure Success Publishers, The First Law Students Journal, vol. 1, 2009. June 2008.

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Dislocation, Migration and Diasporic Experiences in Segun Afolabi's Goodbye Lucille and A Life Elsewhere

Dele Maxwell Ugwanyi, BA, MA. General Studies Division Enugu State University of Science and Technology Enugu, Nigeria.

Abstract This paper 'Dislocation, Migration and Diasporic Experiences in Segun Afolabi's Goodbye Lucille and A Life Elsewhere' centres on the issues that have defined Nigerian Migrants abroad. The paper seeks to identify the various regrets that have attended Nigerians' quest for greener pastures abroad. It also focuses on the abandonment syndrome that has characterized the lives of Nigerian professionals abroad. Many Nigerian professionals have abandoned their more lucrative jobs in Nigeria only to go and take dehumanizing and degrading jobs simply because they want to live abroad. This paper also highlights the illusions that have made this move a worthless effort. The various negative tales of the migrants are discussed to validate the assertion that there is no place like home.

121 Dislocation, Migration and Diasporic Experiences in Segun Afolabi's Goodbye Lucille and A Life Elsewhere Dele Maxwell Ugwanyi, BA, MA.

Introduction According to anthropologist James Clifford The human nature is dynamic and receptive to (1997), he views Diaspora relations primarily as change; which could be voluntary or involuntary; different responses in the form of boundary, fixing therefore in its quest to ensure that basic needs and identification in a context of such as food, shelter and security are guaranteed deterritorialization and transnationalism; he tries to all efforts are deployed towards the achievement see how these people construct “home away from of these goals. home”. He believes Diaspora is about long distance, exile, separation with an always relevant Human beings move to the extreme to ensure that issue to return. Some sociologists Robin Cohen their survival is achieved even if it means giving (1997) and William Safran (1991) define certain up a certain uncomfortable location for another criteria that must be shared to determine Diaspora. one which they perceive comfortable, it is therefore not surprising to find people moving They retain a memory, a vision or a myth relating from one geographical location to another in to their original homeland. Emigration from order to fulfill their needs. another homeland often ends up with traumatic experiences to two or more unfamiliar regions. Migration in Latin 'migrare' means to change The individuals believe that they cannot be fully residence. Social scientists have traditionally accepted by the countries in which they reside. defined migration as the more or less permanent movement of people across space (Petersen, In Nigeria for instance, migration occurs, because 1968). Migration is referred to as any residential migrants believe they will be more satisfied in movement which occurs between administrative their needs and desires, they migrate to the units over a period of time, (Paul White, 1980). Western Hemisphere in search of ”a greener pasture”. After the end of colonization, the West Other scholars have defined migration as the was assumed to be the commercial and cultural change in the centre of gravity of an individual's hub of the world. mobility pattern. Also, scholars like Michael Kearneg, Linda Basch, Nina Glick Schiller and The migrants believe that the centre signifies realms Cristina Blanc Szanton (1994,7) define migration of possibility, fantasy, wish fulfillment where as the process by which immigrants forge and identities and fortunes might be transformed. The sustain multi-stranded social relations that link migrants did not know the centre was also a place together their societies of origin and settlement. of banishment, unlawful practice, oppression, Diaspora is derived from the Greek verb 'speiro' social disgrace and frustration. (to disseminate) and the preposition 'dia' over. In human context, the original Greek word Causes of Migration 'diaspora' refers to migration and colonization, It is important to understand the underlying which is in contrast to the original meaning. The drivers of migration. Human beings have word has a more deadly and brutal significance migrated for various reasons since their for other groups of people such as Jews and emergence as the centre of creation. Among the Africans. Diaspora in these cases represents a natural causes are prolonged droughts, floods, collective trauma, banishment and dreams of environmental degradation and natural disasters. homeland while living in exile. In Nigeria for instance, social reasons have It is not possible to give a uniform definition; it is prompted many more migration than natural complex and must always be placed in its social phenomena. Examples are unemployment, civil context. Different authors and scholars have tried unrest, inadequate food supply caused by to define it depending on their theoretical focus population increase, bad governance, defeat in and ideological leaning. war, the desire for material gains, search for

122 Dislocation, Migration and Diasporic Experiences in Segun Afolabi's Goodbye Lucille and A Life Elsewhere Dele Maxwell Ugwanyi, BA, MA. religious or political autonomy, poverty, criminal Furthermore, the Diaspora individual often has a consents, high population pressure and double consciousness a privileged knowledge and education. perspective that is consonant with post modernity. The individual living in the Diaspora Effects of Migration experiences a dynamic tension, everyday between The effects of migration vary widely; the sending living 'here' and remembering 'there' i.e. between countries may experience both gains and losses. It memories of place of origin and entanglements affects the corporate national reputation, which is with places of residence and between the the good and bad name to the country. If it is metaphorical physical home. negative, it will rub off on the nation and if it affects the country, it affects the citizens by denial of visas Also, the experience of loss marginality, to serious minded people. In Nigeria for instance, displacement and exile is intensified through the some people have been caught abroad for drug experience of racism and adds to the Diaspora smuggling, money laundering and, fraud which has generated in the individual. The migrant holds on smeared the country's image. The developing to memories which hold the past and present countries suffer from “brain drain” the loss of together, they give shape and texture to identities trained and educated individuals to migration. This that are fragmented by migration, displacement is reflected in the fact that they are currently more and Diaspora living. Nigerian scientists and engineers working in the United States than there are in Africa. People who migrate tend to seek an environment similar to the one they left, they imagine and re- The effects are widespread because such imagine their homes and bond with those they movement decimates indigenous populations had previously thought of as strangers. through warfare with invaders and through vulnerability to new diseases, alters physical The institution of literature is under the direct characteristics through adoption, inter marriage, control of the imperial ruling. One of the main for instance in Nigeria, many Nigerians are married features of imperial oppression is control over to white men or women. language. The imperial education system installs a standard version of the metropolitan language as Also changes in cultural characteristics through the norm and marginalizes all variants as the adoption of the cultural patterns of people in impurities. According to Edward Said's terms of the migrants' newly found countries, most conscious affiliation proceeding under the guise Nigerians start to dress like Westerners, our men of filiations (Said, 1984), that is a mimicry of the braiding their hair and wearing earrings because centre proceeding from a desire not only to be they want to copy the white people. accepted but to be adopted and absorbed. It caused those from the periphery to immerse It modifies language e.g. many native groups lose themselves in the imported culture, denying their their traditional homelands, languages because they origins in an attempt to become more English are absorbed into larger societies e.g. some children than the English. Language becomes the medium in Nigeria cannot speak their native language at all through which a hierarchical structure of power is because they were born and raised abroad. perpetuated and medium through which conceptions of truth, order and reality become Migrants face many difficulties while abroad. A established. valid and active sense of self may be eroded by dislocation, resulting from migration,( One of the major features of post-colonial D.E.S.Maxwell, 1963) the migrant is alienated of literatures is the concern with place and vision, from the society, he struggles hard to fit in, displacement, this brings crisis of identity comes discover self and belong. into being. The concern with the development

123 Dislocation, Migration and Diasporic Experiences in Segun Afolabi's Goodbye Lucille and A Life Elsewhere Dele Maxwell Ugwanyi, BA, MA. and recovery of an effective relationship between illustrate the migration and urbanization of self and place. Critics such as D.E.S. Maxwell said African Americans which starts with the “a valid and active sense of self may have been emancipation of slaves. eroded by dislocation resulting from migration, the experience of enslavement, transportation or According to V.S. Naipaul (1967:141-2) the voluntary removal for indentured labour.” The requisite for happiness was to be born in a famous alienation of vision and the crisis in self-image city. To be born on an island or in an obscure which this displacement produces is found in country, second hand and barbarous was to be Nigerians who travel overseas. born to disorder.

The Lonely Londoner by Samuel Selvon portrays the In Chimamanda Adichie's The Thing Around Your life of West Indians in post World War II London, Neck, we see how Akunna travels abroad believing a city the migrants consider the centre of the that the grass is greener on the other side of the world; the novel is centered on Moses Loetta, a hill. On the first page, we see they all believe that in Trinidadian who moves to London, after more a month, she will have a big car, a big house, but only than ten years in London has still not achieved to discover that she is wrong and fatally anything, his homesickness increases as he gets disappointed in the end. The title implies the old. They came for a better life but what they find choking isolation of Akunna, a Nigerian who is bitter coldness both from unforgivable winters relocates to the United States only to find out that and the cold prejudice of the people they her new country is not what she has expected it to encounter. They experience hunger, be, she becomes alienated and lonely. She gets hopelessness, discrimination for jobs and on the menial jobs, in (117) when she says she will work for job. Their lives mainly consist of work or looking two dollars less than the other workers, she stays in a for a job and various petty pleasures. tiny room with a stained carpet, we also see some of the embarrassing questions she is asked; whether In the Castle of My Skin, George Lamming tells the she has seen a car before and many others. story of the mundane events in a young boy's life. The main concern is not about the individual Sefi Atta's collection of short stories titled Lawless consciousness; rather, Lamming uses the growth and Other Stories portrays the harsh difficulties and education of G as a device through which to Nigerians go through in their quest to migrate view the legacy of colonialism and slavery in a abroad. In “Twilight Trek”, “A Temporary Caribbean village. Through the protagonist, we Position” and “Last Trip”, the illegal connections see the effects of race, feudalism, capitalism, and desperate attempts most Nigerian youths education and emigration on his small town. G make to cross overseas are cruelly showcased. In migrates to London and the United States, “Twilight Trek”, Nigerians are desperate to travel returns to his home in the Caribbean and helped overseas despite all the tortuous experiences his home country obtain Independence. George encountered in the process (be it legal or illegal). Lamming's The Emigrants also explores the This quest becomes inevitable considering the massive Post War II migration of West Indians to fact that the home front is practically and Great Britain. The novel focuses on a group of particularly uncomfortable to live in and the emigrants who travel by ship from the Caribbean leadership feigning insensitive to the sour to England, a place they have been taught to conditions of the citizens, so people commit all believe is culturally superior to their native sorts of crimes in order to raise the capital with Islands. After they settle in their new which to travel overseas as we know too well that environment, the emigrants discover a lack of being a Nigerian is an anathema to obtaining visas. welcome, disillusionment and a feeling of alienation and subsequently long for home. We also know that too many Nigerians have died African-American literature is full of pieces that on their way to overseas. The narrator remembers

124 Dislocation, Migration and Diasporic Experiences in Segun Afolabi's Goodbye Lucille and A Life Elsewhere Dele Maxwell Ugwanyi, BA, MA. what his mother has told him, “all things becoming a freelance photographer. This aborted considered, to trek overseas is reasonable.” A man dream makes him to live in penury, he only able to she knows hid himself in the wheel well of an pays his house rent, feeds himself and nothing more. aircraft that flew overnight to London, it could have been the low temperature or high altitude Through photographing, he becomes acquainted that finished him. Immigration officers with Maria whom he covers stories for. He has a discovered his body two days later. They deported friend/fiancée called Lucille. They call each other him back to his burial (Twilight III). This is tragic, every week after his departure from London and he more pathetic is that after one succeeds in used to visit her at the initial stage of his departure. crossing over, one discovers that one has to pass Unlike him, Lucille is organized. Other friends of his through ordeals to ordinarily survive the socio- are Benvit popularly called B, who is engaged to political-geographical confrontations. It dawns Angelika, Tunde also a Nigerian as well as Claudia and on one that home is home, the best. It is this home Slyvie whom they meet at the party. Vincent is a sickness, alongside the temporariness of one's clubman, likewise all his friends. Lucille visits and they stay wherever that is not one's native land that have misunderstanding owing to his excessive infiltrates into the subject matter of “A drinking and inebriation. Consequently, she leaves Temporary Position”. While abroad one conceals abruptly. This makes him visit London again to one's identity as a Nigerian to avoid being apologize for what he does not to be seen as an repatriated. They carry fake names on CV; one's offence. He finds out that she no longer has interest in name is not the curse but the country. him and that her relationship with a lawyer is intense.

So, even when Nigeria bullies one resulting in Vincent lost his parents in a motor accident in his one's desperate resolve to escape to Europe or the tender age, he and his brother Matty are brought up United State, one has to know one's residency is by their uncle Raymond; but he never calls or writes purely temporary since the foreign country is not them. Matty points out this uncaring attitude of his prepared to welcome and embrace one, mostly when he visits London, but he is adamant. Some owing to one coming from the most touted weeks after his visit, Matty calls to inform him that corrupt country. uncle Raymond is getting worse and Aunt Ama (his wife) wants them separated to Lucille's In Ngugi wa Thiong'o's Moving the Centre: Struggle for disappointment. Cultural Freedom, Ngugi is concerned with moving the centre in two senses: between nations and within Claudia accompanies Vincent to Nigeria leaving her nations. In order to contribute to the freeing of the mother Frau Shiegel in the hands of Julius. He world cultures from the restrictive walls of becomes dismayed when he recognizes that his nationalism, class, race and gender. Between nations uncle's sickness does not need the consternation with the need is to move the centre from its assumed which it is attached. And he regrets coming when his location in the west to a multiplicity of spheres in all uncle tells him he is not appreciative for all his fatherly the cultures of the world. Within nations, the move love for him. The one that agitates him is that of Aunt should be away from all minority class establishments Ama. It seems like a thunder to him because she is to the real creative centre among working people in very humane by nature. She persistently inquires the conditions of racial, religious and gender equality. reason for his behaviour, until he is forced to say “I Segun Afolabi's Goodbye Lucille is a novel that tells a story thought... you don't want me” (201). which revolves around a Nigerian photographer who lives in a shabby Kreubery apartment owned by Frau Frau Schelegel is still sick; she is an alcohol addict. Lieser. He is Vincent by name; he lives in London but She has been warned by her doctor to stop decides to leave London in order to get away from drinking but all to no avail until she eventually himself (1). He wishes to become a high profile drinks and smokes herself to death. Claudia photographer, taking pictures of stars (3) but ends up becomes disillusioned, Vincent promises after

125 Dislocation, Migration and Diasporic Experiences in Segun Afolabi's Goodbye Lucille and A Life Elsewhere Dele Maxwell Ugwanyi, BA, MA. burial “ I want to stay with you” and further states dispossession and loneliness. Among the things “I thought, maybe we….. we could try at that people strive for in their attempt to get along something…. Life, you and me” (301). This in the world are; casual sex, alcohol, a place to call overwhelms Claudia because she had the notion “home” that Vincent hates her owing to his treatment in . the beginning. In the novel, Vincent (photographer), strives for all these three things especially a place to call Finally, the story ends with Vincent and Claudia as home. This striving after a place to call home they stroll down during nightfall. The title of the brings us to the issue of homelessness. Vincent novel is suggestive of the incidence at the end of says, “life is a never ending road”. In fact, as “a it. Claudia gives Vincent the companionship he shapeless, ragged road with turnings, random as a demands from Lucille and this moves him to game of chance” (219); this shows that Vincent is promise to stay with her thereby bidding goodbye a marginalized narrator. to Lucille who refuses to reciprocate his love. Vincent is alienated from his foster parents who The title Goodbye Lucille is drawn from the brought him up after his parents' death. As a result acceptance of Claudia by Vincent. Vincent has of not being able to meet the demands of the dated Lucille for years and they were engaged to society, he lets himself go overweight, drinks marry each other. This makes him to feel heavily and embarks on one night stands. contrition the first day he had sex with Claudia, which is seen in (23). However, Lucille takes Vincent has high expectations for himself, but offense to Vincent's way of life; she travels to ends up becoming a freelance photographer. His London, gets engaged to a lawyer and discards emotional reactions are slurred, his slow to Vincent's love. The love Vincent needs is given to understand how deeply hurt Lucille is by his lack him by Claudia. The love which is rejected by of commitment, he is slow to realize that Claudia, Lucille is reciprocated by Claudia when he who he had a fling with is a serious person afterall. pledges his faithfulness and thereby figuratively bids goodbye to Lucille. When the definition of home is blurred, the option is either to enjoy life in the new home or Segun Afolabi's text explores the implication of die there, which is the case with many illegal or mass migration and the conditions of unemployed African immigrants in the West. hybridization. The text also deals with the recent Vincent is lost and detached from what should be controversies surrounding multiculturalism and home. He leaves London for Berlin to get away issues of migration, it deals with the in between from himself. But he still finds it hard to be world of migrants and negotiates questions of responsible and committed to his photography or identity, alienation and belonging. to other aspects of life, this is an interest picked up to give meaning to his own fragmented and In the novel Goodbye Lucille, Vincent is sent to incomprehensible existence. Vincent stays in an England to school by his foster parents, to get all purpose flat in a rundown settlement with good education. A grown man, he discovers that punks, drifters, homosexuals, junkies and asylum life is not rosy (palatable). The next movement is seekers and a deranged landlady, which is not when he leaves London for Berlin, in the first everyone's idea of home. sentence of the novel which reads “I left London to get away from myself (1)”. Displacement sets Vincent occasionally reflects on his position in the the theme for the novel; however, it is not world, when in Nigeria he discovers that the enforced by some other power but self induced. streets of Berlin are more familiar to him than Vincent's move to Berlin is a form of freely anything in Nigeria and it discomforts him (209). chosen exile. Exile tells of displacement, The unfamiliarity of the African surrounding

126 Dislocation, Migration and Diasporic Experiences in Segun Afolabi's Goodbye Lucille and A Life Elsewhere Dele Maxwell Ugwanyi, BA, MA. prods him to think of his destiny even though when he realizes why he took the photograph. He what he had tried to get away from is not so much uses photography to give his incomprehensible the place as the people connected to this place existence a meaning. Vincent's life can be said to (Nigeria). “I had tried to get away, but where was I be a clear example of a “translocation biography”. going? Was there any sense in any of it?” (272). “In the middle of nowhere” (273). He discovers In the end, both Vincent and Claudia begin a new that Nigeria is not home to him, neither is Berlin. life united in their grief and detachment, they step He repeats a cycle of remembrance in his mind on the road, in no particular direction, though we when he realizes that he might not return to this come to a conclusion that Vincent does not get place, but that he would certainly remember it. away from himself, but he discovers his true self Returning to the place one left is always an option, on a journey. the return must not take place in spatial terms. We It is Goodbye Lucille, hello Vincent. see when Vincent's aunt says: Leaving a place does not mean leaving A Life Elsewhere is the title of Segun Afolabi's your memories behind. You know when debut collection of short stories. It contains you leave a place, if you move in favour seventeen different stories, which is a reflection of another, you can never completely for of his transitory childhood, as the son of a get the first. She goes on to say that the diplomat. former place “is like a stone tied around your heart. It keeps you from floating away The characters in Segun stories regard from yourself, from losing something “elsewhere” as a place that they must transform essential that once belonged to you. (249). into home. The far East, Europe, America, Africa, the stories are varied as their geographical setting. This statement of Vincent's aunt shows that The product of this experience is a clutch of migration could be liberating to the person who characters that live elsewhere marooned in worlds leaves one place in favour for another, but this whose structures and habits they can barely grasp. liberation is limited because the person is only liberated in terms of space not in terms of mind. The themes of the collection are loss and Translocated bodies are tied by mental or emotional nostalgia, loneliness, fear and all pervasive sense strings to one's essential being. Place here is encoded of dislocation. Segun's characters come from and as something both spatial and mental place maintains arrive in various parts of the world, but each is lost its national hold even on those whose life consists of a in an emotional desert, and every observation series of translocations. leads them back to the same kind of awareness about themselves. These are tales of Diaspora of Translocation in this novel is connected to the people making their lives in new lands, some of possibility or the promise of “living life from a the first time; others in the second or third clean slate” (164). It is the tension between generations. It explains the universal need to remembering and renewal which is the key feature establish family and identity in a world where the of human life. boundaries of geography, culture and language are increasingly fluid. In the novel, Vincent uses his camera and gets involved with asylum seekers from all kinds of However, only “Monday Morning”, “The Wine countries. For some unexplained reasons he wants Guitar” and “Arithmetic” will be discussed. to take their photographs but when asked by one of them, An, a Kurdish reftigee, for his reason, he “Monday Morning” won the 2005 Caine Prize for cannot offer a plausible answer at first “it's my job, African writing. The story focuses on a family of and I want to” (32). When the Kurdish (asylum asylum seekers marooned in a refugee hostel. On seeker) insists that Vincent should let him know Sunday, they wander Regent's Park, temporarily

127 Dislocation, Migration and Diasporic Experiences in Segun Afolabi's Goodbye Lucille and A Life Elsewhere Dele Maxwell Ugwanyi, BA, MA. uplifted by its beauty and peacefulness, but on the door close on the London underground and Monday morning, they return to the world of the reflects. He is always worried about separation, hostel where they are condemned to simply wait people not making it to the doors in time, for the next phase of their journey, struggling watching their companions disappear as the train with the torment of memory and fear of the starts to pull away. future. The narrator is married to Alicia; they do not have Their family is displaced by war and as a result a child, which makes them worried, it causes a lot they move to another country where their of strain in their marriage. The narrator language is not spoken. The country is English remembers his childhood, his parents are barely speaking one. The father finds it difficult to cope there for him, his father is a busy man, and his due to his taciturnity and his inability to learn the mother is always not around. He is always with the new language. At night we see how the father maid, Jumoke. The narrator is molested by dreams of how he used to be in Nigeria, he lived Jumoke, he becomes the object of rage. This act comfortably, but in the foreign land he is exposed becomes a stigma in the narrator's life; it makes to the harsh weather and the unfriendly people. him withdrawn from the society he finds himself. He could not be employed without his document He feels guilty; he blames himself as the reason and as a result does menial job to keep his family, why they do not have children. his wife and his two sons — Ernesto and Aifredo. The father is injured when he has to slide down a In (71), the narrator wonders the point of having pole to escape the scrutiny of immigration children if you behave as if they are not there. He officials. wishes they could have children that without children there will be no gain, no addition, In his country, he was a chef, but here he works in nothing to look forward to. The narrator's father a site, he wonders if he will forget how to cook was a businessman who liked gain, accumulation. because he has not done it in a long time. He He never knew his father's business, he never missed his former job where he handled meat, asked, his father never told him. That is the kind vegetables, and spices, which he loves so much. of life he lived growing up. His family becomes chaotic as the wife “who did not need him to be someone he was not (7)” In “The Wine Guitar”, an old musician, Kayode, becomes against him. In the confusion the remains in a foreign land; his wife has gone back youngest wanders off, with the excuse that he to their country. He is all alone, his children had wants to see Emmanuel and heads for the “glass stopped communicating with him, they had taken hotel” admitted to one of the rooms by a cleaner sides. He had forgotten so much about himself who speaks his language, he sits on a bed and the hunger now was for the food of his youth, all dreams, gazing at the view and sees the things sophistication and learned habits washed away. high in the sky and sleeps off until “Monday He usually ate in a shabby restaurant “Mama Morning”. Yinka”; the food he had loved no longer gave him pleasure. The story is a subtle but direct reprise of the confusion, terror and hope suffered by the family In the evenings, he would go to the club with his and thousands of other people like them, it friend Salbatore to play his guitar; they are rarely establishes the mood and themes that run called up on stage to play. They only drink free through the collection. drinks on the house. One day in the club, he meets Agnes, a prostitute he had slept with. They expose In “Arithmetic”, a bereaved father thinks back to themselves to harsh weather just to make ends a confusing youthful sexual encounter that has meet. left him emotionally scared. The narrator watches

128 Dislocation, Migration and Diasporic Experiences in Segun Afolabi's Goodbye Lucille and A Life Elsewhere Dele Maxwell Ugwanyi, BA, MA.

Sometimes, it seems to him he had tried and parents and guardians to send their failed, or had been carried along a road whose children/wards abroad to receive qualitative destination was not his own. Everything he feels education. Poverty is another major factor that is gradually being stripped away from him, his causes migration; most young citizens of Nigeria family, his voice and his years. While at home try all possible means to travel overseas to make preparing to eat, he closes his eyes and he feels he quick money as a result, they engage in all sorts of is at home, he thinks of his wife, children; he crime like prostitution, fraud and drug peddling. longs for a reconnection with them. On the other hand, the experiences they In the analysis of the text A Life Elsewhere, tales of encounter in their new country are what we refer Diaspora of different people, how they strive to to as Diaspora experiences. Most of these construct a home away from home was x-rayed. migrants end up by becoming second class citizens, servants, underdogs and are exposed to Conclusion various forms discrimination. Like Vincent who This paper has looked at the issue of dislocation, had high expectations for himself but got his migration and Diaspora experiences in the dreams aborted in the end. novels of Segun Afolabi's Goodbye Lucille and A Life Elsewhere. Migration can be curbed by good governance and economic boost in Nigeria. If our leaders will In Goodbye Lucille, we were able to look at the work selflessly by placing the society first, before experiences of Vincent in Berlin. Vincent is sent their own private needs, by building factories, to school in England by his foster parents. He industries, infrastructures, etc in order to employ had great expectations of becoming a high profile the youth, then unnecessary migration will cease photographer, but ends up as a freelance and people will no longer be exposed to ill and photographer. Vincent is disillusioned; he is dehumanizing treatment in foreign lands. detached from the society he finds himself in. In an attempt to get along, he indulges in casual sex, Works Cited alcohol and strives mostly for a place to call home. Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. The Thing Around At the end, he leaves London for Berlin to get Your Neck. Lagos, Farafina: 2009. away from himself but Berlin offers no better Afolabi, Segun. Goodbye Lucille. Lagos: Farafina, option for self improvement. 2007. Print. --- Segun. A Life Elsewhere. Lagos: In his collection of short stories A Life Elsewhere, Farafina,2007. the themes of the collection are loss, loneliness, Aginew, Vijay. “Diaspora Memory and Identity: A nostalgia and displacement. The various Search for Home”. Toronto: Scholarly characters in the stories are shown trying to make Publishing Division; 1 Edition. 2005. their lives in new lands. It tells us about the quest Appaidura, Arjun. Modernity at Large; Cultural people engage in, in order to construct a home Dimensions of Globalization. Minnesota: away from home. University of Minnesota Press, 1996. Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffit, Helen Tiffin. The As stated earlier , migration is caused by different Empire Write Back. Theory and Practice in Post reasons for instance in Nigeria, people often Colonial Literatures. London: Routledge, migrate as a result of poverty, unemployment, 1989. academic purpose, crime, and golden fleece, etc. Atta, Sefi. Lawless and Other Stories. Lagos, Farafina; The level of corruption and mismanagement of 2008. funds has led many citizens astray, as they remain Boehmer, Elleke. Colonial and Post Colonial unemployed for years and also poor academic Literatures: Migrant Metaphors. Oxford: facilities and structures have made most wealthy Oxford University Press, 1995.

129 Dislocation, Migration and Diasporic Experiences in Segun Afolabi's Goodbye Lucille and A Life Elsewhere Dele Maxwell Ugwanyi, BA, MA.

Cliff, Michelle. No Telephone to Heaven. New York: Maxwell, D.E.S. American Fiction- The Intellectual Plume, 1997. Background. Routledge Kegan Paul; 2nd Clifford, James. Travel and Translation in the Printing edition. 1963. Twentieth Century. Routes Havard University Naipaul, V.S. The Mimic Men. London: Andre Press, 1997. Beutsch Press, 1967. Cohen, Robin. Global Diaspora: An Introduction. Ngugi, wa Thiong'o. Moving the Centre. Struggle for London: UCL Press, 1997. Print. Hall, Cultural Freedom. London: Heinemann, Stuart. Cultural identity and Diaspora in 1993. Rutherford (ed) Identity, Community, Culture, Riley, Joan. The Unbelonging. London: The Difference. London: Lawness and Wishart. Women's Press, 1995. Print Safran, William. 1978. Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myth and Kureishi, Hanif. The Black Album. London: Faber Homeland and Return, in Diaspora 1(I), 83-89. and Faber, 1995. Said,Edward. Reflection on Exile in Culture and Lamming, George. The Emigrants. Michigan: Imperialism. London: Vintage, 1984. University of Michigan Press; 1994. Selvon, Samuel. The Lonely Londoner. London: ---. In the Castle of My Skin. Ann Arbar: Longman, 1972. University of Michigan Press, 1970.

130 17

Women, Literacy in Elechi Amadi's Estrangement

Dr (Mrs) Gloria Eme Worugji Department of English and Literary Studies University of Calabar - Nigeria

Abstract This paper discusses the various levels of literacy the women in Elechi Amadi's Estrangement acquired through and after the war in their quest for escape from the patriarchal claws. It highlights the exploitations of the women at war front and at the same time how they are empowered through education in socio-economic relations in the society. Even though it is a fictional work, the experience of these women during the war is not different from what other women in similar situation at other parts of the world experienced. This paper is of the opinion that women being the largest groups in the society, women literacy should be encouraged as it will go a long way to helping the society grow socially and otherwise. Government should continue in its campaign for female literacy through the Nigerian first ladies and their teams to ensure the Nigerian women are not left out of this global pursuit for developing women through literacy. Key Words: Literacy, Women, Experience, Education, Development.

131 Women, Literacy in Elechi Amadi's Estrangement Dr (Mrs) Gloria Eme Worugji

Introduction Ghana experience when she reveal that in Ghana, Before now ie the early times of the 21st century, girls' enrolment is less than that of boys at each women were highest in the ratio of illiterates in level of education, decreasing from one level to Nigeria and most African countries by this I mean the next; as a proportion of total enrolment in the in western education at the primary, secondary years 1996/7, girls' enrolment declined from 46.3 and the tertiary levels of education. Apart from per cent at primary school level to 26.5 per cent at the natural traditional acceptable roles for the university. Also in Nigeria according to Ohiri- females, they could neither read nor write since Aniche, record show that regional differences they were denied socialisation at the played major role to gender disparities in school traditional/western educational levels. Women enrolments. For instance, the northern states have been known as lowly people, who were generally have lower enrolment rates than voiceless in the society, especially in serious state southern states and, within states, fewer girls are matters. They were only to be seen and at the enrolled than boys. Ekhaguere G also attests that domestic sphere and not heard in the public. In economic status between the rural and the urban the then Nigerian homes, western education is the families in Nigeria is a contributory factor to low sole preserved for the male children whereas, the female enrolment rates in Nigerian schools. females were to be married off to any man of the Thanks to female literacy/education through the family's choice as they get to the age of puberty gender movement that had laid the foundation to without their consent. This is more operational in these growth in awareness. It had helped to break the northern part of Nigeria. women away from these traditional shackles/chains of male prerequisite and unequal To further throw more light on less education for privilege in virtually all things. the females, Charmaine Pereira in her book Gender in the Making of the Nigerian University System: Nigerian females with time through western Partnership for Higher Education in Africa reveal that: education were able to overcome patriarchal “... at secondary school in 1995, 22.2 per cent of dominance in social developments in their world. girls and 22.5 per cent of boys were enrolled. This This brings to mind the definition of education in reflects a reduction in enrolment, compared with Gender in the Making of the Nigerian ... as: 38 per cent of girls enrolled at primary school and ... both an end in itself and a means to 45 per cent of boys enrolled in the same year” attaining other ends, education has an (p.2). Looking at the enrolments at both levels of obligation to transmit from one education ie primary and secondary, you would generation to the next the accumulated observe that the number of girls at both levels is wisdom, knowledge, skills, values and lower when compared to that of the boys. Even attitudes, knowledge of the society and to when the females have attained higher education prepare the young people for the future they were not recognised like their male membership in the society... Education counterparts in appointments to offices. therefore is in itself an aspect or object of development ... education at all levels In the light of the above Pereira contend that; “of should be empowering the individual to a total of 11.6 per cent of students enrolment in be; to control his/her destiny... as well as education during the 1995/6, 47.8 per cent were developing inner growth leading to women - almost half of education students. Yet wisdom ... (p3). the proportion of women in the position of authority in Universities in no way matches this Through exposure to traditional/western figure...” (2), she continues that; “the gender education the illiterate women become literate. disparities in student enrolment are exacerbated The women were able to read, write and by differentials lower down the pipeline”(2). communicate. They were competent to take Another female scholar Benneh G cites the progressive decisions without their being

132 Women, Literacy in Elechi Amadi's Estrangement Dr (Mrs) Gloria Eme Worugji university degree holders. They are now captured women were sent to school like Alekiri. independent without solely dependent on male The less educated but who were somehow literate assistance. Nevertheless, some females are still also keyed into this development and stood for struggling to overcome male dominance in some their rights whenever challenged by the men. For tradition African society till date. The theory that instance, Ibia a female character in the novel, is will inform this paper is the African feminist used to show case the benefits of enlightenment theory. In general terms, feminism is a movement to an individual. She is able to resist some of her that speaks of equal right of the women with the husband's excesses as she takes a bold step to men in all things, education inclusive. Mary freedom in her statement thus: Wollstonecraft is believed to be the mother of the Christmas, after our talk on Monday movement with a goal on “equal human rights” morning, I am now sure our marriage for both sexes (male/female). Juliet Mitchell and cannot continue. I cannot have a husband Ann Oakley's definition of feminism is very on some days of the week and no much in line with the focus of this paper. It states husband on the other days. It is old time that feminism is “an active desire to change idea… find out those who know how to women's position in the society”(9), 'especially from share husband and marry them… you will illiterate to literate as in Elechi Amadi's find the bride price you paid in the other Estrangement'(Personal comment). envelop. … Do not worry my in-law K. T. and his wife. They cannot convince me to At every situation, women are exposed to all kinds come back to you… (195-196). of danger and exploitation owing to their sex and the position of the society in that regard. War This statement can only come from an time as the novel reveal also showcases them as enlightened heart that knows the limits of inconsequential through the activities of the men marriage to self-fulfilment. Ibia frees herself from at the time. The war situation creates a gloomy the shackles of polygamy because of her world for the women. There is the exhibition of exposure and economic independence. Ibia does male power. The events do not give room for any not only break away; she repays her dowry, meaningful existence of the women. War signifying that her marriage with Ibekwe, the situations reveal the helplessness of the women, husband she shared with Alekiri, is over. Ibia's and the subordinate status of women in the action suggests Amadi's stance that polygamy is society is a recurring issue all the time. The servile not practicable for the modern man and woman status of women is very prominent in a society as times and situations have changed from what that theorises certain rights for women and for they used to be. men. In wars and other crises, women in such societies are often faced with grave tragic ends Thus, feminist organizations like International because of male avarice and machinations. Commission for Abolition of Sexual Mutilation (C.A.M.S), founded in 1976, proposed “to work The experiences of women in Amadi's The Great towards enhancing women's status in society Ponds, his war novel, is worst. Women were raped through the abolition of ..., institutionalized and massacred. Pregnant mothers lost their polygamy, obligatory motherhood… and pregnancies. Women were seen as war casualties illiteracy of women” (Carole Boyce Davies, and booties. Estrangement reveals the aftermath of Ngambika...: 8). This organization encourages war on women. Some lost their marriage and women to resist certain humiliating conditions in others re-united. One positive effect of the war in their lives. Estrangement is the literacy of women and the exposure of some to western education. With the Thus, Ibia's action reveals self-awareness and assistance of some kind- hearted soldiers, like consciousness. She repays the dowry to free Major Dansuku, among others, some of the herself from her over- bearing husband. She

133 Women, Literacy in Elechi Amadi's Estrangement Dr (Mrs) Gloria Eme Worugji refuses to compromise her freedom and support Christie's view about marriage. They have happiness for the sake of marriage. This is a sign their female protagonists cast in this image of of growth and development. Also, economic assertiveness, 'l know what l want, I must go for it' power has a lot to play here as Catherine not minding the cost. To them, the end justifies Acholonu attests: the means. Thus, modern social changes and The truth is that what determines social domestic experiences shape and influence the status in all parts of Africa is economic characters in the above novels, giving them new power. A rich woman who is educated, directions in their thinking and attitude towards enlightened, out spoken, hardworking life and especially in marriage. Thus, Christie and fearless can hardly be looked down recognizes the fact that she is a person first and upon by any member of the society or her could be useful to the society whether married or own immediate family. The family or not. At this point, Christie see through the cultural community look up on her and accord her tradition and education for the female child, recognition through traditional honours which Betty Friedan calls The Feminine Mystique and titles. At the same time, she is loaded (1963), the title of one of her earliest novels. with responsible position… Rich Christie realizes that she has a self, which is enterprising women are better placed on separate from marriage and motherhood just like the social ladder than the poor un- Ibia, Madam Adekurun and Christie, her Aunty, enterprising men. ... (44-45). that lives in Lagos whose name is not mentioned in the novel. The childlessness of Ibia notwithstanding, she quits Ibekwe's marriage so that Ibekwe can have Christie is aware of the gulf between traditional all the wives and children he desires. This action attitudes to womanhood and what she knows also depicts that childlessness in this modern time about herself and what she wants to achieve. She is no barrier to a woman's happiness in life and rejects conformity and opts for change; and she that the woman can decide to free herself from emerges from confrontation with the problem by such cultural demands on her. The woman in her the assertion of her womanhood and person. own rights can decide to exist meaningfully in the Christie's conviction that men are usually society without a child if she wishes to. exonerated in most matrimonial contracts while the women are castigated and blamed when it Christie, Alekiri's senior sister who lives in Lagos, fails, urges her to advise Alekiri against men. is cast in the image of an assertive lady because she knows what she wants and believes in her Christie is competent to diagnose sexism. She and freedom. Any woman in this position in some Mama Iyabo serve as anchor and vital link to cases in the Nigerian society is usually not taken Alekiri during her marital predicament with serious and has less regard from the men in the Ibekwe her husband. Thus personal power and society. The society see this image of the woman satisfaction mean a lot to the modern woman. as the vocation for the modern women. Christie Judith M. Bardwick describes personal power as: does not believe in marriage; to her, marriage is “The sense of confidence that resides in oneself, bondage for the woman. Thus, the view that that comes from one's maturity and self-respect. marriage is the ultimate way to life does not exist Personally powerful people are strong because in her mental construct. Some African earliest their sense of self is based on their acceptance of female writers have this idea reflected in their themselves”. Christie is able to cope because she works like Flora Nwapa in her One is Enough accepts herself first. (1986) and Women are Different (1986), Buchi Emechata in Second Class Citizen (1974), Double Education and Economic Power Yoke(1982) and Destination Biafra (1982), Zaynab Thus, education is a pivot to a woman's liberation. Alkail in The Stillborn (1988), Maria ma Ba in So It creates self-awareness and makes the woman Long A Letter (1981) among others, these works more logical over issues. Katherine Frank

134 Women, Literacy in Elechi Amadi's Estrangement Dr (Mrs) Gloria Eme Worugji supports this view thus: “Educations also gives power and educational emancipation is a bane to women a vision of human experience beyond the women's literacy and would make for better narrow confines of their own lives, it bestows a communication. kind of imaginative power, a breath of perspective, an awareness of beauty, dreams, All the women in Estrangement are more self- possibility”. Alekiri, Ibia, Bimkpe and Christie are reliant when compared to Amadi's women in his all educated characters in Estrangement in the sense trilogy ie earliest novels, The Concubine, The Great that they can read, write and communicate freely Ponds and The Slave. Perhaps exposure of those in with themselves and their opposite sex who had Estrangement during and after the war and to formal western education at different levels. western education could be responsible to their Christie, Ibia and Bimpe have not measured up to breakthrough. Alekiri and Ibia, wives of Ibekwe Alekiri's level of education. But then, Alekiri is at different times provide capital for Ibekwe's not a university degree holder but an N.C. E. business. Mama Iyabo, and Madam Bimpe are (National Certificate of Education) holder. business women and they provide for their Alekiri through her years in the College of families. Christie, Alekiri's senior sister in Lagos, Education is determined not to go into marriage provide for her family members at home. This is again. “Marriage is not worth it. Better to have a one of the gains of literacy to the women. When a lover, men value lovers more than wives … woman is literate, development is certain because, marriage is a trap, a deadly trap. I am through with through communication, meaningful it…” (Estrangment,103-104). She also realizes that contributions towards the development of the most of the famous men and women in history society would take place. This reminds us of the did not have to cope with marriage and its stress popular saying 'when you train a woman, you have before they could be recognised. Like Amaka in trained a nation'. Nwapa's One is Enough and Adah in Emecheta's Second Class Citizen among others. Alekiri further Works Cited reveals: “Marriage was good...it was not Acholonu, Catherine. Motherism Afrocentric everything…”. That “...one could make a small Alternative to Feminism. Owerri: Afa contribution to society without marriage” Publications, 1995. (Estrangement,157). Alkali, Zynab. The Still Born. Lagos: Heinemann 1988. These women (Adah and Amaka) made good Amadi, Elechi. Estrangement. Ibadan: Heinemann progress outside their marriages as a proof that Educational Books, 1991. marriage is not all that a woman needs in order to ---. The Great Ponds. London: Heinemann be fulfilled/recognized, rather, education and Educational Books, 1981. economic power. These two ingredients are what Bardwick, Judith M. Women in Transition. London: give voice of liberation to the women that seek The Harvest Press. 1980: p.19. after recognition in the society. Ba Mariama. So Long A Letter. Ibadan: Horn Press. 1981. Conclusion Benneh, G. 'Pipeline Issues in Higher Education A survey of Estrangement reveals that the level of a in Ghana'. In Pipeline Issues in Higher woman's literacy and education counts in her Education in Ghana: Workshop Proceedings, Lagos, mental/economic independence. There is self- Nigeria, 16 – 17 January 2001. Lagos: The reliance which is a sign of improvement against Ford Foundation. 2001. the women's earlier dependent on men image. We Davies, Carole Boyce and Ann Adams Graves. can infer that this view is in line with that of Buchi Ngambika: Studies of Women in African Emecheta in her One is Enough (1987) through the Literature. “Introduction”. African World Press. character Amaka and Flora Nwapa Efuru (1986), 1990: Pp. 1- 23. through the character Efuru. To them, economic

135 Women, Literacy in Elechi Amadi's Estrangement Dr (Mrs) Gloria Eme Worugji

Emecheta, Buchi. The Second Class Citizen. Nwapa, Flora. One is Enough. Glasgow: William London: Allison and Busby, 1974. Collins Sons, 1974. ... Efuru. Enugu: Lagos: ---. Destination Biafra. Glassgow: Allison and Heinemann Educational Books, 1989. Busby,1982. Ohiri-Aniche, C. “Pipeline Issues in Higher --- Double Yoke. Glassgow: Ogwugwu Afor, Education: The Case of Nigerian 1982. Universities”. In Pipeline Issues in Higher Frank, Catherine. “Women Without Men: Education in Ghana: Workshop Proceedings. TheFeminist Novel in Africa”. Women in Lagos: Nigeria. January 16 – 1,7 2001. Lagos: African Literature Today. Vol.15. 1987. Pp. 15 The Ford Foundation. 2001. – 34. Pereira, Charmaine. Gender in the Making of the Freidan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. Nigerian University System. “Introduction”. Harmondsworth. Penquin Books, 1963. Oxford: James Curry. 2007: Pp. 1 – 24. Mitchell Juliet and Ann Oakley. What is Feminism? A re-examination. New York: Pantheon Books. 1986. P.9.

136 18

The Place of Literature in the Acquisition and Development of Vocabularies in the English Language

Ifejirika Echezona (Ph.D) Department of English Language Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam

Abstract There is a symbiotic and complementary relationship between literature in English and the acquisition, regularization and development of vocabularies in the English language. This paper, has through intensive library research, established the fact that a learner's continued reading of literary materials such as novels , plays and poems enhances the learner's conscious and unconscious acquisition and development of vocabularies. This view is based on the premise that literature itself is a variety of language. The study also shows that the English language stands as an indispensable medium through which literature is conceived and expressed. The paper concludes that since the English language, no doubt, is a world language, purposeful and intensive readers of literatures in English in general and specific terms, are bound to acquire new registers from different fields of human activities and by so doing, develop the capacity to use the English language efficiently in speech and in writing. The acquired words help to increase the reader's word bank or stock. Key words: Literature, vocabulary Development, English Language.

137 The Place of Literature in the Acquisition and Development of Vocabularies in the English Language Ifejirika Echezona (Ph.D)

Introduction Therefore, a leaner's vocabulary or register may The need for a learner in a country where English include such high sounding words as juxtaposition, serves as an official language or lingua franca, to interdependent, interdisciplinary, inter- acquire and develop his or her vocabulary or word d e n o m i n a t i o n a l i s m , p r e p o n d e r a n c e, power cannot be overemphasized. It is a well- propagandists, neocolonialism, predisposition, known maxim that language is power and the indoctrination, depersonalization, dehumanization amount of power that a speaker or user exercises in to such simple words as: come, go, watch, believe, a given language depends greatly on the number of belief, movement, love, beautify, command, words within the user's word bank. Experience has lesbianism, homosexualism, oppose, propose, also shown that a user's word bank may be "slim", disagree, comply, surprise, marriage, birth, or "fat", just as people's money in a bank may reflect growth, death, reincarnation. fat or slim account. And for a user to increase his word bank or barn, conscious efforts are usually Similarly, in the context of this paper, literature is made in order to achieve such a noble goal. To this used in specific rather than general sense. extent, a user's conscious efforts to embrace Literature in a specific sense refers to written literature is one of the notable practical means of works in the three known genres that creative increasing and developing one's vocabulary or artists employ to express their ideas. These work stock/register. include novels, plays and poems. Literature in the general sense refers to any written materials in At this juncture, it is important to explain briefly diverse fields of human activities. Some of the what we mean by vocabulary in the context of this areas have been mentioned in this introductory discourse. For purposes of clarity, when we talk section. In this paper, however, we are using about vocabulary in the English language, we mean literature in the specific sense to refer to fiction the registers that are peculiar to different fields of (novels) drama (plays) and poetry (poems) human study. And every area of human study receptively. possesses its special vocabulary, register or terminology. For example, the following areas of The Relationship between Literature and knowledge: law, medicine, education, religion, Language philosophy, history, sociology, journalism, The relationship between literature in the economics, geography, literature, aviation, marine, professional and specific sense and the acquisition commerce, transportation among others - have and development of vocabularies in the English their unique register or vocabulary. And, therefore, language is intertwined and interdependent. It is the more a learner acquires words in these areas and akin to the relationship between "the egg" and develops them, the more he can exercise greater "the hen". That is, it is difficult, if not impossible, power in the use of the language. Following from to determine whether it was the egg that preceded the above, a person's or user's vocabulary does not the hen or the hen that came before the egg. In a in the lay man's understanding of the word, refer to similar way, literature helps tremendously in the the number of high sounding, jaw-breaking or development of language and language stands as bombastic English words often employed by an indispensable vehicle through which literature mediocres to impress their listeners or audience. is conceived and expressed. It is indeed a On the contrary, from a professional perspective, symbiotic relationship in the most perfect, mutual one's vocabulary in the English language refers and complementary juxtaposition. This essentially to those words from various fields of perspective is corroborated by scholars. human endeavour, the meaning of which the speaker understands in contexts and implied For instance, Awonuga, shares the view that situations; knows their spelling, their pronunciation, and literature and language are closely related and help appropriate usage in speech and in writing. each other to grow, when he opines:

138 The Place of Literature in the Acquisition and Development of Vocabularies in the English Language Ifejirika Echezona (Ph.D)

Language and literature are closely In the subsequent part of this discourse, efforts related. The nature of this relationship is are made to demonstrate in concrete ways, how exemplified by the fact that literature is an the learner's familiarity with literature will increase instance of language in use. In fact, and improve the learner's vocabulary or word literature is one of the uses to which bank in the English language. In the work proper, language is put, it follows that literature is passages are extracted or lifted from various a variety of language. (99) literary works in the different genres of literature to show that a good knowledge of literature From Awonuga's perspective, since literature is a invariably enhances one's volume of vocabularies variety of language, it logically follows that anyone or registers in the English language. who acquires the language of literature has in effect, acquired a variety of language, which Specific Ways in which Literature can help would help him to enrich his language barn or Learners to Acquire and Develop their register. By implication, it is obvious that any Vocabularies person who acquires the unique and specific (1) Exposition of Learners to Contextual Words language of literature has invariably acquired a as Against new variety or aspect of the language. Dictionary Words: In his final submission, Awonuga argues: One of the greatest benefits a learner would For instance, as has been stated above, derive from constant reading of literary works literary discourse exploits at any one time and familiarity with literature, in the restricted the entire repertoire of the linguistic choices sense of the word, is the knowledge of the available in the range of potential meaning of words in contexts. The meaning of meanings, which comes within the words are used in the appropriate contexts as experience of each individual creative opposed to the dictionary meaning of words. To writer. This means that the learner needs this extent, the reader may not be making constant to have a wide experience of this range references to a dictionary in order to find the (of meanings) if he is to enjoy reading actual meaning of words. In explaining the (literary) texts. For in order for the reader meaning of "dictionary words", Rod Ellis and to achieve a rapport with the author, his Brian Tomlinson said: experience available in the relevant A dictionary word can have many language has to be approximate to that of different meanings depending on when, the writer. (101) (italics mine) where, and how it is used. A dictionary word therefore is an abstraction. It is The simple argument being made by Awonuga, never used in an utterance. Consequently, and which is in line with the thrust of this paper, is a dictionary word does not have a that creative artists or writers often make meaning; it has potential meaning, which profound use of the English language and any only becomes actual meaning when real reader or learner who wants to benefit from the words are derived from a dictionary word varieties of the language of the literary writer and are used in actual utterances. (61) must make conscious efforts to read literature to be familiar with various aspects of the English The argument here is that any learner who pays language. According to him, "for the reader or great attention to works of literature in the area of learner to achieve a rapport (understanding) with novels, plays and poems, learns the meaning of the author, his experience of the range of words in contexts as opposed to dictionaries, potential meanings available in the relevant where a single word has the potentiality of language (English) has to be approximate to that yielding many meanings. of the author.”

139 The Place of Literature in the Acquisition and Development of Vocabularies in the English Language Ifejirika Echezona (Ph.D)

(2) Extensive Reading of Higher Literary It is about Eze Adi that I have come to see you. I Works: hope I am not mistaken if I say that you should be In addition to the preceding argument of more concerned about his future than I am. For one learner's acquiring word meanings in contexts, it thing, he is one of your sons and his success is here theorized that learners who read higher tomorrow will go to the credit of your village. I novels and sublime plays and poems extensively have come to see you because the boy is in trouble. are most likely to learn new words than readers His trouble is nothing of which you need be who read fewer and elementary literary works. ashamed. He is a very brilliant boy. He is hard Hypothetically, a reader who had read about working, obedient, and respectful. The trouble is that seventy novels, thirty plays and sixty poems is very likely he has no money to pay his school fees. He is your to have come across more new words in contexts son. He needs your help to pay his fees. That is all. than a reader who had read about fifteen novels, ten (34-35) plays and twenty poems in his entire academic life. Most importantly, the quality, depth or volume A critical reader of this excerpt would discover and quantity of such literatures make a noticeable that the words in italics are highlighted to difference in the language acquisition and usage demonstrate the possible words a reader or by the reader. For practical purposes, let us study learner would acquire as his vocabulary as two distinct passages from a lower literary output opposed to the other words he might have been and a sublime literary production. very familiar with. The reader would notice that apart from the words: Difficulties, (noun) hamlet Passage 1 from: Eze Goes to School By Onuora (Noun) ashamed (verb) appealed (verb), the other Nzekwu and Micheal Crowder. The passage words are adjectives. They include: brilliant, oldest, reads: handsome, biblical, silent, obedient and respectful. Mr. Okafor, soon came to know of the difficulties Eze and his mother were facing. Our argument is that anyone who concentrates on It pained him very much because he liked reading novels meant for learners at the primary Eze, who was one of the most brilliant or lower secondary school such as: Eze Goes to boys at his school. He visited them and School, The Passport of Mallam Ilia (Cyprian learnt from Eze's mother the extent of Ekwensi) Chike and the River (Chinua Achebe) their hardship. African Night's Entertainment (Cyprian Ekwensi) among other such novels, would operate at a low He decided to appeal to the people of Ohia to help linguistic level than a reader who reads higher and pay Eze's fees. After, arranging to meet them the post-primary and secondary novels such as Things evening of the next day, he went home. Fall Apart, Arrow of God, No Longer At Ease; A Man of the People (Chinua Achebe), A Grain of Wheat, The following evening he arrived at Ohia hamlet. (Ngugi, Wa Thiorgo) Mine Boy (Peter Abraham), The elders were assembled in Chike's house. Chike The Beautiful Ones Are Not Yet Born (Ayi Kwei was the oldest man in Ohia and was regarded as Armah), Pride and Prejudice (Jane Austen) The Mayor their chief. He was once a tall, handsome man, but of Casterbridge (Thomas Hardy) The Canterbury now he was bent and had to walk with a stick. Tales (Geoffery Chaucer) Animal Farm, Nineteen Wearing his long white cloth, he looked like a Eighty Four (Gorge Orwell) (Eric Blair). Biblical figure from the Old Testament, for his head was capped with white hairs and his face For more practical purposes, let us study the hidden behind a long rich white beard. excerpt from Chinua Achebe's Arrow of God as a demonstration of the sublime language in higher After greetings, everyone was silent and Mr. literary works. Okafor spoke. In the excerpt that is extensively quoted below, the Lieutenant Governor writes to Captain

140 The Place of Literature in the Acquisition and Development of Vocabularies in the English Language Ifejirika Echezona (Ph.D)

Winterbottom to explain to him clearly, the and do apply them in actual writing. For instance, British Administration's (colonial) motive behind the words in italics are standard and advanced the introduction and practice of Indirect Rule in the terms, the meanings, spelling, pronunciation and Eastern parts of Nigeria. The essence of quoting usage in contexts of which a purposeful reader the long passage is to show the beauty of literature as would want to master. a variety of language and the number of new words which a sublime reader would gain or acquire by The argument here is that a learner who reads reading the passage. The letter to Winterbottom masterpieces of works of art such as the novel reads as follows: from which the excerpt is made will definitely acquire and develop more vocabularies in the Back at his desk Captain Winterbottom course of extensive and intensive reading than the read the Lieutenant Governor's reader of the previous passage from Eze Goes to memorandum again. My purpose in these School. paragraphs is limited to impressing on all political officers working among the tribes 3. Literature as a Variety of English Language who lack Natural Rulers the vital necessity In discussing the various ways literature-in- of developing without any further delay English can enhance the acquisition of an effective system of "indirect rule" based on vocabularies in the English language, the native institutions. To many, colonial nations researcher deems it most appropriate to highlight native administration means government by the fact that literature in English is itself, a variety white men. You are all aware that H.M.G. of English language. In saying this, one has in considers this policy as mistaken. In place mind, the difference between literary writer's of the alternative of governing directly language and that of journalists, historians, through Administrative Officers there is the educationists, anthropologists, scientists, other method of trying while we endeavour economists, philosophers, sociologists among to purge the native system of its abuses to others. In this context, what really matters for the build a higher civilization upon the soundly literary artist is not what is said but how it is said. By rooted native stock that had its foundation this we mean that any learner or student who in the hearts and minds and thoughts of the reads literary works in the genre of fiction (novels people and therefore on which we can and short stories) drama (plays, tragic, comic, more easily build, moulding it and tragic-comic) and poems (epic and non-epic) establishing it into lines consonant with would be familiar with vocabularies peculiar to modern ideas and the spirit of the people, literature in the English language. instead of killing all that out and trying to start afresh. We must not destroy the Significantly, such a learner would be familiar with

African atmosphere, the African mind, the idiomatic expressions such as: a Greek gift, a French whole foundation of his race... (55-56) leave, a wet blanket, killing two birds with one stone, calling a spade a spade, letting the cat out of the bag, A critical reader would discover that the passage throwing caution to the wind, giving a dog a bad name to or excerpt above is a clear demonstration of the hang it, being chicken hearted, fishing in troubled waters, writer's superb mastery and dexterity in the use of dying like a dog, killing the goose that lays the golden egg, the English language. The fairly long passage being an August visitor, giving someone a red carpet which is a combination of simple, complex and reception, drawing a curtain on an issue, putting one's compound sentences gives a clear indication of house in order, setting a record, breaking a record, showing the writer's knowledge in the target language. an olive branch, leading someone by the nose, speaking from Most importantly, the writer's diction or choice of the two sides of the mouth and sitting on the fence among so words shows that literary writers are often versed many idioms and idiomatic expressions. It is in the distinct registers in the field of knowledge incontrovertible that literary artists more than

141 The Place of Literature in the Acquisition and Development of Vocabularies in the English Language Ifejirika Echezona (Ph.D) other writers in the sciences, humanities, and Winter is accused of cruelty; social sciences make use of these idioms in the Love is accused of blindness; presentation of their themes, characters and The Hoe becomes a professional barber; the day characterization. passes like human beings; while the sky dodges as humans do. Apart from the acquisition of a good dose of idioms and idiomatic expressions which are Apart from personification, a leaner would learn considered to be the sublime level of use of the statements that showcase simile in literature as a English language, learners who intentionally variety of the English language such as: familiarize themselves with literatures of the rank of masterpieces, would consciously or (a) The woman who sells akara is as dirty as a pig. unconsciously acquire new words in the area of (b) The man fought like a lion. personification such as: (c) Chioma is as proud as a peacock. (d) Uche is as black as charcoal. (a) O thou spring with dewy locks (b) The hills tell each other and the listening The above knowledge would help the learner to vallies know that the statements below are mere (c) And let our winds kiss thy perfumed comparisons as opposed to being understood as garment Simile. That is the statements below are not simile. (d) Pour thy soft kisses on her bosom (e) And let-thy holy feet visit our clime (William (a) The girl is as beautiful as her mother (mere Blake) in the Poem: comparison). (b) The boy is as dark as his father (an ordinary “To Spring” comparison). In the poem entitled “To Spring”, William Blake (c) Obioma is as tall as Chioma (a mere personified Spring and gave it human qualities comparison). such as: having long hairs like a young woman, the (d) The man looks like his grandfather (a mere hills tell tales and the vallies listen like human comparison of two people). beings. Similarly, winds kiss the highly perfumed garment (attire) of Spring in the manner of The reader should then realize that there is a human beings. Spring also possesses soft kisses difference between the statements under simile and holy feet as human beings. Other and these metaphorical expressions. personifications which the literature reader can (a) The woman who sells akara is a pig. acquire and use include: (b) The man is a lion. (a) Death be not proud, though some have (c) Chioma is a peacock. called thee mighty and dreadful for thou art (d) Uche is charcoal. not so. (John Donne in the poem: “Death Be Not Proud”). In addition, a reader of literary masterpieces (b) Winter thou art cruel. would learn the difference between hyperbole and (c) Love is blind. euphemism as a way of developing his word power (d) The Hoe is her barber (in the poem, “Ours or word bank. to plough not to plunder”, line 2). (e) The curfew tolls the knell of a parting day These statements whose makers do not want the (in Thomas Gray's “Elegy Written in a leaner or listener to feel their deep and negative Country Church Yard” line I). effects are euphemistic: (f) Hitch up a ladder to the dodging sky (in (a) Adaora is a commercial sex worker (harlot, “Ours to plough and not to plurder.” Line prostitute or whore), which are ordinarily 18) In the above poetic lines: offensive to the ear. Death is warned not to be proud;

142 The Place of Literature in the Acquisition and Development of Vocabularies in the English Language Ifejirika Echezona (Ph.D)

(b) Amaka has been put in the family way hyperbole, simile and metaphor to make his storyline (pregnant, legally or illegally). very interesting and realistic. The characters are round (c) Chinedu is light-fingered (a thief). This is a characters instead of flat ones. The characters that subtle statement. are professionally called actors and actresses exhibited (d) Amadi joined his ancestors last week (died, natural characteristics such as trepidation, doubts, passed away). confusion; indecision and unbelief. (e) The patient is mentally unstable (mad, insane). The user of these euphemisms Though the play is not divided into acts and scenes, does not want his hearers or listeners to feel the storyline and the plot are still realistic and the real negative impacts of the understandable to the audience. The most significant offensive/harsh statements quality of the play is the sustenance of the interest of the audience through the use of flashbacks and Similarly, through a good knowledge of hyperbole suspense. which is often employed by literature experts, a learner would increase his word power. The The playwright, Samuel Beckett, succeeds in statements below, which are hyperbolic, enhance a the play because he eventually portrays the life learner's profundity of the knowledge of the of man on earth as nihilistic, sadistic, aimless, English language. hopeless, purposeless, meaningless and directionless. This philosophical perception of human life (a) When I saw my driver on the express road, he is depicted in the protagonists who do not was flying (on top speed) know nor remember if they had an (b) Her tears can water a desert (too much crying appointment with Godot or not; if there is and heavy tears) anybody called Godot; if he ever promised (c) The mad man carried a lorry load of goods on to meet them at the crossroads, or not; if they, his head (Heavy loads) the tramps had any antagonists with whom (d) The man is a stud (a horse for breeding, they had to settle any differences; if they had sexually insatiable) any purpose at all in coming to the (e) I received a million thanks from my crossroads; if they should go or continue to beneficiaries (they were deeply thankful or wait for Godot; who may or may not exist; appreciative) who may or may not come to honour the (f) The hungry man could finish a mountain of appointment, if there were any etc. fou fou. (The man was very very hungry) Finally, the playwright's use of unorthodox plot, subject Finally, as literature is a variety of the English matter, themes, narrative techniques, and language go a language, purposeful readers of literary works long way to accentuate his message on the would be familiar with the popular terms or nothingness, meaninglessness, and vanity of human life registers that are often peculiar to the field of and existence, otherwise expressed philosophically literature. And a good knowledge of these terms as existentialism. Waiting for Godot is, therefore, a undoubtedly enhances the quality and quantity of successful play and a must read for theatre arts the learners' word power or vocabulary. For students and philosophical minds. practical purposes, let us study the passage below, which is based on literature and its unique language It is a philosophical play that reinforces the need for or register. man to know himself as a transient or temporary being that must set for himself a limited and achievable The Passage goals in life; realizing that life itself is essentially In the play Waiting for Godot, the playwright employed meaningless, purposeless and baseless. a lot of literary devices. For example, he used some As one reads through the above passage, one figures of speech such as personification, euphemism, notices that there are some words that are written in

143 The Place of Literature in the Acquisition and Development of Vocabularies in the English Language Ifejirika Echezona (Ph.D) italics. Majority of the words are diction from the Conclusion field of literature, especially from drama or theatre We conclude this discourse by restating that since arts. The meaning of these words are contextually the English language is, no doubt, a world language, based, especially the ones that are not purely readers of literature, in the general or broad sense borrowed from dramatic art. Our argument is that of the word, are bound to acquire new registers as one reads the above passage and similar passages from different fields of study and by so doing from other fields of human study such as law, develop their capacity to use the language in speech education, journalism, religion, history, transport and in writing. and commerce, marine, aviation, economics among so many others, one consciously and Secondly, in the most restricted sense of the term unconsciously acquires the meaning of words that literature, as comprising creative works in prose, are commonly used in the fields, At the above level, drama and poetry, an extensive and voracious we are looking at literature from a general, reader of masterpieces in the area of novels, plays perspective as any printed material in which unique and poems is incontrovertibly bound to acquire and registers or terminologies are used. develop new words in contexts as often used by literary writers. To this extent, exposure to In supporting the argument above, Chinua Achebe literatures of all kinds is a sine qua non for anyone argues that because literature is culture bound, who wants to acquire and develop new vocabularies through reading the literatures of different nations, in the English language. the reader not only acquires new words but is most importantly familiarized with the various cultures In a nutshell, while language serves as an instrument of different nations. He puts the argument thus: for expressing literary creativity, literature serves as Of Brazilian authors I have only read, in a factory where language is manufactured, refined translation, one novel by Jorge Amado who and distributed. This is made more possible and is not only Brazil's leading novelist but one convenient because of the freedom given to literary of the most important writers in the world. artists under the auspices of poetic license or artistic From that one novel Gabriella, I was able to license to create new words that are easily adopted glimpse something of the exciting Afro- and added in the lexicology of the English Latin culture, which is the pride of Brazil language. and is quite unlike any other culture. Jorge Amado is only one of the many writers Works Cited Brazil has produced. At their (Brazil) Achebe, Chinua. Arrow of God. London: national writers festival there were literally Heinemann, 1989. hundreds of them. But the work of the vast — Morning Yet on Creation Day. London: majority will be closed to the rest of the Heinemann, 1982. world - forever, including no doubt the Awonuga, C. “The English Language Needs of works of excellent writers. There is certainly a Literature Students in Nigerian Universities” great advantage to writing in a world language. in English Language Studies in Nigerian Higher (Emphasis mine) (58-59) Education: Richard Freeman and Muzali Jibril, (eds) 1984. (pp. 99-117). One is compelled to quote the long excerpt to stress Brian, Tomlinson and Ellis, Rod. Teaching Secondary Chinua Achebe's argument that the English English: A Guide to the Teaching of English as a language is a world language through which literary Second Language. London: Longman, 1980. writers from different nationalities express their Ifejirika, Echezona. Understanding Poetry: A Practical thoughts, culture, history, philosophy, literature and Approach, Awka: Mubcom Systems religion. So since the English language is a world Publishers, 2011. language, there is need for readers to acquire a great Crowder, Michael and Nzekwu Onuorah. Eze Goes dose of it through the reading of national and to School. Ibadan: African University Press, international literatures. 1992.

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Humour as an Effective Literary Device in Amu Djoleto's The Strange Man

Asika, Ikechukwu Emmanuel Department of English Anambra State University, Igbariam And Eboh-Nzekwue Roselyn General Studies Department Federal College of Education, Asaba

Abstract Literature is an avenue through which writers satirize and try to change their various societies for the betterment of mankind. It has become a formidable agent of change and reformation, a mirror with which our lives are reflected and corrections made all geared towards a harmonized and beautiful future. Techniques on the other hand, are tools which writers harness to project and pass the message of their works in any chosen dimension and style across to their readers. Humour is one of such techniques manipulated by writers to achieve varying effective purposes in their literary works. Humour entails the quality of a story, action or performance to elicit amusement and laughter. The use of humour has become an effective device which several writers manipulate to achieve a desired aim of writing. Humour which is often in the form of laughter is weaved in between stories by some writers, making their stories comical and ridiculous in one aspect but yet serious with vital and crucial subject matter on the other. The use of humour has become an important technique and style of writing worthy of serious discourse. This paper examined the use of humour as an effective literary device in Amu Djoleto's The Strange Man. The study discovered that humour was part of the ingredients harnessed by the writer to tell his story in peculiar ways and achieve a desired pattern of structure and plot of the story. How the writer harnessed and manipulated the device of humour in shaping the story and how it played a vital role as a crucial technique that made the novel appealing, interesting and entertaining is the crux of the study. Keywords: Humour, Device, Technique, Style, Fiction, Literature, Phenomenon.

145 Humour as an Effective Literary Device in Amu Djoleto's The Strange Man Asika, Ikechukwu Emmanuel and Eboh-Nzekwue Roselyn

Introduction Literature does this by employing language which Literature as a mirror reflects society and writers paints out the writer's mind and points at the and literary artists from time immemorial and in problems of society which the writer hopes different climes around the globe reflect their through his writings to solve for a better society. societies in their literary works. In this regard, literature has continued to fulfill its own unique Humour and Literature: A Brief Critical function in nation development. No society exists Survey without its literature and no literature functions in The term humour derives from the humoural isolation of its society. Ngugi wa Thiong'o in medicine of the ancient Greeks which taught that recognition of this fact expresses thus: the balance of fluids in human body, known as Literature does not grow or develop in a humours, control human health and emotion. vacuum. It is given impetus, shape, Humour is one of the distinct elements of direction, and even area of concern by literature. In the same vein, the phenomenon of social, political, economic forces in a humour is widely used in literature. It is applicable particular society. The relationship to all the genres of literature, in the sense that it between literature and these other forces can be used in drama as in comedy and even in the cannot be ignored, especially in Africa, novel. Humour is not a genre of literature, rather where modern literature has grown it is a substance which evokes laughter and fulfils against the gory background of certain functions in literature. It is a technique that European imperialism and its changing helps literary writers to achieve certain literary manifestations. (16) effects. It has been present in different cultures and civilizations. Clearly, humour is a point of Thus, literature exists in society and is given its view in which the events of the world could be shape, direction, concern and thematic viewed in a funny way yet without masking the expositions by the socio-political, economic as expression of the truth inherent in them. Things well as religious situations in society. This is what seen through the prism of humour seem different Ngugi wa Thiong'o rightly maintains and from things seen through the prism of literature ought to at all times reflect the actions, seriousness. According to Iwuchukwu “humor is activities and situations of men and women in the feature of events presented in ways likely to society in their quest to understand their world induce laughter in various ways.” (5) Therefore, better and make more meaningful assessment. As humor is the tendency of a particular cognitive Charles Nnolim posits: experience to provide laughter and provide Literature as art deploys language amusement. embellished with pleasurable accessories, to paraphrase Aristotle … and it is around Rowan Atkinson explains in his lecture in the the embellished use of language that the documentary “funny business” that an object or creative energy of the story deploys itself. person can become funny in three different ways; And to invest the story with meaning, they are: by behaving in an unusual way, by being there must be some truth about life, in an unusual place by being wrong size.” Also the something to chew over, some theme, “Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology” some moral, some philosophy of life, and defines humor as “quality of action or speech some metaphor of life that tugs at the which excites amusement (222). edges of a symbol. As in all art, literature is Humor is the only way people can express their useful, for as art, it is not a waste of time (3). inconveniences. According to Raj Kishor Singh: Humour means the quality of being This places emphasis on literature as capable of funny. It refers to an ability to perceive carrying to the outside world, the truth about and express a sense of the clever or human existence which will in turn engineer a amusing thing. Humour consists concrete and noticeable change in society. principally in the recognition of

146 Humour as an Effective Literary Device in Amu Djoleto's The Strange Man Asika, Ikechukwu Emmanuel and Eboh-Nzekwue Roselyn

incongruities or peculiarities present in comprehension is immediately outdated, situation or character. It is used to new humor elements constantly increase illustrate some fundamental absurdity in resources for a writer…. (1) human nature or conduct, and generally thought of as a kindly trait: a genial and According to Preisendans the worse events are mellow type of human quality of being given over to laughter because presenting amusing or comic, especially as expressed in misfortunes and evil deeds mobilize the comic. literature or speech with the ability to express Everything can be brightened up with the help of humour or amuse other people. (65) comedy, as we have found out from our experience as well as from the theory. Jeni Mawtar In the views of William Coles: quoting Alvin Schwartz, says thus: Humor, in the main, is something that Humour is a slippery subject' and after pleases us, a characteristic alone that can researching the area, I'd have to agree. help writers improve the quality of their What makes one person laugh is quite literary fictional stories…. For different to another. What a person finds practicality, humor can be thought of as funny is influenced by many things: the a spectrum; on one spectrum end is historical period in which we live, cultural buffoonery, ridicule, slip-on-a-banana- and social experiences, age, gender and peel sort of humor — primarily visual or their own unique personality… 'Our auditory — and on the other end is personality, our mood, our particular humor based on ideas — often hang-ups, all influence our response to i n c o n g r u o u s, n e w awa r e n e s s, humour, and the older we become and the comparisons, mutually understood and more hung about with quirky beliefs or agreed upon disparities. Irony resides in inhibitions or prejudices, the more this more intellectual end of the individual our response… 'Humour is the spectrum, arguably the most useful Cinderella in the world of children's humor concept for writers of literary literature. Volumes are devoted to fantasy, fiction. Whatever we might identify as to folklore and myth, even – belatedly – to humor is always dependent on numerous poetry, but humour is lucky to rate even an inciting conditions and receptive states occasional chapter or article …' (277). that are constantly changing. (1) Humorous literature makes the reader laugh, the The critic went on to aver thus: work may cause amusement as with comedy or A dominant characteristic of humor is absurdity. People of ages respond to humor. The surprise, which is entwined in majority of people are able to experience humor, expectations and misdirection. Closely i.e. to be amused, to laugh or smile at something related are comparisons — a source of funny and thus they are considered to have a sense extensive academic literary analysis — of humor. The hypothetical person lacking a that create incongruities and disparity sense of humor would likely find the behaviour from norms, and that are pleasurable. induced by humor to be inexplicably strange or And timing is an encompassing and even irrational. Though ultimately decided by essential element. All this not only personal taste, the extent to which an individual improves quality of story, but can will find something humorous depends on a host improve memorable style characteristics of variables, including geographical locale, too. Overall, for the writer, humor is a rich culture, and maturity, level of education, resource. There is always something new. intelligence and context. Humor continuously changes as life progresses, and although any serious dissection of humor for better

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Most textbooks often discuss comedy in place of Humour is another technique employed humour and humor generally is been regarded as by Achebe as a vital technique in the comedy but study has shown that there is a thin course of telling his story. The novel, line between them. Barnet Sylvan William Burto Things Fall Apart is a tragedy and many and William D. Cain opine that: incidents in the novel are tragic. The Comedy often shows the absurdity of killing of twins which is part of the Igbo ideals, the miser puritan, the health faddist imperfect past is part of the tragic scenes and so on, are people of ideals, but their recorded in the novel. We constantly hear ideals are suffocating, the miser, for the cries of these babies left to die in the example, treats everything in terms of evil forest as a result of ignorance and money; the miser ideal caused him or her barbaric culture. Again, is the idea of to renounce much of abundance and joy dumping people with strange diseases in of life. He or she is in love but unwilling to the evil forest because of the belief that support a spouse; or he or she has taken they are cursed by the gods. These are an aspirin tablet. If a thief accords the people that would have received adequate miser with your money or your life”, the medical treatment in our modern time miser will prefer to give up life and that is a n d b e well. A n o th er is th e what in fact the miser has been doing all marginalization and the Osu. Then, the while (1270). comes the killing of Ezeudu's son and other tragic events in the novel. The The above is a typical example of the kind of greatest of these incidents is the killing characters that Amu Djoleto portrayed in The Ikemefuna, as a result of a bizarre and Strange Man among other novels where writers barbaric culture…. (148) adopted humor as a technique to unveil the various messages and thematic issue in his work. The critic concludes thus: Humour comprises two components, wit, mirth But in all these tragic scenes cited in the and laughter. Wit is the cognitive experience, novel, Achebe still found time to include mirth the emotional experience. Laughter often is so many humorous events and equated with humor, but there are many instances experiences which added a degree of of laughter (tickling, nervousness, etc) that clearly comic relief to a reader. In the midst of have little to do with humor. Similarly, there are the serious story told in Things Fall Apart, many instances of humor that do not result in Humour is one of the techniques laughter (due to the mood of the appreciator, the employed by the writer to ease the tension social context etc) humor is a quality of in a reader and achieve a desired effect. A perception that enables us to experience joy when writer who combines humour effectively faced with adversity. in a tragic story wins the appeal of the Clearly humor is a point of view in the world reader (148). which can be a vital expression of the truths in the world and its extensiveness. Things seen through The first and most memorable instance of the prism of humor seem different from things humour in the novel, Things Fall Apart, is the story seen through the prism of seriousness. about a wealthy man who set before his guest a Many African writers incorporate humour in their mound of foo-foo so high that they could not see literary works which scholars have studied in one another. It took them till evening when the various researches. Chinua Achebe is an example mound went down to recognize themselves and of one of such writers. Research has shown that exchange greetings. The writer creates thus: humour occupied a vital position in his novel, …The story was always told of a wealthy Things Fall Apart. According to Asika man who set before his guest an mound Ikechukwu: of foo-foo so high that those who sat on one side could not see what was

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happening on the others and it was not in the mockery of a man called Dimaragana, who until late in the evening that one of them would not lend his knife for cutting of dog-meat saw for the first time his in-law who had because it was a taboo to do so rather the man will arrived during the course of the meal and volunteer to use his teeth and cut the meat. The had fallen to on the opposite side. It was writer explains thus: only then that they exchanged greetings … Here we say he cannot climb the tall and shook hands over what was left of tree but he can tap the short ones the food (29). standing on the ground. It is like Dimaragana, who would not lend his It is indeed comic and interesting on how a knife for cutting up dog meat because the mound of foo-foo could be so huge to cover dog was taboo to him, but offered his people from seeing one another eating on the teeth (55). same dish with him. One would wonder the soup pot where their hands went into at intervals to This humour was created to mock the ozo titled scoop soup. But the exaggeration was timely and men and their tradition that an ozo title holder needed in other to collaborate Achebe's argument cannot climb a palm tree. It is also a mockery of that the feast of the New Yam in Umuofia was so many other unrefined and archaic traditions about the best time of the year and no matter and cultures of the Igbo people that replete our what one does, there will always be left over in his time past which led to many deaths and tragic house for people always cook too much food in scenarios. Other examples abound in the novel. celebration that they could finish in one day. From the foregoing, it is glaring that the use of humour has become an effective device which Another episode that was humorous was several writers manipulate to achieve a desired Okonkwo's praise of Obierika's son, Maduka and aim of writing. Humour which is often in the his gallantry even as a child, which he compared form of laughter is weaved in between stories by to the foolishness and feminine nature of his own some writers, making their stories comical and son Nwoye. Maduka had won honour in the ridiculous in one aspect but serious with vital and wrestling area and Okonkwo praised him and crucial subject matter on the other. Writers tell ridiculed his son in these words: their stories from different points of view and ' He will do great things, Okonkwo said. 'If perspectives and whatever view point a writer I had a son like him I should be happy. I adopts in the end becomes his own style of am worried about Nwoye, A bowl of writing, which will form the bedrock of criticism pounded yams can throw him in a for the particular work of art. The use of humour wrestling match… his two younger has become an important technique and style of brothers are more promising. But I can writing worthy of serious discourse. Humour has tell you, Obierika, that my children do not a way of appealing to the reader and helping to resemble me. Where are the young sink deep the message of the work into the depth suckers that will grow when the old of the reader's mind. We often realize even in a banana tree dies? (52) tragic and serious story that writers still find time to recreate humorous ideas and events that have a The humour is in Okonkwo's description of his way of easing the pains and seriousness which the son's weakness to the exaggerated level that he particular work has already elicited. This could be could be thrown by a bowl of pounded yams. in the form of jokes, funny actions and in most Again in his denials of his sons who he obviously cases humour serves as an embellished satirical gave birth to because he was afraid that they were tool with which a writer hopes to point at the not as valiant and brave as him. It was the same other sides of life which he obviously mocks and valiant nature and bravely that destroyed and criticizes. ruined him in the end. Another use of humour is

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Humour, in other words has become an effective himself in a strange environment. He is tool manipulated by some writers to lighten the strange in his own way and to his own path mood of their stories and at the same time make a which he must embrace and follow to a lasting and permanent impression of the journey of misery, loneliness and pain as thematic issues in the work. Humour satirizes, existentialist writers believe. In the entertains, delights but above all, achieves the character we have studied we see how they desired comic relief needed for smooth reading lived out this existential view of life as they and assimilation of the message of any given journeyed from nothing to the pit-hole of work of art. Thus, an effective manipulation of nothingness (17). this technique could increase the beauty and touch of excellence in any given work of art. But irrespective of the seriousness of the message and ideas in the novel, the writer still Humour in Amu Djoleto's The strange Man finds ample time to recreate jokes and humorous The novel, The Strange Man is a portrait of the events which in no small way project the beauty early post-colonial Ghana, through which Amu of his artistic creation. One can argue that it is on Djoleto captures a society in transition, a society these humorous and comic ideas that the beauty struggling and striving to measure up with several of the novel lies. The writer recreated many funny colonial legacies and the slow but steady pace of events and episodes which often times are highly the modern day civilization. The novel, which is a satirical. Humour became the backbone in true representation of human actions in their achieving the desired plot of the novel. daily struggle to survive against all odds, could be Irrespective of the seriousness and heavy import viewed from different dimensions. The novel is a of the message of the novel, the tragic events of story of growing from childhood innocence and the story were made lighter and funny with several youthful exuberance to adulthood; a life of comic episodes presented below. The writer maturity and experience. The novel captures provided the readers much comic relief to aid young Mensa, his brother and friends among their reading and distract them a while, and in the other characters growing up with their child-like end elicited laughter that would help the reader minds and dreams but in the end they were forced come to terms with the tragic events of the story. to face the shocking realities of life as adults, as The first instance of a hilarious scene was during some of them watched their tall dreams and the beginning on the novel. The novel began with ambitions going down and there was nothing they the death of Tete, Mensa's younger brother. He could do about it. The novel is a depiction of man was described as an unscrupulous and dishonest and his constant struggle to survive in his alien business man, but nevertheless, he was a good world and strange environment, thus the title “the man who had his own unique visions and ideas strange man.” According to Asika Ikechukwu: about how his world would work for him. He had Amu Djoleto displayed his existentialist gone on to acquire wealth and fortune that could view of life, his ideas of the help him give his children the best. He was meaninglessness and nothingness of life. prosperous at the beginning and was at the verge Existentialist philosophers believe that life of achieving his tall and ambitious dreams when is without meaning, form and order, rather everything crashed, leaving Tete a frustrated and a it is a journey from nothing to nothingness, lonely man, a state he dwelt in until his a journey of loneliness, misery, pains, unfortunate death. Irrespective of this tragedy, disappointment and darkness. This this scene was recreated during his burial, a philosophy is well lived out in Amu discussion between Obeng, Tawia, Ofori, Okai Djolte's The Strange Man. The title 'the and few other men who were engrossed in deep strange man' itself, one can argue, is gossip while the burial was going on. The symbolic of 'the Strange World' in which dialogue went thus: we live today. Man is Strange, and finds

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… Akoto said: 'I think Tete drank too indignant.'it will be too bad if people get much. This is the result! Obeng disagree: to know you are happy that Tete is dead,' 'I don't think it was drinking really. I think The elder said with a grin.By the way, he ate too much good food. 'Tawia added whoever made you elder of the church? rather blandly: 'on top of the two he was a You've been carrying on with a choir girl, little too fond of women. He spent too h a v e n ' t y o u ? A k o t o a s k e d much of his body on them. I've a theory aggressively.'God heavens! I can sue you that when you combine the three in for this! The elder said in a voice of excess, you've fast digging your grave.' (5) feigned anger, though he was upset by the unexpected revelation, at this time.'oh no, Ofori, aware of the implication of such indicting Akoto said defiantly 'you can't sue me. statement even on him, countered thus but with Your wife would get to know; you'd drag no effort to save Tete's personality: our church in the mud and the minister … I don't believe such theories, I enjoy all would ask for the case to be settled out of three to the maximum and I am fit very fit court! Now if you're a man, try! (11) indeed. I'll quit at eight-five, no sooner, no later… anyhow, I'm not surprised Tete is The man went on thus: gone. He was an unscrupulous, 'The trouble with our church nowadays is impossible storekeeper. I wonder if people of your type, once a man is an people do sell in heaven but if he has his official of the church, isn't he ever do way, he's probably trying to sell trumpets relax?' 'Do you mean relax with a young to the angels by now at a smart profit. Do girl, who is about to be confirmed?' you know that when he ordered an orange Akoto asked. The other burst out for our chapel, he had a clear profit of laughing and the elder quickly left, not twenty pounds? He got it through a wanting to be identified with these discount he arranged and yet every irresponsible men (11). church member, particularly the women, thought he was simply marvelous because This was a joke in a burial, though funny, it had a of his enthusiasm; but he was a lot of revealing insights about the true nature of determined schemer, particularly in this the deceased, Tete and the elder of the church kind of cheating, and got away with it, I' which ironically might present a greater number sorry he's dead, but strictly, I don't think of the so called church elders and their behind he should be allowed in heaven. I'm not so doors activities with women and church money. sure I'll get there myself, anyway (6). Another instance of the use of humour was the castration of the he-goat which led to its death The men had continued to poke jokes on eventually. Mensa and his friend hated the he-goat themselves and the character of Tete whose for some of the reasons outlined below: burial service was on. Such a situation was not … First, it worried too much the nanny- right for full grown men who ought to be goat both during the day and in the night mourning the dead. An elderly man had tried to and gave he no rest. This they considered caution them but he received a dose of what he unreasonable. Secondly, the he-goat obviously may never have anticipated. The man would spend all feeding time asking the cautioned them thus: nanny-goat to oblige; then it was dark and … 'You people must behave like grown- the boys went round to drive in the goat, it ups. You've come to a funeral and instead would be far away in the bush searching a of looking solemn and helping with the bite before turning in. if the boy came singing, you stand around chatting and home without it they would be in laughing…' 'you away; Ofori snapped, trouble… third the he-goat smelt too

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much. Whenever the boys were in the more interested in amusing people than church, worshipping God, it would only in being the object of amusement… he foul the air they breathed but also make was sad. Indeed, apart from trying, to unpleasant noises at the nanny-goat and soft- pedal, the woman had referred to a distract their attention from the story in his life which people as a rule almighty… fourth, the he-goat always led never spoke about. He thought the gang of marauding goats to the farms everybody had either forgotten it or near the village. If those goats ruined the thought it did not matter. Now it had crops, it was the boys who were held been mentioned at the wrong place (38) responsible (17). The above scene is quite humorous and comic. The boys armed with these reasons had gone on The bell man in his bid to defend himself landed to plan an attack on the he-goat. They had caught on more problems as Mensa's mother told him it and dealt with it thus: about his impotence which has prevented any Then Mensa took form his pocket a sharp woman from living with him. The bell man had knife. He quickly prised open the scrotum taken the matter to the church council and of the he-goat and removed one of the during the trial; he defended the accusation that testes. The operation was short, swift but he ran away from the army thus: inexpert to the blood squirted fat and You would know? I had to see the army straight from the cut. The boys were doctor because the pain in my ear was totally taken back and without being unbearable. Besides, the man said if I aware of what they did next, let go to the snored again, he would give me another he-goat had to leave the farm but this water treatment. I wasn't particularly time slowly because it was now no more scared though. The real reason was that I what it used to be (21). had farm here. I also had my mother to look after. Naturally, I had to come by This is sad but funny indeed as they castrated the ordinary transport to see to both. Didn't he-goat. Their deed was only discovered by the it run always!' Why then did you have to bellman, Ata Qurash who was described as a run away into the bush behind the terror to the children and a gossip of the highest cemetery when some policemen came to order. He had turned gossip to money earning this village soon after your arrival here! venture. He would go from house to house, You see I've no short memory!'Because I breaking news and receiving gifts in return. When wanted to inspect an animal trap' (52) the he-goat was discovered dead later in the evening, the bell man had gone to break the news The bell man had gone on to defend himself to Mensa's father but instead of gifts he received thereby evoking more laughter and making the worst insult and revelation of his life that was caricature of himself. In his bid to prove that he to mark a turning point in his life. could stay with a woman, he had gone on to Mensa's mother finished him thus: marry another wife but the woman later left him … Were you handed over to the police when she could not conceive and his last attempt when you deserted the army when you to live with a woman shattered him. Though he were going to see real war in east Africa' later pardoned Mensa's mother and lent her Mensa's mother asked, very satisfied with money to complete Mensa's school fees, he died the force and accuracy of her high- a lonely man. Another comic instance worthy of powered missile… the bell man realized note is the episode between Mensa and Torto. It that if he did not take his time, the boy's happened while Mensa was in school. The boy mother would humiliate him to the unknowingly had said a lot of bad things about amusement of those around. He was the head teacher, Mensa's uncle and his wife and

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was later to realize that he was talking to the exploits in hunting business. The man had led him wrong person as the author writes: into the thick forest at the middle of the night and … Mensa was quite for such me. He was just the mere cry of a wild pig almost sent him to thinking. He broke the silence and said: an untimely grave as he ran all around the forest, 'The head teacher is my uncle, and his climbing trees and calling his ancestors to come to wife is my aunty. You've been saying his rescue. He did not mention God's name which wicked things about them. I'll report you portrayed his hypocritical nature. Another was to them!'Come on have some plantain! Odot's struggle to stop the man. The stone It's very good!' Mensa accepted the missed the man and landed at someone's window. plantain and ate it with relish. After His entire attempt to stop the marriage failed and Mensa had finished eating the lot, Torko the marriage was later successful. Another was said: Now I'm sure you won” report, will the daughter of Mensa's teacher who was so you? 'of course, I will' 'here, have some generous to the boys when it comes to sleeping more plantain!' Mensa accepted it and ate with them. Once, a senior boy had taken her to the it … (106). bush to make love to her only to meet Mensa and his friends who were hiding away in the same Torto had gone on to bribe Mensa with plantain hideout eating their meal. The girl had let the until he began to cry. They later became friends. crippled senior boy and disappeared. In anger, the Another comic episode was when Mensa and the boy had threatened fire and brimstone on Mensa other boys he lives with in Mr. Lomo's house had and his friends who were still new to the school. stolen some fishes from the fisherman in the river The girl's father was also notorious with people's and came home with them. The teacher had wives and the boys could only revenge with his congratulated them on their fishing prowess and daughter. This was a feat Mensa accomplished, the boys waited for a delicious meal that evening. the author captures this thus: To their dismay, Mr. Lomo cooked two pots of One thing Mensa and another boy stew, one with fishes and the other with some unwittingly succeeded in doing was to rotten meats. The boys could not bear the heart have his daughter as he had other women. break and so they unanimously agreed to tell their They had groped their way blindly to it uncle the truth about the fishes. Since he hated and had what they wanted but the girl felt stealing with passion, he would obviously stop pregnant. She was sure Mensa was to eating the fishes the moment he realized that they blame. Mensa was not sure whether he were stolen. They had sent Antawi who confessed was but felt strongly that it could have their crime to their master. To their been him anyway. Yet nobody asked him disappointment, the teacher replied: any questions and after three months the Ah! My dear boy, that's not stealing at all. girl was seriously ill, and when she It's the practice at the beach. Any other recovered she no longer had to look thieving is forbidden and honest forward to having a baby… (198) confession welcome. I'm thoroughly enjoying your fish it's not a stole item. You The father had aborted the baby to avoid any may go and tell you friends they need not scandal. These are part of the humorous events worry! (129) weaved into the novel to ease the tension of a reader on a novel that exemplifies an absurd and That was how the boys slept with sadness as they existential view of human life. The humor in the were beaten to their own game. Other instances novel serves as an effective tool and technique of humorous scenes abound. harnessed by the writer to achieve his desired plot, There was the scene where the bell man was taken strengthen his characters and brings them closer to hunt late in the night by his friend, a hunter as a to life. Through the use of humour, the writer result of the bell man's continual boats about his reinforced some of his major themes, and

153 Humour as an Effective Literary Device in Amu Djoleto's The Strange Man Asika, Ikechukwu Emmanuel and Eboh-Nzekwue Roselyn recreates a world that one could only understand Asika, Ikechukwu. “The Portrait of a Writer as a as an alien environment and laugh many things Wordsmith: Discourse Techniques in off. Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart” Okike: An African Journal of New Writing. Number Conclusion 50, October, 2013. In conclusion, we maintain that humour is an effective tool and a literary technique through Byon, Eugene & W. Conolly. Encyclopedia of Post which writers manipulate and strengthen the plot Colonial Literature in English. Vol. 2. New of their stories. Humour provides a backbone for York: Routledge, 1994. telling a good story. Irrespective of the kind of literature a writer seeks to write, the introduction Coles, Williams. Story in Literary Fiction: A manual of humour as a device serves as a vehicle to aid for Writers. www.storyinliteraryfiction.com. the reader and to unveil some hidden parts of a Online. character's life as well as the story itself. A writer Collins J. The Existentialists: A Critical Study. who successfully blends humour with serious Chicago: Henry Regenery Company, actions succeeds in giving his work a spice of 1952. beauty and touch of excellence. As the humour Djoleto, Amu. The Strange Man. Essex: delights and evokes laughter, so does the serious Heinemann, 1967. import of the story permeates into a reader where Humor-Wikipedia. The Free Encyclopedia, en it would stay perhaps and instil the desired Wikipedia .org/wkiki/ humor, n.d.web 6 changes and reformation that obviously might may 2011. Online. have triggered a writer to tell his story. We have Iwuchukwu, Chinweikpe. The Mastery of clearly demonstrated this with the study of the Literature: Lagos: Mackho Ricckho Press novel of one of the Ghanaian writers, Amu Company Limited, 2004. Djoleto. In Amu Djoleto's The Strange Man, we Nnolim, Charles. Approaches to the African Novel: witnessed how the writer incorporated many Essays in Analysis. Port Harcourt: Sacross humorous incidence and actions to aid his readers Int. Publishers, 1992. and how these humorous situations provide a ----- Issues in African Literature. Yenagoa: gateway for unveiling characters and unfolding Treasure Resources, 2009. some hidden textual meanings in a work of art. Selvon Samuel. The Lonely Londoners, Longman: Irrespective of the serious message of the novel, Drumbeat. 1956. the use of humour left much to be remembered Strachey, Trans. Jokes and their Relation to the and enjoyed as we are coarsed to make fun of man Unconscious. New York: W.W. Norton in his sheer struggle to survive and make sense of 1905. a world that is rather alien and frustrating to him. Singh, Raj Kishnor. “Humour, Irony and Satire Humour, therefore is a veritable way to telling of a in Literature” International Journal of good story for we all can endure reproach but we English and Literature (IJEL) Volume 3, cannot endure being laughed at. A writer who Issue 4, October 2012. Online. manipulates and blends this effectively wins the Thomas Flynn, Existentialism: A Very Short heart of his readers and demands their collective Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University action for remedy. Press, 2006. Online. Wa Thiong'O, Ngugi. Home Coming. London: Works Cited Heinemann, 1992. Abrams M. H. and Harpham, Geoffrey. A Glossary of Literary Terms. New York: Wadsworth, 2005.

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Sexuality and the Politics of Exclusion in Jude Dibia's Walking with Shadows

Remi Akujobi Department of English and Literary Studies Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Federal University Lokoja Kogi State.

Abstract The issue of sexuality is no longer new to discourses whether in the Humanities, Law, Science, Arts, Culture and what have you. There is no denying the fact that the issue of sexuality occupies a dominant place in literary discourse today and for this reason it is now a recognized phenomenon in all facets of human endeavour today. Sexuality seems emblematic especially where one seeks to promote an understanding between issues of gender and culture, it is particularly visible in the realm of what the society terms 'norm'. One may not be able to discuss sexuality without acknowledging the ways in which issues are informed by the consciousness of 'difference' and even 'silence' which is why we are looking at the issue of visibility and voice in this discourse. And one cannot also consider sexuality in any framework, without engaging a discourse of 'otherness'. And one can not discuss “otherness” especially in a sexual paradigm without making reference to race, ethnicity and other issues but this is not our preoccupation in this article. One must not necessarily confront all issues within a particular discourse but certain issues are vital hence this paper will be paying attention to the issue sexuality, naming and the politics of silence especially as they manifest in the work of a prominent Nigerian writer- Jude Dibia, especially his Walking with Shadows. Key Words- Gender, Sexuality, Naming, Politics of Exclusion.

155 Sexuality and the Politics of Exclusion in Jude Dibia's Walking with Shadows Remi Akujobi

Introduction sexuality as it were is all that humanity stands for There is no denying the fact that sexuality is fast or against. Some theories are examined in other to becoming an important discourse not only in address the issue of sexuality especially as it literary circles but in all human endeavours. The affects the Nigerian society and those considered issue of sexuality and its attendant problems did 'others' in society. not actually find expression in Africa until very recently and the awareness of the importance of One of such theories is the one propounded by sexuality in all human endeavours makes it very de Beauvoir in The Second Sex, which says that difficult for one to engage in any discourse one is not born, but rather becomes a woman”. without a particular reference to its existence. In de Beauvoir's opinion, gender is an aspect of identity one gradually acquires so it is no longer For this reason, it is pertinent to pay attention to possible to attribute the values and social the gay movement which surfaced in the 1960s functions of woman to biological necessity since and 70s as a powerful means of resistance to one can become the gender chooses. This is the socio-political forces that constructed “gays” reason why society tends to confront its sexuality as perverted and abnormal. Gay movement is in whatever way it is expressed. (Butler, culturally referred to as homophobia and its Zimmerman, Dunker, Hooks), all subscribe to discourse has remained prevalent and a this idea as they contend that there is no such constructive force throughout the 20th and 21st thing as one being created with a particular centuries. (Razack, Collins,) feel that resisting gender/sexuality and the act of becoming entails heterosexism and homophobia and the gay pride a cultural interpretation of bodies, so if one's movement⋯has been fractured by interlocking culture sees one as a man then you are. If you have systems of oppression and to Foucault, this all the features of a man and your culture says you regulates discourses, such as racism, sexism, are a woman, so be it. In this case, physical build and gender normativity, so the processes of has absolutely nothing to do with gender/sexual isolating, separating, naming, tagging etc have interpretation. It is what one does with gender ruptured our culture and fragmented the society that determies the gender one belongs. (Bernstein, Lorde, Razack). This paper may not concern itself with de According to Rushbrook (203), the idea of Beauvoir's theory of “becoming” but what homogeneity conceals exclusionary practices this paper is interested in is the cultural which predicated on other axes of difference, or interpretation of the 'other' and how this even sexual practices themselves, as well as the interpretation helps in demeaning the 'other' labour that produced them and to Knopp (50), and all that she/he stands for in society. these exclusionary practices, regulating norms, and “lingering legacies” continue to haunt This paper will appraise the position of the dominant organizations 'other' in society especially as it is manifested in Dibia's Walking with Shadows and see how this Discourse in sexuality, as it were, has changed position enables the phenomenology of the shape of human discourse and is now a victimization. recognized phenomenon. It is crucial in determining the production, circulation and Since primordial times, the so-called 'other' has consumption of any discourse today. (Showalter) always been oppressed, victimized and and because of this importance, be it science, philosophy, development arts and others, one is dominated. Society has always enjoyed ordering tempted to see all human enterprise on sexual the 'other' back to his/her position. To the line. Just like gender which Showalter says African the emancipation of the 'other' (whether encompasses speech and a grammatical category, through western education, the acquisition of a

156 Sexuality and the Politics of Exclusion in Jude Dibia's Walking with Shadows Remi Akujobi voice, economic empowerment, and political cultural interpretation. space etc) is a real menace. The saying, “ give It was Levinas who said that: them one inch and they take a mile” is used to The Other does not affect us as what must cajole and subjugate the 'other'. This makes one be surmounted, enveloped, dominated, but wonder why people are so afraid to compete with as other, independent of us: behind every the so-called 'other', why they consider them as relation we could sustain with [her], an dangerous to the status-quo. One cannot help absolute upsurge. It is this way of but wonders the society works so tirelessly to welcoming an absolute existent that we permanently keep the 'other' at the background. discover in justice and injustice, and that This may sound like a broken record but the discourse, essentially teaching, emphasis is not out of place when one peeps into effectuates. The term welcome of the the condition of the 'other' in society. The Other expresses a simultaneity of activity and passivity which places the relation atrocities perpetuated against the 'other' are so with the other outside of the dichotomies numerous that if nothing is done to remedy same, valid for things: the a priori and the a the development the nation desperately yearns posteriori, activity and passivity. (345) for may not be attained. ' To be dominated, oppressed and victimized is Levinas states that we desire the Other, and this “ to be eliminated from vital aspects of human desire for another is our very sociality---- endeavour and the 'other' has had to contend desire is the relationship with the Other who calls ' with this for long now. According to Sarah me into question and this relationship of desire

Ahmed: is what we are told to be mindful of. (350) But as we have noticed, the 'Other' is made Such a politics based on encounters between to confront the inaudibility of his voice in most other others is one bound up with responsibility - cases so much so that one encounters the with recognizing that (labouring) relations problem of presenting, re-presenting, and between others are always constitutive of the narrating the 'Other's' story. Most often, possibility of either speaking or not speaking. one lays claims on the notion that academic ⋯] [ It is the work that needs to be done to privilege/knowledge enables one to represent get closer to others in a way that does not the Other in all his bodily totality, as a way in ' ', appropriate their labour as my labour or which justice can be inscribed, served and handed ' , their talk as my talk that makes possible a out piecewise through the moment of . ' ' different form of collective politics The we representing her/his vulnerability. But, what one of such a collective politics is what must be does not often come to terms with is the fact that , worked for rather than being the foundation the voice of the Other may be silenced but it is not . of our collective work (180) possible to represent. In this case we see a representation that is marked by failures, so what Difference to her 'should be seen as a then do we need representation for? This is not to productive dynamic, rather than that which must say that one must be politically/socially passive be overcome, or simply accepted'. The hope for and not represent the voiceless in society as it is an encounter in this case as one once noted, is still our duty to voice out injustice in society. both academically theoretical in tenor and So we have to challenge the unequal power politically charged under the spectre of praxis, relation in society either by trying to acquire and one constantly remember that one must western education, confront the social systems recognize the notion of 'Otherness' is a site for critical and ethical socio-political, literary, and head-on or even begin to voice out our discontent, we must by all means give our

157 Sexuality and the Politics of Exclusion in Jude Dibia's Walking with Shadows Remi Akujobi support to the 'other'. The irony is that the sexual identity. society ruled by men preaches change but this same society has refused to relax its oppressive, Sexuality in itself is defined as a site of power dominating and victimization tendencies. All the struggles and conflicting interests whether in the institutions invented by men portray the wish for home or in dominant arenas, and in even in domination so one can easily say that oppression, fiction, a lot has been said about this item domination and victimization, like racism stem especially as it is seen give room for a kind of from the same source-the urge for one social definition and this stead, it is seen to create group/class to dominate the other and these an avenue for exploitation and outright three are as ancient as mankind. But it is rather repression. intriguing to note that the 'other' is not the only victimized in society today. As we shall see in The issues of gender, naming and sexuality are Dibia's novel, anyone who decides to exist complex and sensitive subjects in African society. outside the established gender norm is ostracized They seem to be characterized by the interaction from the rest of the society. and sometimes competition between what is intimate/secret, what is private or public, what is Sexuality and politics of Exclusion in African hidden or exposed, what is exclusive or inclusive, Literature above all, what constitutes interest, voice and Sexuality in African literature has been regarded desire. These ideals may not be so important as it as a set of political, social, cultural and economic were universally but their boundaries are elements that cannot be compared to the root culturally and socially appraised. The issue of meaning of the term. Any wide-ranging openness is a great challenge to the African. One discussion of sexuality is a welcome development is not opened to his/her sexuality and this has today, since for a long period of time this topic created a lot of hypocrisy in the people. The idea was considered a taboo in black Africa. Secrecy that sexuality is a private matter; it is an issue to be has always been a key to the understanding of the hidden under the cover of the night makes it difference in sexual relation; much of this impossible for one to confront matters related to diversity is not so glaring because it is kept one's sexuality in Africa, with legislations now in from public scrutiny. There are not obviously place for such habits as existing outside some challenges that cannot be addressed established gender identity, we find that the carelessly, nor can these challenges be addressed society is further pushed to secrecy and by the age-long laughing –to-keep from-crying voicelessness/silence especially as it relates to attitude. We cannot even rely on the idea of sexuality. courage, hope, love, and the spirit which have always sustained the human mind in African The social constraint placed on gender society to dissect the problem posed by sexuality compliance and deviation is also so great that because it is often times beyond the most people feel deeply offended when they comprehension of common sense/reasoning. defined according to their actions or inactions, for instance if one is said not to be acting manly or Any discourse on sexuality before now was womanly. One is constantly reminded that social unimaginable in Africa because anything existence requires unambiguous gender affinity, outside the heterosexual nature of man and hence one must be either a man or a woman woman would have been seen as abnormal in except that person is an hermaphrodite (not gay spite of de Behavior's theory of” becoming” or lesbian) in which case the person is existing the gender one chooses. To “become” in outside established gender norms. Of course, to African literature and society would have been stray out of the established gender norms would seen as imposing the very” rotten” western put the person's existence into question. culture on the deep/'normal' cultural African

158 Sexuality and the Politics of Exclusion in Jude Dibia's Walking with Shadows Remi Akujobi

relieving the primary being” (85). The 'other' It is therefore evident that to this day, Africans whether man or woman in this light is the particularly Nigerians, have refused to discuss “adjunct”, the “alter”, all of these make him sexuality in all its ramifications, ordinary people a complete “stranger” in the scheme of things. shy away from this issue, intellectuals who are given to interrogating issues have been passive In the light of the place of the 'other' in about this, Ngos are not concerned about this society, becoming a particular gender may not be either but the point one must raise is that no matter unconnected with an active process of how hard people run from issues, they exist. appropriating, explaining and re-interpreting received cultural possibilities as one may just Another issue is 'naming' in African literary organize past and future cultural norms in a way landscape because this brings to mind the true to suit one's needs by an active style of living nature of literature and this is tied to the one's body, living one's body may not be as easy secondary placement of the so-called 'others' in as one thinks and this makes some 'others' in literary discourse. One can never forget how society as we see in Jude Dibia's novel, Walking hard it was for women to get published, one with Shadows. must remember the George Eliots of this ' ' world to know the place of the other in But the image of the 'other' is fraught with literature. In spite of the creative ability given to contradictions, there are images moving the “ ” , ' man by God the status of the other s opposite direction, the image of the perfect, the authorship, and the nature of his depiction beautiful and at the same time, awful, stupid and within the African literary tradition are contemptible. (Ruth, Fuss). In looking at the ( - certainly issues of great relevance Ogundipe problems of gender in both intellectual enterprise ., Leslie 44). It is generally agreed that women and in life, one is tempted to say that these for instance have written much works but the problems affect the progress of the 'other' and , question is are these works received the same the development of the society as a whole. way men's works are received? Have they ever received the same critical review? ' Unfortunately, it has not been all rosy for the Dibia s Walking with Shadows and the issue of African female or the 'other' writer and gender identity. ' whatever he ('he' is used as a universal form) Jude Dibia s works deal with the portrayal of the ' '. is worth in society hence one often finds that African other The main characters of his – exclusionary practices usually perpetuates gender novels Unbridled and Walking with Shadows show myths and this is transferred to the reading public what it means to be a woman and a gay man in and by extension to the society. The 'other' in Nigerian society. Dibia looks at how sexuality can this case has always been marginalized by the sometimes be the only way by which / society; his work has remained femininity masculinity is described or achieved. unacknowledged. His contribution to With Walking with Shadows, Dibia points out the knowledge/society has always been subject for fact that Nigeria operates under a culture of silence debate-is he worth all the noise? especially in issues of sexual abuse and exclusionary practices. Issues such as sexual abuse, physical The 'other' is not an autonomous being; he is the abuse, rape, emotional abuse are out of public incidental, the inessential. “ Otherness” as spheres as they are considered 'too graphic' for exposed helps to boost the ego of the oppressor discussion. Since there is no condemnation of and defines the 'other' as the other half of these abuses, then there must be silent humanity. This means as Ruth Shelley puts it approval of the perpetuations of these crimes. “ the other half that helps, that assists in the We know that sexual abuse is a universal issue but is it right for a handful of people to take work of society⋯ by staying out of the way or advantage of defenseless individuals? Silence as one

159 Sexuality and the Politics of Exclusion in Jude Dibia's Walking with Shadows Remi Akujobi notice perpetuates the myth that sex abuse, lot of depression and struggles there. (BBC homosexualism and its attendant challenges belong to the Interview, April, 4 2006) West and this has aided the politics of silence and out- rights denial of the existence of certain behaviours in But is homosexuality possible in a country like Nigeria? It society. Dibia's novel, Walking with Shadows is possible but we all know what that possibility is especially comprehensively deals with the issue of gender with the current posture of the Nigerian government on the identity, particularly the subject of issue. Dibia says he interacted with some gay men homosexuality in Nigerian society. This is an and women in his research for the novel and his issue that has hitherto been considered a taboo findings justify the fact that homosexuality exists in the Nigerian literary landscape, but for Dibia in Nigeria. to delve into this complex area of our reality, he I had the opportunity of interacting with needs to be commended. quite a number of gay males and females. My discussions with them opened my eyes Culturally homosexuality is an abomination in to a lot of truths and pains they encounter. Nigeria; no one readily talks about it as it is It can never be easy to be stigmatized and assumed that it does not exist. It is unheard of eternally condemned or simply being that one has chosen to live outside his gender tagged "queer." One of the quotes in my affinity. It is crazy for a Nigerian to practice novel -- the last chapter when Adrian homosexualism in theory as it were but the reality explains to Ada, his estranged wife, -- is that 'we have them' in our society, whether or what it meant to be gay was a direct not we want to speak out does not eliminate the quote from one of my sources. I couldn't fact that they are there. Some asked the novelist change anything... it was so beautiful the where his inspiration came from considering the way and the passion my source framed that fact that Nigeria does not condone issues like explanation. (BBC Interview, April, 4. 2006) homosexuality and his answer is: For him to find a balance between fiction and It was quite easy really. The society today in Nigeria is reality, the author creates Adrian to authenticate changing quite a lot. It would be rather naive if one the fact that this issue is real, some believable in " ." ' pretends not to notice the growing trend of spite of his flaw Dibia says I had to dig deep gay men and the ordeal they have to live within myself to find that something I could share through. I was intrigued by this and also by with this character. And I did. I was able to the other side you know... how do their explore a part of my youth and childhood that I ' ( , wives/girlfriends feel if they were all of a found difficult... BBC Interview April 4 sudden challenged with this reality; I couldn't 2006) pass up the possibility. (BBC Interview, April, 4 2006) In Walking with Shadows, Nigerian women are made to live with this reality every day; they are Dibia says that the story was to present a not even expected to protest the injustice of neutral picture of homosexuality. He wanted to this behavior. We are aware of women who portray one character and bounce that off the are in this type of relationship and society wife because she was going through some issues, expects compliance from them. That Ada is but: protesting is frowned at by other women in the Being gay in Nigeria is so funny because you novel who feel that she either lives with it or joined cannot admit to it. You have to pass as something their league of lesbians/society women. else and create a different persona and live that persona. And, sometimes for some people, they Homosexuality as presented in Dibia's end up being married and they have families and Walking with Shadows they try to suppress who they are. But, there is a Walking with Shadows tells the story of a young

160 Sexuality and the Politics of Exclusion in Jude Dibia's Walking with Shadows Remi Akujobi man named Adrian, quite accomplished in the because; the ghost of the past may not remain real sense of the word but he has to confront in the past for ever. In his own case, the his sexuality in both private and public ghost is only temporarily kept away for years as spheres. Dibia in this novel uses his great it later came knocking without warning. literary charm to imaginatively bring our a character that is identifiable, a character that is Telling oneself the truth may be the only way completely alienated, excluded and out as Adrian later discovers. Denials never help marginalized in society as a result of his sexual as Adrian tries to do. He even feels that baptism preference. Becoming which has been argued with water will rid him of his love for a certain to be a choice one must confront is seen in game he is fond of and this is a game that actually this novel to have compounded the way and defines his sexuality: manner one is received in society. For Adrian, He loved that game, the running around taking on a new name means stripping himself in circles, singing and chasing his of his inner yearnings: shadows. But he had been told that he Ebele was going to die today. He knew it. He was not supposed to like that game. It welcomed it. He was simply going to let it was not a manly game and he was often happen so that Adrian could be born. He laughed at when he played this game only hoped it would be painless⋯.this was with the girls. After today he would not a day for rebirths and it was a good have to play that game again. He would be enough day to be reborn and Ebele could a new person. (4) not have chosen a better location for . - this His ten year old mind was in a Adrian feels that letting go of his old name and

hurry to rid itself of the pathetic person it game means the disappearance of his true ( had always known as Ebele 1) identity, his true nature 'he gave up his thought as he truly felt himself fading away' (5) but one can Choosing to be someone is just a step but what never on cheat nature and 'becoming' must about the ingredients needed for total align with one's true nature, other-wise, the emancipation of the mind or soul? This justifies venture will be a fruitless one just as we discover the issue of 'naming' in this discourse. Ebele with Adrian. Old habits they say hardly die. These feels that taking a new name is a way of habits certainly rear their heads again and again as confronting what is real and made manifest Adrian discovers, he has only been marking time. because it is a complete labeling of some sort 'The sheer guilt of living a false life for so long which God sanctioned even in the beginning of pricked him. But he had gone straight, suppressed things. Adam is named after the 'earth' from a lot of feelings and had even denied himself so which he was created and he in turn, named much and now this⋯.'(8) but it came out all the animals in the Garden of Eden. This anyway and when it did, no one could stop its concept of naming is normally used to explosion because Ada reacts 'Are you gay, distinguish one person or thing from the other. Adrian?'She asked a little too calmly. Have you Naming tends to identify a class or category of been gay all this while we've been married' (11) things or people hence Adrian tries to purge with these words coming directly from Adrian's himself of his past yearnings by assuming a new wife, the physical conflict of the novel is set in name. After his re-naming, Ebele or Adrian as the motion. case may be 'closed his eyes tight⋯' and just feels that in a matter of seconds, 'Ebele would The evolvement of Adrian as one can see fade away and Adrian would emerge' (4) But is actually builds up the totality of the central this enough for one's total emancipation from theme of the novel. Dibia tries to depict the whatever is plaguing one? Adrian's personality issue of homosexuality through a named only fades away briefly as we later discovered character called Adrian/Ebele Njoko and

161 Sexuality and the Politics of Exclusion in Jude Dibia's Walking with Shadows Remi Akujobi through this, the whole plot is made manifest Adrian is then forced to go back to his long especially as this omniscient narrator tells us the forgotten gay friends who thought he had left and entire experience of Adrian/Ebele from his detested their kind of lifestyle which subscribes to childhood days till he becomes an established man. the fact that one cannot run away from one's true The events are presented in such a way that the identity as it will surely come back one day. This is reader is made to see Adrian/Ebele Njoko right clearly demonstrated by Abdul who is happily from his forlorn and poignant childhood; trying 'married' to his long loved gay partner Femi. to deny his real identity, an identity he cannot Abdul tells Adrian thus: explain, while craving the love and approval of You sound as if you are ashamed of your his parents and brothers which all result in past', Abdul said.' You sound like you disaster. had a choice in determining your sexuality⋯ You sound like it is a curse to Because Adrian denies his true identity, all his be homosexual and you should be hidden past boomerang especially when he thinks punished for your crimes⋯ every day in a that he has a perfect life with his loving wife, a gay man's life, he is constantly hurt by beautiful daughter and an enviable occupational people he loves most. His family. His friends. status in the company he works for. His downfall And even society. We have to live with the comes when he attempts to expose a fraud case in rejection everyday and that hurts. We have to his place of work and this brings about his own grin and bear it constantly so that other integrity. One of the top management officers, people are comfortable at our expense⋯ Tayo Onasanya is found to be involved in this all you can't help it but hurt people you love evolving fraud in the company and Adrian sometimes (24). considers it his duty to expose the sinister acts which leads to Tayo Onasanya being sacked. With these words Adrian tries to accept his fate of being gay and is ready to face anyone who wants Tayo is compelled to revenge what he considers a to know about him because 'you must be true to betrayal and so in turn decides to expose Adrian's yourself' (26) hidden secrets. These secrets are embedded in Adrian's queer sexuality and who does Tayo feel Adrian has to confront his brothers, Chiedu and should know first? It is Adrian's wife and every Chika because they have always known that Adrian other person connected to him one way or the is not a regular guy and we see in the course of the other. novel, that the older brother Chika really feels sorry for Adrian, he knows that it is not easy to Revenge, they say is sweet because Tayo's act of be 'different'. He tries to talk it over with him, telling brings Adrian's whole life, family and social trying to know what really went wrong. As far status crumbling down as his wife Ada is rocked as Chiedu is concerned, Adrian needs deliverance and shattered by this revelation. Adrian on his and so organizes a deliverance session for Adrian and part tries to avert the disaster this news may have the outcome is the vicious beating to rid Adrian of the caused by embracing the truth, the truth being 'evil spirit' tormenting him. But Adrian's descent that he has always been gay but decides to stop into hell as it were, does nothing to relieve him of this eight years before especially when he fell in love temporary normlessness. He faces another hell from with Ada. He, therefore, confronts his hunting the company he had worked in for a long time, he shadows by openly telling his wife and extended becomes a victim as he is given few weeks to 'kill' family how he had lived a life contrary to the scandal surrounding him or face whatever established gender affinity. But the consequences consequences the company is going to dish out to of his coming clean are devastating. Ada, his wife him. breaks with him thereby depriving him of the love and comfort of his beloved daughter Ego. Ada, Adrian's wife is not left out of the scandal as

162 Sexuality and the Politics of Exclusion in Jude Dibia's Walking with Shadows Remi Akujobi she becomes a point of reference in every social and athletic man can live a very confused life gathering as a result of her husband's sexuality. with regards to his sexuality, same for Adrian Dibia says that the reaction to the way he handled and his gay friends. Rotimi works in the same the character of is not Nigerian. Because Adrian is company with Adrian and when he hears about his gay relationship, he goes to Adrian and such a sweet character, his wife should have stood pledges his solidarity despite the scandals. Later by him, but the fact is remains that, Walking with on in the story, Rotimi is seen trying to connect Shadows, is a fictional novel. with Adrian's personality saying he loves girls very much but he had once had a gay experience with his Adrian's realization is pertinent in that here: close friend. He labels himself a heterosexual but I have come to learn', Adrian began, he is seen trying to lure Adrian into committing 'that being gay has nothing to do with the another affair with him. But Adrian in his physical action of sex or a person's sexual devastated state rejects his offer and tries to advice preference, be with the opposite sex or him to go and check himself fully to know his true same sex. Sleeping with a man or woman sexual preference. We have many 'Rotimis' in our will always remain the individual's choice. I society today who are not sure of themselves, am gay because it is who I am .It is the way I there are those who lead false lives in an attempt see the world. It is the way I reason and live. to belong, (we have seen Bruce Jenner who lived as It is waking up in the morning and going to a man with six children and wife, all a sudden bed at night. It is listening to music and realizes that he had been hiding his true identity all loving it. It is watching a movie and wanting these years) there are also those who occasionally to see it over again. It is laughing when I am stray outside the defined gender norm and are happy and crying when I sad. It is chastised for doing so ( as pious as our society is appreciating the simple things life brings when it comes to gender affinities, we still have and not the act of sexual intercourse. Sex people who live double lives as to pass for what on its own is a physical expression of love society calls 'normal'). The society is or lust. I could love a woman because of the homophobic and this is not helping matters qualities she possesses and still be gay. A because many families especially women live in man can be gay all his life without actually painful silence, they are aware that their husbands sleeping with another man. Can you are gay but the society must not know about it. understand this?' (239). They always want to keep it in the family because speaking out would be scandalous for the entire Jude Dibia is basically emphasizing the fact that our family lineage. Those of them who have the culture and social norms have made us innocently financial means just disappear overseas to live their victimized people in that one must conform to free lifestyles. defined values or be ostracized. Adrian represents so many 'innocent' and eloped Nigerians who Conclusion have left the shores of Nigeria because of We cannot help but remember the fact that unfriendly norms and values therefore becoming sexuality defines the very essence of one's alienated from their own roots. The author is trying humanity including one's self image, and one's to see the world of the marginalized people who definition of being female or male, physical looks live their lives in secrecy, silence and fear as they and reproductive capacity. Sexuality therefore is a hide under various kinds of guises. fundamental aspect of human existence. Sexuality as a concept is not peculiar to any specific group of Jude Dibia in Walking with Shadows has been able individuals (male or female) or region but it is an to give a panoramic view of the many disjointed attribute all human beings possess. But in our characters in life and in society using the world, we concern ourselves with the negative characters such as Rotimi to show how a young antecedents in the issue of sexuality, it is

163 Sexuality and the Politics of Exclusion in Jude Dibia's Walking with Shadows Remi Akujobi however pertinent to point out here that we ---. Power/Knowledge: Selected interviews and other draw on our sexuality for us to be able to make writings 1972-1977. New York: Pantheon sense of who we are, there is no way we will not Books. 1980b define ourselves in part through our sexuality, no Hooks, Bell. Yearning: Race, gender, and cultural matter the situation we are in, hence even after eight politics. Boston: South End Press. 1990. years of blissful marriage, Adrian in Walking with Knopp, Larry. Ontologies of place, Shadows could not shy away from his sexuality and placelessness, and movement: queer we also have to remember that we are often viewed quests for identity and their impacts on and understood through our sexuality even though contemporary geographic thought. Gender, it is not all that we are made of. Place, and Culture, 11(1), 2004. 121-134. Razack, S. H. Looking white people in the eye: Gender, This study finds out that even in 21st century race, and Culture in courtrooms and classrooms. Nigeria, we live under a culture of silence particularly Toronto: University of Toronto Press. where sexuality is concerned. Sexuality in this part of 2006. the world evokes emotional debates especially as it Ahmed, Sarah. Strange Encounters: Embodied Others in . : . is tied to cultural interpretations. Post-Coloniality London Routledge 2000.

Subjects such as sexual abuse, physical abuse, rape, emotional Levinas, Emmanuel. Totality and Infinity: An Essay on . ( . , .). abuse, and homosexuality are not discussed. As Exteriority A Lingis Trans , : stated before, keeping quiet about these issues is almost a Pittsburgh PA Duquense University . silent approval and this also supports the assertion that Press 1963. . these issues are a white problem not part of the Nigerian Spivak. Gayatri Chakravorty Can the ?: culture. But as we have learnt, the issue of gender Subaltern Speak Speculations on . identity and sexuality are universal. Widow Sacrifice In Marxism and the . ( . Walking with Shadow has been described as "a Interpretation of Culture C Nelson and . , .) : thought provoking tale of denial and the politics L Grossberg Eds Chicago, IL . of African male sexuality" that "doesn't beg you University of Illinois Press 1988. to make apologies for homosexuals nor does it preach the sanctity of heterosexual relationship but forces you question your own humanity and tolerance." Retrieved on Friday, April 14, 2006. Gender and its attendant problems are extremely sensitive issues especially in a contemporary society such as the Nigeria because it affects the conduct of an individual whether male or female. Gender is one of the social differences on which status differences are based, therefore gender has been identified as a social construct specifying the socially and culturally prescribed roles that men and women are to follow.

Works Cited Bernstein, Mary. Identity politics. Annual Review Sociology, 2005. 31, 47-74. Dibia, Jude. Walking with Shadows. Black Sand. 2005. Foucault, Michel. The history of sexuality Volume I: An introduction. (Hurley trans.). New York: Vintage. 1980a.

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Rhetorical Strategies in Ngugi WaThiong'o And Mugo's The Trial of Dedan Kimathi

Williams Catherine Olutoyin Ph.D Department of English Studies Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun, Ijebu-Ode,Ogun State And AkinrinlolaTemidayo B.A(Ed), M.A Department of English Studies Mcpherson University, Seriki-Sotayo, Abeokuta, Ogun State.

Abstract Studies on Ngugi and Mugo's, The Trial of Dadan Kimathi have addressed the text mostly from the literary angle. Studies from the linguistic perspective are very scanty. This paper investigates rhetoric7al strategies in The Trial of Dadan Kimathi. The theoretical anchor for the study is the theory of rhetoric. The theory is considered suitable considering its strength to offer corpus of materials in text stylistics. The choice of the text is informed by its revolutionary content. The data was got through a close reading of the text during which the various rhetorical strategies used in the play were identified and subjected to stylistic analysis. Ngugi and Mugo rely heavily on the use of pronominal reference, symbols, contrast, metaphor, paralinguistics, registers, apostrophe, allusion, pun, one word sentence pattern, voice management, song and personification to project the thematic preoccupation of racial discrimination and social struggle in the play. These devices are used to portray the harrowing experience socio- economic and political realities of the Kenyan society. Further studies could investigate rhetorical patterns in non-revolutionary plays. Key words: Rhetorical strategies, NgugiWaThiongo and Mugo, style, theme, context.

165 Rhetorical Strategies in Ngugi WaThiong'o And Mugo's The Trial of Dedan Kimathi Williams Catherine Olutoyin Ph.D and AkinrinlolaTemidayo B.A(Ed), M.A

Introduction Aim and Objectives of the Study Drama belongs to the frozen style of language. It The aim of the study is to examine rhetorical unveils some of the social and cultural values of a strategies in NgugiWaThiong'o and Mugo'sThe speech community. Characters represent the Trial. The objectives are: thought of a writer. A writer's point of view is the - To identify the rhetorical strategies used in the perspective or the way in which he narrates his text. story to reflect his ideology (Mey, 2001). - To describe how the rhetorical strategies reveal the thematic preoccupation of the text. Fowler (1971) observes that 'the text provides the best evidence of its own structure'. According to Studies on The Trial of Dedan Kimathi him, it cannot be seriously claimed that its A good number of studies have been carried out contexts are not relevant to its understanding or on Ngugi and Mugo'sThe Trial. While most of the process of understanding the text. Linguistic these studies are literary in orientation, very few stylistics helps the analyst to unravel what has have investigated the play from the linguistic been put together in form of text, through angle. Nwokocha (2009) carries out a painstaking attempts to arrive at a measure of deconstructionist reading of the text. He objectivity and explicitness in his description of criticises the views of scholars who see the play as the complex structure of language. One of the only that which is based on trial. Udenta (2010) prominent domains of stylistic appraisal is appraises the ideological and cultural content of rhetoric. This domain investigates persuasive the text and submits that the play tilts towards a strategies employed by a writer to achieve effects. consolidation of revolutionary aesthetics. The ultimate goal of rhetoric is to sustain the Bhuvana (2010) tags the text as a masses-oriented reader's interest while driving home some one. He opines that WaThiong'o is concerned ideologies. This informs the concern of the with the struggle for freedom in his writings. present study. The present study is interested in Akinwumi (2014) sees the text as a product of investigating rhetorical strategies in historical literature that attempts to recreate the NgugiWaThiong'o and Mugo'sThe Trial of Kenyan history. Dasylva (2004) attempts a DedanKimathi, henceforth The Trial. The study is Marxist analysis of the text. He arguedthat Ngugi interested in examining how the resources of demonstrates the ideal of social struggle in his language have been deployed by the playwrights plays. Roscoe (2007) studies the nature of to project the thematic pre-occupation of the disillusionment in The Trial. He asserts that Ngugi text. attempts a radical portrayal of the injustice and inequality that are obtainable in Kenya. Statement of the Problem Existing studies on NgugiWaThiong'o and On the forms of power, Outa (2001) investigates Mugo'sThe Trial have concentrated on the literary the dramaturgy of power and politics in post- appraisal of the text. Some of these colonial Kenya using The Trial. He is of the include:Nwokocha (2009); Udenta (2010), opinion that the text comments on unequal Bhuvana (2010); Akinwumi (2014), Dasylva power relations. Daramola (2011) examines (2004); Roscoe (2007); Outa (2001), Daramola culture and performance in The Trial. His findings (2011); Mba (1999), Ayodele (2005). To the best reveal that Ngugi recreates the Kenyan culture of our knowledge, linguistic studies are yet to through performance of a hero. Mba(1999) investigate how Ngugi and Mugo use the comments on The Trial as a text that reveals the resources of language to express contextual struggle for independence in the Kenyan society. issues in the play. The present study attempts to Considering the text from the Marxist address this lacuna. perspective,Ayodele (2005) submits that Ngugi has a sharp principle based on Marxist principle and complete ideological denunciations. From

166 Rhetorical Strategies in Ngugi WaThiong'o And Mugo's The Trial of Dedan Kimathi Williams Catherine Olutoyin Ph.D and AkinrinlolaTemidayo B.A(Ed), M.A the linguistic angle, Odunfa (2013) examines that culture is 'reconstituted' through language. grapho-syntactic markers in The Trial. He opines Just as language influences people, people that Ngugi uses various graphological and influence language. He further argues that syntactic variables to pass across his message. language is socially constructed and depends on the meaning people attach to it. Writers try to On the role of meaning, (Akinrinlola 2011), construct a new world and persuade his or her carries out languageandpowerrelations in The readers to share that world within the text. Trial. He submits that the form of the text is a pointer to various shades of meaning in the text. On rhetoric and text, Gray (2013) asserts that From the foregoing, it is evident that studies have rhetorical strategies are efforts made by authors investigated The Trial. There is hardly a study that to persuade or inform readers. He identifies four has examined how Ngugi and Mugo use language arguments strategies which are; argument from to express the thematic preoccupation of the text. analysis, argument from absurdity, through It is against this background that the present experiment and influence to the best explanation. study attempts to investigate same. Modern rhetorical criticism explores the connection between text and content; how an Theoretical Anchor instance of rhetoric relates to circumstances. It is The theory on which the present study is against this background that the present study anchored is that of rhetoric. The choice of applies rhetoric as a theoretical framework to rhetoric as the framework is premised on its examine the various rhetorical strategies strength to offer corpus of linguistic materials for employed by the playwrights to project the text description. Rhetoric helps to study the thematic preoccupation in NgugiWaThiong'o linguistic peculiarities and how they function to and Mugo'sThe Trial. express meaning in text. Synopsis of the Play Rhetoric is the art of discourse, an art that aims to Ngugi and Mugo's, The Trial, was published in improve the capability of writers or speakers to 1976.The text captures the imperialistic motives inform, persuade or motivate particular evidence of the Europeans in Kenya and the resistant will in specific situations. Its best known definition of the Kenyan peasants. The play opens with the comes from Aristotle, who considers it a court scene where Kimathi is tried for possessing counterpart of both logic and politics, and calls it fire arm. This informs the agitation of some 'the faculty of observing in any given case, the angry peasants singing the song of rebellion. The available means of persuasion'. Rhetoric provides encounter between Johnnie and Woman portrays heuristics for understanding, discovering and racial prejudice and the height of inhumanity that developing arguments for particular situations characterise the existence of the blacks in Kenya. such as Aristotle's three persuasive evidence Woman is a significant character that serves as a appeals, logos, pathos and ethos. symbol of the struggle. She really helps to soothe the psychological imbalance that envelops Boy On the scope of rhetoric, scholars have debated and Girl. Kimathi uses language to the that rhetoric goes beyond political discourse. discomfiture of Judge. Kimathi is greatly lobbied They liberate it to encompass every aspect of by Henderson, the Business Executive, Banks, culture. Many contemporary approaches treat Politician and Priest Indian, but refuses to rhetoric as human communication that includes compromise his stance in the course of the purposeful and strategic manipulation of the struggle. Woman, however, orchestrates a deal by resources of language. putting a gun in a loaf of bread and sends it to Kimathi. The stage is turn as a gun-shot sees the Herrick (2001) argues that rhetoric is influenced peasants take charge of the stage. by the theory of social construction. He posits

167 Rhetorical Strategies in Ngugi WaThiong'o And Mugo's The Trial of Dedan Kimathi Williams Catherine Olutoyin Ph.D and AkinrinlolaTemidayo B.A(Ed), M.A

Method One of the prominent rhetorical devices used in The data for the study was got through a close the play is pronoun. The use of pronouns in the reading of the play. The various rhetorical strategies play suggests a society that is class based. The used in the play were noted. The playwrights use of pronouns are suggestive of unequal power devices such as pronouns, character contrast, relations between the blacks and white in Kenya. metaphor, personification, pun, allusion, soups, This portrays the domination of the blacks by the paralinguistic features, voice etc. to vividly express whites. An instance is given in the table above the thematic preoccupation of the text are where Kimathi is to tried at the courtroom. Judge examined. The rhetoric devices, instances from the appears to be a super-ordinate character by virtue text and their thematic foci are identified and of his race, and position. This explains why he presented in a table and findings are discussed. compels Kimathi to respond to the changes. He constantly uses the first person pronoun – 'I' to Contextual Situation and Content Analysis front his access to power. This stresses the theme For the content analysis, weshall examine some of class differencebetween the Kenyan natives linguistic tools used by theplaywrights to project and the whites. Pronominal reference is often the themes of the text.I represent these on the used in the play to project the issue of racial table below: discrimination between the blacks and the whites.

Rhetorical Linguistic Thematic Another striking device used by the playwrights is Device Item Preoccupation symbols. Certain words are carefully used for Pronouns I'll repeat the charge I could order that you be sent for a signification purposes. 'Bread' is used to connote certain term to jail. life, a substance of liberation for the Kenyans. Symbols Bread, Kimathi, Women, Buy, Woman' packages gun in a bread to saveKimathi's Girl life.”Bread” represents freedom in this context Contrast …But let me tell you. After the trial, after Kimathi is hanged, and it behoves every Kenyan to fight the course. these will be end of this bloody Kimathi represents the resolute and unrepentant struggle Nzungu'. will of the Kenyans to ensure liberation for the Metaphor …Their universities where they give our children education to oppressed majority. He is the peoples' hero. The enfeeble minds, make them slave. same goes for 'Woman'. Here, the playwrights Paralinguistics Through the silence, the chilling portray the place of women in the course of scream of a person, followed by groans and more scream. revamping socio-economic and political malaise Registers Oppression, exploitation, comrade, that characterise Kenya. 'Boy' and 'Girl'symbolise peasants, settlers, liberation etc. an average Kenya child who suffers untold Poetic language 'You see, I am not a poet and Racial hardship of colonisation, but has decided to a dreamer. Discrimination/ Class Difference follow the path of liberation. Symbols in the text Apostrophe My mother, sister… are used to express the theme of social Allusion The world passet away and the lust struggle/commitment. thereof, but the word of God abideth forever. Pun Trial… Character contrast is also made manifest in the Sentence Pattern Imagine, I would never have play. While Kimathi represents a crusader of believed it. A white man. A soldier. liberation even in the face of persistent trial, his Afraid fucking black monkey. brother, Nzungu, decides to betray the course. Voice Woman's voice Character contrast is used as a device, to propel Song Bururiuyuwitu- (Swahili song) the plot of the story line. Metaphors are used in Personification Hunger, the enemy who is fighting us. the text to paint imagery of oppression, Social Struggle starvation, prejudice and exploitation of the blacks. An instance is seen on page (69) where Kimathi comments on the kind of universities

168 Rhetorical Strategies in Ngugi WaThiong'o And Mugo's The Trial of Dedan Kimathi Williams Catherine Olutoyin Ph.D and AkinrinlolaTemidayo B.A(Ed), M.A they give to their children. Such universities, ridiculous nature of the charge: 'the death according to him, is meant to enslave rather sentence' for 'the illegal possession of a revolver' liberate them.Such expressions paint the theme which has killed no one. The petty objection of racial prejudice in the play. Besides the which goes on between Kimathi and the Judge metaphoric expressions in the text, paralinguistic also comments on the nature of the society and features equally play a prominent role. on the meaning of justice. Paralinguistic devices such as space, silence,scream(etc) help to create emotional appeal Ngugi also puts a pun on 'Trial'. The word 'Trial', as regards, the social situation of the blacks. The to the playwrights, refers to the trials Kimathi had whites do not share things in common with the to face when confronted four times by different blacks. Also, Kimathi's silence during the trial people. To Boy, it refers to the proceedings at the scene connotes an instance of rebellion against court which he wants to attend. Boy: 'The Trial of the nefarious system. These paralinguistic DedanKimathi. I must be there to hear it'. To features unveil the psychological trauma the Kimathi, it means more than the temptation he system offers the blacks. faces or his impending death. It is a psychological war which he fights within. Registers of Marxist, such as, oppression, exploitation, comrade peasants, settlers, From the perspective of syntax, Ngugi tries to liberation etc. are constantly repeated in the play manage words to express great ideas in one – to remind the reader about the harrowing word sentences, which are powerful strong, and experiences of the blacks. The registers introduce sometimes abusive. This expresses his anger and the nature of the Kenyan society as a capitalist defiance in the play. one. The theme of class difference is further strengthened with the reoccurrence of these Woman: Imagine. I would never have believed it lexical items. A white man.A soldier.Afraid. Settler: Field Marshall/Prime Minister. Fucking Poetic expressions are another device used by the black monkey. playwrights.Kimathi appears to be a character who can handle words even before the Lords. The use of voice is also worth mentioning in the This explains why Henderson refers to him as a play. Woman's voice, which is heard three times in poet.Ngugidoesnot hide his grievances against the play reiterates the responsibility of Boy and any individual, system or ideology. Owing to his Girl in the play, which can be seen as a new spear use of words,Kimathi is treated as a dangerous point for the regeneration of the society after a criminal or terrorist who must be hunted down necessary destruction. When Boy and Girl are and destroyed for the safety of the law-abiding morally bankrupt and dejected, Woman is always citizens of Kenya. there to conscientise them, stressing the gains of mutual responsibility. The simultaneous holding The playwrights use pun to achieve certain effects of the gun is indicative of the readiness to live up in the play. Kimathi continuously play on words. to their joint responsibility. This stresses the The word 'justice' is shown by Ngugi to mean theme of social struggle among the Kenyans. different things to different classes in the society. The play questions the notion of justice in the Songs also serve useful functions in the play. In context of the world of oppressor and the the count room, the atmosphere is depicted oppressed. One stage direction introducing the through the final Swahili song. In that song, the judge casts doubts on his qualification and moral play reiterates Ngugi's position: an indictment of credibility.Ngugi appears to be more poetic as the imperialism in all forms, a call for unity, not just charge is repeated several times. This becomes a the peaceful unity, but that which reflects the kind of lyrical refrain intended to emphasise the power of the masses to reject injustice.

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Personifications are used in the play to achieve voice, songs and personification. These rhetorical some effects. The word,'hunger' is personified as devices portray the socio-economic, cultural and 'the enemy who is finishing us”. This portrays the political realities of the Kenyan society in the degree of poverty, starvation and the havoc it has fight for independence. caused. Works Cited A gun is personified as well on pg (29) as 'the Akinrinlola, T. "Language and Power Relations judge' by the Settler. This shows the kind of in Ngugi Wa Thiong'o and Mugo's The violent justice which the colonialists introduced Trial of Dedan Kimathi” an unpublished and strengthens Ngugi's resolve for violence as a M.A Dissertation: Department of English, necessary way forward. University of Ibadan. 2011. Akinwumi, S. “History and Reality in Ngugi Wa There is the use of apostrophe to portray the Thiong'o's. Petals of Blood and The Trial of importance of women in society. As a girl, sister D e d a n K i m a t h i . T h e C i t a d e l – A or mother, Kimathi addresses an invisible Multidisciplinary Journal of Mulcoedvol. 1(3) presence, a mental silhouette of his crazed 128 – 139. 2014. mother. It could be said that women share a huge Ayodele, D. “A Marxist Reading of Ngugi's.The amount of the pains of liberation. Trial of DedanKimathi.Journal of School of Languages.Adeyemi College of Education, There is also the use of Biblical allusion in the OndoVol 2(1) pp. 62 – 72. 2005. text. Kimathi makes reference to certain parts of Bhuvana, N. “Masses as True Makers of History: the Bible that suit his course. Balaam's ass is an An Analysis of The Trial of DedanKimathi”. example. Kimathi's speech here alliterates. Journal of English vol. 1(4) pp. 246 – 256. Hearhim:“When the hinted has truly learnt to 2010. hunt his hunter, then the hunting game will be no Daramola, A. “Text and Context in Ngugi'sThe more (p. 34). Ngugi also employs rhetoric, which Trial of DedanKimathi”. an unpublished also serves as Biblical allusion. “How can we sing M.A. Thesis, Department of English, and dance like this in a strange land? Ngugi also University of Ibadan, Ibadan. 2011. uses rhetoric to philosophies with religion: can't it Dasylva, A. Studies in Drama. Ibadan: San be wrong even in the eye of your God for a people Bookman Educational Communication to fight against exploitation?” Girl asks one of the Services. 2004. questions the play tries to answer: “Who really is Fowler, R Essays on Style and Language. London: DedanKimathi?” This question is answered Routledge and Kenyan Paul. Publishers. distinctively throughout the play. The various 1966. rhetoric dances employed by Ngugi help to Gray, S. Rhetorical as Style. Oxford: Blackwell. reinforce themes of racial discrimination cum 2013. class difference and social struggle. Herrick, A. Language and Rhetoric. London: Longman. 2001. Conclusion Mba, F “Text and Independence Reality in The study has attempted an investigation of Ngugi'sThe Trial of Dedan Kimathi.”Journal of rhetorical strategies used in Ngugi and Mugo'sThe Linguistics vol 3(2) pp. 32 – 49. 1999. Trial. Using rhetoric as a theoretical framework, Mey, J. Pragmatics: An Introduction. Oxford: the playwrights express racial discrimination, Blackwell. 2001. class difference and social struggle through the Nwokocha, U. A Deconstructive Reading of Ngugi and distinctive deployment of devices such as: Mugo'sThe Trial of DedanKimathi. Okigwe: pronouns, symbols, character contrast, metaphor, Crystal Publishers. 2009. paralinguistics, registers, poetic language, apostrophe, allusion, pun, sentence pattern,

170 Rhetorical Strategies in Ngugi WaThiong'o And Mugo's The Trial of Dedan Kimathi Williams Catherine Olutoyin Ph.D and AkinrinlolaTemidayo B.A(Ed), M.A

Odunfa, N. “Grapho-syntactic Markers in Department of English, University of Ngugi's The Trial of DedanKimathi”: an Ibadan, Ibadan. 2007. unpublished M.A. Disser tation, Udenta, C. “Ideological and Cultural Content in Department of English, University of Ngugi and Mugo's The Trial of Ibadan, Ibadan. 2013. DedanKimathi” an unpublished M.Phil Outa, B. The Dramaturgy of NgugiWaThiong'o: Dissertation, Department of English, Ibadan: Ifeoluwa Publishers. 2001. University of Ibadan, Ibadan. 2010. Roscoe, A. “The Nature of Disillusionment in WaThing'o, N and Mugo, M. The Trial of Ngugi's The Trial of DedanKimathi.” an DedanKimathi: London Heinemann. 1976. unpublished Mphil Dissertation,

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Aspects of African Oral Literature and Performance Aesthetics

Abdullahi Kadir Ayinde Ph.D Department of English Yobe State University, Damaturu

Abstract This paper gives an overview of an ethnographic portrait of the artists who recreate the tradition of oral performance as well as samples of performance situation of Ereno festival of Epe people in Lagos. The essay spells out certain aspects of oral tradition and critically examines how they did have the appreciation of beauty through performance. African oral tradition and folkways deal with man's existential being. It grapples with man's dilemma and adventure in life. The utilitarian value of the oral tradition is to utilize its various conventions for instruction and entertainment and to stimulate human feeling through songs, song-tales, riddles, beast-fables, parables, jokes, proverbs, anecdotes, legends, myths, fables, spics, folktales and stories. In traditional African literature, the oral performer spoke in prose and verse and song. The dynamism with which the performer exhibits the aesthetic potency of the oral forms makes the African poets and storytellers the community chroniclers, entertainers and collective consciousness.

172 Aspects of African Oral Literature and Performance Aesthetics Abdullahi Kadir Ayinde. Ph.D

Introduction To African Literature (202) posit that with the This paper begins with the definition of the advent of colonialism, Africans established and African oral literature. It discusses a few examples employed folktales as a reaction to the new of the genres of oral tradition and illustrates oppressive reality. They affirm that: performance aesthetics in the dramatic genre with a specific reference to Ereno traditional In the 1960s, the Oxford Library of African festival among Epe people of Lagos State Literature edited by E.E. Evans Pritchard, G. (Nigeria). The concept of oral literature remains Lienhardt and W.H Whiteley provides an avenue largely contentious among various subscribers to for the schorlarly study of folklore, and in the the discourse. Oral literature appears 1970s, Frantz Boah's widely accepted view that a contradictory in terms. Literature emphasises a people's folklore is a repository of their culture written art form often associated with and history led to the introduction of oral conventional texts as the novels of Charles literature into school and university sylabi.This Dickons, the plays of William Shakespeare and scientific approach to the study of folklore the poetry of Alexandra Pope among numerous resulted in mass proliferation of folklore texts in others. To consider literature as oral (spoken many parts of Africa. words), therefore, appears contradictory. The oral nature of African unwritten art forms Eurocentric's definitions, thus, seek to limit the depends largely on words as its mode of term literature to only the written texts to the transmission. Oral literature embodies a large exclusion of all unwritten art-forms. For instance, corpus of artistic oral creativities which could be Claude Levy Bruhl cited in Akporobaro (41) given effect through performance. Finnegan (2) contends in his popular text entitled The posit accurately that the significance of Priminitive Mentality that the priminitive African performance in oral literature goes beyond a mere man lacks the ability of logical reason or matter of definition. The nature of the intelligent. The mentality of the African man was performance constitutes an important assumed to be illogical. The implication of this component that impact on the literary form being assertion is that the African man's organisation of exhibited. Performance encompasses the ideas, his creativity, modes of perception, his modulation of voice and tone, facial expressions, rational ordering of ideas and experience of movements, gestures, emotional situation, reality are choatic, lacking coherence and humour form the aesthetic elements which are intellectual qualities of the European's rational artifacts that accentuate the full actualization of a and logical approach. Most European thinkers poem, a drama or a narrative prose. Oral tradition and literary anthropologists of the eighteenth and can achieve a tremendous aesthetic grandeur nineteenth centuries did not only denigrate the among performers and the audience through intellectual ability of the black man, they also visual effects and music which are essential maintained that the priminitive African man had components of performance. no literature. Performance Aesthetics and Aspects of Oral However, Bukenya and Nwanda cited in Ajadi Traditions (241) contend that literature refers to any Performance is a discourse or speech act in which utterances whether spoken, recited or sung, music, dance and drama are fully integrated to whose composition and performance exhibit to consitute an indivisible aesthetic form. an appreciable degree the artistic characteristics Performance is extremely important in oral of accurate observation, vivid imagination and literature because without it, oral tradition ingenious expression,. With this definition, remains lifeless. Oral literature is vastly enhanced African oral literature qualifies as an aesthetic and it is given its proper character by the manner composition. Killam and Rowe in The Companion in which it is performed. The nature of

173 Aspects of African Oral Literature and Performance Aesthetics Abdullahi Kadir Ayinde. Ph.D performance, the voice and the mimicry, the philosophical and metaphysical universe of man. It stimulus and the response of the audience is attempts to explain the origins of man as it relates central to oral literature. The performance also to the cosmology. Okpewho (11) argues that myth needs to be placed in its proper setting – the time is a 'fictive fancy' of the human mind and it occurs of the day and the season. The performance has when a 'historical personality has been treated to a its messages as well as its aesthetics which can be fictive fancy which nevertheless succeeds in learned through the language of drum, songs, the affecting an audience. Myth expresses the history, clapping of hands, the characterization and the the culture and the inner experience of the African elastic and plastic body of movements of the himself. The myth portrays the wishes and fears of actors; the participation of the audience and their the African man as he gropes to understand the imitation of the masquerades and the ululating, unknown by dissecting and remoulding it to fit his the rattles and songs which accompany these frame of reference. In the myth, Africa's dramatic aspects. (Azuonye 97) metaphysics are created and his beliefs constructed. Oduduwa myth among the Yoruba, Mumbi myth Oral tradition refers to the priminitive level of in Kenya, Bayajidda myth in Hausa to mention but literature. According to Babajo (20) it begins orally a few. What gives myth a literary status is that it is when people chant songs, tell stories and folktales performed as tales with all aesthetic components in moonlights, perform religion chants or of song, clapping and ululation. Kipng' eno koech incantations, the improvisation, imitation of the (21) buttresses the literary realization of myth when stories, folktales and fairytales as performed by he notes that: story teller who uses gestures, pantomime, actions The African mythologist…seeks to employ all and movements of the body or even instruments to forms of theatrical skill and put to use, every faculty convey messages to the audience. The aspects of in his delivery. The tale is told using hand, head, African oral tradition can be classified as drama, eyes, and even breathing (an emotion is evoked in prose narrative and sung expression/poetry. The the audience by changing breathing patterns). Like generic separation is not fixed or rigid as one finds a good play, the myth evokes suspense, sorrow in a formal written literature such as prose, poetry sympathy, and most of all laughter – for death and and drama. In other words, these forms overlap. laughter are interwoven. Each of the forms represents the creative and imaginative art of composition that relies on verbal As observed above, in the enactment of oral art that culminate in performance. narrative of myth, artistic elements are utilized to raise its aesthetic appeal. Moreover, myth is the Oral tradition relates to the use of utterances as an 'fictive fancy' of human creativity. Critics allude to aesthetic means of expression. Prose narrative, for the literary status of myth in the attempt to have an instance, is a genre of oral tradition that involves a insight into it. Therefore, myth is literature and a story telling. The theme of oral narrative could be matter of aesthetic experience and the imagination. light hearted, satirical or even serious. The plot of some of these stories involves the tricks and Oral poetry is another genre of oral tradition that competitions of various kinds of animals who is chanted, sung and performed.As an aspect of constitute the main characters. Spirit and inanimate oral tradition, it is performed to provide objects such as rock, stream, tree also function as entertainment, give information and create form characters. The didactic function of themes such as through which the African man adopts process ethological, myth, thriller and so on are part of and worship of deities. Okpewho (60 ) notes that: these oral narratives. The tales are not mutually exclusive of the other. In some tales, the themes The essence of true poetry lies in its power to overlap. Prose in oral narrative could be in the appeal strongly to our appreciation and, in a following forms, myth, legend, folktale, proverb, sense, lift us up. There are basically two ways in riddles and jokes. For instance, myth deals with the which a piece of poetry can appeal to us. One is by

174 Aspects of African Oral Literature and Performance Aesthetics Abdullahi Kadir Ayinde. Ph.D touching us emotionally, so that we feel either friend or any other person as the case may be to pleasure or pain; the other is by stirring our mind mourn the death of someone dear. The content deeply so that we reflect on some aspects of life of this poetry reveals a deep sense of sorrow and or some significant ideas. helplessness brought about by death. Okpewho observes that well-chosen songs of sorrow are Like other genres of oral literature, performance used by professional mouners to enhance the is essential in oral poetry. In fact it is an integral solemnity of the occasion”. Similarly, the poetry part of it. Again, poetry performed for public of mourning is a refined art among the Akan entertainment might reveal the effort that the ethnic group of Ghana. performer makes to give the audience a satisfactory event, such as singing a song, making Occupational poetry is peculiar to member of a digressions either to clarify certain details or to particular occupation. A good example is the Ijala give members of the audience some pride in their or hunters poetry among Yoruba hunters. The history and culture. All this gives the oral poetry Ijala chant is known to the hunters whose performed before an audience a certain quality of occupation of haunting is consecrated to Ogun, fullness and the sense of a communal event. the God of iron, and patron of all crafts There are various types of poetry: panegyric conducted with metal. During the celebration of poetry incantation, and lullaby among several 'Ipale' (hunters' festival), Ijala is chanted to seek others. For instance, panegyric poetry is usually the protection of Ogun, and praise him. Also, chanted by professional poets. Finnegan (32) when a member of the hunters dies, Ijala is sung identifies this poetry as 'the type for court poetry to celebrate his deeds and greatness. In both and is one of the most developed and elaborate cases, the performer chants in a high tone to poetic genres in Africa”. The poets in this 'provide,' according to Okpewho, 'the right pace category are attached to the royal court of kings, and level of excitement for the words which are or sometimes employed by wealthy and powerful chanted at some speed.’ individuals to sing their praises. The content of this poetry is highly restricted. Dramatic performance is a genre of oral tradition of which J. P. Clark (12) identifies two major types The poet is charged with chanting a specific type in African literature: traditional and modern. He of poetry and would need to have undergone a maintains that: formal training for the purpose. The king is of the first still very much in the original glorified with exaggerated image appropriately state…we can again determine two main chosen to swell his pride and give him a high sense sub-groups. One of these is sacred of his ancestry. If however, he suffers any failure because its subjects and aims are religious in war or commits an unwise act of leadership, the while the others are secular drama court poet takes care to choose words of caution ranging from the magical through a or blame that would not earn him the anger of the number of sub-kinds to the straight play king. (Okpewho. 42 ) and entertainment piece. Within the sacred species there are again two types: The griot of Mandinka ethic group, Kwadunfo of one grouping together what they have the Asante and Umusizi of Rwanda are few been termed ancestral or myth play and examples of court poets. Also, these highly the other which are masquerades or plays specialized poets could be found in ritual. The by age groups and cults. The drama of Babalawo (diviner) among the Yoruba and the Obatala and Oshagiyan performed Lodagaa of Ghana are professional poets who are annually at Oshagbo and Ejigbo provide usually involved in the Bagre initiation ceremony. indisputable examples of the first sacred Elegiac poetry is a traditional funeral dirge. This kind. Against this set are the masquerades poetry is sung or chanted by a bereaved relative or for examples, the ekine of Bunguma

175 Aspects of African Oral Literature and Performance Aesthetics Abdullahi Kadir Ayinde. Ph.D

In the enactment and representation through performance such as tone, gesture, and facial actors who imitate persons and events in these expression, dramatic use of pause and rhythm, performances, various elements of artistic the inter-play of passion, dignity, or humour, creativity are brought in to play. During some receptivity or the reactions of the audience are all festivals and ritual performances, a drama piece displayed. Before the performance begins, the may be enacted. For instance, the prayer of Epe people chant with each other, looking forward to people in Lagos before the commencement of a some great entertainment. They laugh, scream, ritual performance of Ereno rites as recorded by shout, make body movement, sing and so on. The Oludipe (41): performers sometimes wait eagerly for the Our father ceremony to commence so that they can display We your children on earth their expertise, release their tensions, and Are the ones calling on you experience a mental state different from everyday Don't sleep in heaven activities. The drummers introduce their May we not experience evil? drumming patterns. Songs are rehearshed so that May we not die prematurely? everything is well articulated and mastered for May we not be barren? performance. The audience already knows the All we your children song as it might have been sung in the previous Men, women years. The rhythmic clapping of the hands, the Who are at home, in the bush? rhythmic body movements, which is in tandem And abroad. with the drumming, the melodious singing, the Are praying unto you language, the facial expressions to show feelings, May we not be ill-fated? the costume of the performer, all combined Let our prayers receive answer. aesthetically to reveal the beauty and the semantic content of the song and the performance. The Before the prayer above is said, the family head chorus of the song enable the audience to with all the members would have gathered by the participate actively in the performance. Again, grave of their ancestor. The family head (usually a there is repetition of some lines which man) approaches the grave with two Kolanuts in contributes to the rhythm and substance of the his hands. Right in front of the grave, he stretches song and the performer. forth his hand towards the grave and then touches it with the kolanuts three times. After this, he The Ereno festival started as a form of religion says: practice. Afterward, its rites changed in scope and My father; I so and so (he will mention his objective, so that now, it plays a major role in both name) is the one who has stretched forth religion and social practice. In the performance, his hands to you this period. As we want artistic talents are put into visible and audible to start the traditional Ereno rites, we form through songs and dramatic sketches, which have all come to you to touch the grave are performed to entertain. The organisation of where you were buried. Please, accept our Ereno for public performance involves three sacrifice. groups of participants, namely; the priest, the performer and the audience Apart from the aesthetics of the overtones and symbolic association of words and phrases, the The priest is usually the family head who is vested actual poet's appealing beauty of voice, his facial with the power to announce when and where the expression, vocal expressiveness and even performance should take place. He also settles movement (all indicating the sincerity of his disputes that may arise during performance. The supplication and intercession) and, not the least, performers are the dancing group which the musical setting of the poem are effectively comprises men and women perticipants playing displayed. Indeed, all the various aspects of major roles. The performers wear masks to

176 Aspects of African Oral Literature and Performance Aesthetics Abdullahi Kadir Ayinde. Ph.D conceal their identity and imitate the ancestral gods. It involves sacrifices and various forms of persons. In their masks, the performers are rituals. Ritual is sacred because of its religious known as masquerades. The masquerades are not aims. It is devoid of conviviality hence it expected to expose their faces or reveal their solemnity, which sometimes creates awe. identity in public. The performers are regarded as Similarly, it has exclusiveness – only the priest and spirits of the deads who have back in the form of supplicant(s) are usually the performers. The masquerade to sojourn temporarily among the secrecy surrounding some rituals involve symbols living. The audience-participants should be under known only to the cult of selected initiated. illusion that the masquerades are spirits of their Schneider (34) affirms that Central to ritual action ancestors which must be respected. The is a special kind of symbolizing which is different performance provides an opportunity for each from that occurring outside ritual: There are performer to display their skills in singing, visual, behaviour, and auditory symbols ,which dancing and mimicking. The imaginative mind of have multiple meanings for the uninitiated. the various masks is presented to the audience for Equally important is sacrifice which constitutes appreciation. The performance provide an an essential aspect of ritual. Schneider (34) avenue for meeting old friends and making new observes further that:Sacrifice is a kind of acquaintances. exchange act in which human beings attempt metaphorically to sort out relations with the In traditional Ereno rites, the setting of theatrical powerful forces that rule their lives, an exchange performance is not in a specialized building, hall symbolizing a social force as they relate to man. or theatre but in front of chief's palace or any other place designated for such a performance. The setting of ritual performance varies from Also, the actors and actresses are not shrine to market square, the chief's palace to professionals. While there are no prepared script location marks for it. The various songs which are and dress rehearsals, the paraphernalia of art and associated with cults are performed in elements such as costumes, stage design, conjunction with worship of deities and lightening and drumming are creativity employed consequently confined to the locations which are to enhance performance aesthetics. The theatrical marked for religious services, rites of passage, or elements form an integral aspect that enhances annual ritual. Okpewho ( 52 ) while the elegant imitation of action and event. Ogunba acknowledging the importance of ritual in and Irele (21) note that in the process (of African art, considers it to be the cumulative point performance) the art of costuming, masking, of the creative will. Thus, ritual performance drumming, chanting, dancing and several others relates to those artistic elements inherent in ritual are utilized in a manner not totally dissimilar to as enacted in the course of appeasing the gods. their usage in other dramatic traditions. Finnegan Highlighting the ritual imprisonment of Obatala (5) points out again that African traditional at Osogbo, Linfors (19) narrates that the second drama, unlike 'the more verbalized types of day of the festival has a feature not unlike a European theatre emphasize music, song, dance passion play. There is no spoken dialogue but and mime which are essentials elements of singings which accompanies the performance dramatic performances. and the action. Festival is a big traditional ceremony usually acted with much ovation. From the foregoings therefore, it is evident that Unlike ritual performance, the mood is convivial. African traditional drama is an ingenious It involves large characters; usually the whole expression that imitates some actions and events community is involved where it is performed. It is which are significant to people. The common oral performed to celebrate certain important dramatic performances are ritual performance, occasions such as new yam festival, coronation festival, and children game to mention but a few. festival, Osun Osogbo festival etc. Ritual Performance is undertaking to appease the

177 Aspects of African Oral Literature and Performance Aesthetics Abdullahi Kadir Ayinde. Ph.D

Conclusion References For too long the impression has been given that Ajadi Gabriel, “African Oral Literature”, there is little or no literary activity worthy of African Oral Literature: Background attention happening in Afirica. However, the character and Continuity situation is changing fast and there are quite a Bloomington: Indiana University Press, large number of active scholars who take the 1992. study of oral tradition seriously and whose works --- (editor) The Heritage of African speak of the ernomous potential in Africa. The Poetry. London. Longman Bks. aspect of oral literature and performance ---, Myth in Africa. London. Cambridge aesthetic goes further to show the rich diversity University press, 1983. of African oral compositions. Apart from the J. P. Clark. “Aspect of Nigeria Drama” Nigeria aesthetic appeal of the ingenious creativity, the Magazine, 1960. purpose, which these oral compositions serve, is Killam Douglas and Rowe Ruth. The multifaceted. The socio-cultural, religious as well Companion To African Literature. Oxford. as spiritual lives of the African found a rich Indiana University, Press. 2000. source in African traditional culture. African Koech K, African Religions. London. NOK culture has indeed proved resilient in the face of Publishers Press, 1977. Eurocentric bastardization. In fact, the factor Inford Bernth, Forms of Folklore in Africa. Texas. among others, has led to its being reckoned with Texas University Press. by its erstwhile detractors. The objective of the Munla, Enoch S. T. “The Performance of Gule paper is to give some ideas of the variety and Wankulu” The Oral Performance in Africa quality of African oral tradition through a Oludipe J. Oluwole, “The Role of Okosi (Boat representative sample of performance. The Regatta) Festival in Epe, Lagos State” paper shows that oral tradition is an essential part Oyin Ogunba and Abiola Irele (editors ) .Theatre in of African's mental, aesthetic and cultural Africa. Ibadan. Ibadan University Press, education. 1987. Ruth Finnegan, Oral Literature in Africa. Nairobi. Oxford University Press, 1970.

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African-Caribbean Life in Brathwaite's Poetry: A Postcolonial Perspective

Mustafa, Linda Jummai Department of English, IBB University, Lapai – Nigeria And Usman, Joshua Department of English, IBB University, – Nigeria

Abstract The postcolonial theory is built from the colonial experiences of the people who engaged in liberation struggles around the world and particularly in the countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America. It bears constant witness to constant cultural hybridization so that the new hybrid personalities are invested with the power to dominate and reclaim their lives in the new world. According to Brathwaite, the Caribbean becomes a free man when he totally embraces his African roots; he is therefore a colonial migrant who interprets the Caribbean culture and language. He interprets his concepts through a hybrid of personae that consequently unsettle the authority of the Whiteman. This study looks at Brathwaite works as inter- textual references and counter readings of historical records to challenge historicist accounts of African- Caribbeans which werewritten by the White colonizers. His poetry does not only reflect the multiplicity of realities and the plurality of the subjects but the form and the shape of his writings embody the experiences of postcolonial subjects. Keywords: Africa, Diaspora, Heritage, History, New world, Culture.

179 African-Caribbean Life in Brathwaite's Poetry: A Postcolonial Perspective Mustafa, Linda Jummai and Usman, Joshua

Introduction and Literature Review Brare.thwaite's acceptance of his African roots made him a major proponent of 'nation language' Creole: My Language, My Identity which he describes as “the language which is Edward Kamau Brathwaite was born Edward influenced very strongly by the African model, Lawson Brathwaite (1930) in Bridgetown as the the African aspect of our New World/Caribbean son Hilton Brathwaite, a warehouse clerk. He heritage…” Ismail Talib (96-97) sees Brathwaite's attended Harrison College, an elite school, and acceptance of his African roots through the use then went with a Barbados scholarship to of the Creole language as a form of revolution England, where he studied history at Pembroke and suggests a framework within which College, Cambridge. From 1950 he started to Brathwaite's art could be examined, in the words publish short poetry and critical essays in the West following: Indian magazine Bim, edited by Frank Collymore …nation language is the language and by 1976 after familiarizing himself with from…an oral tradition. The poetry, the traditional verse and pre-colonial African myths culture itself, exists not in a dictionary but of the Ghanian tradition, Brathwaite infused the in the tradition of the spoken word. It is African name Kamau to his names as a means of based as much on sound as it is on identifying with his African roots. song… According to Bruce King (130): …Brathwaite's occupation as a historian, Brathwaite could however not avoid the use of a pamphleteer and colonial language, because as an exile he has lost a poet have been to transcend the colonial his indigenous language. However, Brathwaite sense of rootlessness deploys the colonial language to engineer the and isolation. This sense of awareness, empathy of his readers about his identity and especially of his historical exilic status. He is like the writer, in Achebe words position and situation in society finds (26) whose: 'use of English language was a means utmost expression in his ofinfiltrating the ranks of the enemy and brooding and slow but progressive destroying him from within.’ attempt to achieve 'wholeness' out of the debris of the past. In his poetry, Brathwaite protests this forced imposition of the English language and so most Brathwaite's Ghanaian experience opened his of his poems are written in such a way as to show eyes to this possibility of attaining 'wholeness' in his rebellion against the white man's language. He identifying with his African roots. Indeed, this therefore seeks to destroy the colonialist experience is what led to Brathwaite's comment government with its own tool of power (the below: English language) which to him is a noble means …Slowly but surely, during the eight years of rebelling against colonialism. that I live there, I was coming to an awareness and Because of his consciousness to locate an identity understanding that is not built on humiliation and degradation of community, of cultural wholeness, of of the black man, Africa becomes the progenitor the place of the to embracing a true self while an identity that is individual within the tribe, in society…I based on European supremacy is rejected. This came to a sense of identification of desperate quest to be identified with African myself with these people, ancestors is what has influenced Brathwaite's my living diviners. I came to connect my works so that much representation of the black history with theirs… (Brathwaite, 38) world occurs more frequently in his poems.

This comment confirms his acceptance of the African culture

180 African-Caribbean Life in Brathwaite's Poetry: A Postcolonial Perspective Mustafa, Linda Jummai and Usman, Joshua

Africa: My Progenitor One yellow wheel was rolled across the The poem “Ancestors” which is written in three former cowpen gate. main sections is structured in a narrative Only his hat is left. I 'borrowed' it. framework in which Brathwaite's mastery of the I used to try it on and hear the night English tradition is exhibited. The iambic wind… pentameter however gives way to nation language (Ancestors, P. 239) or Creole in the third section as an expression of Brathwaite's acceptance of an African identity. At Edward Chamberlain in his work, Come Back to Me the beginning of the poem, the narrator is My Language, echoed sentiments expressed by submerged in despair and confusion. He talks Brathwaite: about his grandfather so profoundly that we A truly West Indian literature must notice the deep attachment between the narrator present the central heritage of slavery and his ancestry: shared by black West Indians, not because everyone who matters in the West Indies Every Friday morning my grandfather is black, but because blackness as an left his farm of cornfields, chickens, cows imag e of slaver y defines the and rattled in his trap down to the dispossession and exploitation which to harbour town anyone looking around the West Indies to sell his meat… He drove the trap was clearly not over. himself: slap of the leather reins along the horse's back and he'd be off It is therefore the belief of Brathwaite that in with a trap-hearted homburg on his head: order for all Caribbeans to be truly whole, they black English country gentleman. must try to understand themselves through the (Ancestors, P. 239) acceptance of African history and culture.

The above lines are laced with imagery, symbols In the section entitled “Libation” which opens and motif that exemplify the persona's ancestry. with the poem “Prelude”, Brathwaite explores Brathwaite then clearly enlightens us that despite and identifies with the culture of his ancestors the aculturisation of his grandfather, he is and there seems to be a deliberate attempt by the nonetheless a Black gentleman in/from an poet to be more attuned to specific modalities of English country which is a satiric reference to the the forms of expression by his ancestors: Caribbean man's identity. Just like Franz Fanon's Gong-gongs throw pebbles in the routed Black Skin, White Masks is a reference of a dual pools of silence: news of ripples reach identity as experienced by many West Indians, so the awakened Zulus: Chaka tastes the salt too is what is suggested in this poem. To blood of the bitter Congo and all Africa Brathwaite, the creation of 'Black English' in the is one, is whole, nimtree shaded in Ghana, Caribbean is another means of obliterating the in Chad, Mali, the shores of the cooling veneer of Africanism. kingdoms. (Prelude, P. 90) Still deep in thought of his loss and the pains of slavery, we find that the tone of the poem is Brathwaite's identification with his African poignantly mournful and this leads to the heritage is further manifested in the nature of the narrator's aim to systematically describe his loss: poem. For the poem, Brathwaite adopts the Now he is dead. The meat shop burned, incantatory rhythm in invocations. Nothing his property divided. A doctor bought the signifies his acceptance of his African heritage horse. His mad alsatians killed it. better than the graphic representation of African The wooden trap was chipped and religious ceremonies which are heavily ladened chopped by friends and neighbours and with invocations. Converted to the esthetics of used to stop-gap fences and for firewood. African orality, he dramatizes the performatory

181 African-Caribbean Life in Brathwaite's Poetry: A Postcolonial Perspective Mustafa, Linda Jummai and Usman, Joshua rites of initiation as he seeks to recover his reclaim their sovereignty (or voice) which gives ancestral domain: them a negotiating space for equity.” This Beat heaven situation appears in the second section of of the drum, beat “Ancestors”. The poet's preoccupation with a the dark leaven voice for the voiceless is sustained in his of the drum, beat questioning a subjective identity. The persona is the dark leaven made to remember his ancestry through soulful of the dungeon songs/blues, but is frightened by the history of ground where buds are wrapped the caricature character of Uncle Tom who does twist-ed round dancing roots. White not have a voice. In fact, Uncle Tom is an epitome salt crackles at root lips, bursts like a fist of 'dog like obedience' to his colonial lords and so and beats out this defiance in any form, even in singing about his prayer: ancestry, instigates the fear of being punished. Nana Firimpong Yet he cannot help marveling at the extraordinary once you were here… will to be a true African in the midst of forced (Prelude, P. 91) adoption of the colonizers' culture as exhibited by his father's mother: Kwabena J.H. Nketia (p.19) describes this kind of All that I can remember of his wife, poetry as “the kind that may be heard on social my father's mother, is that she sang us songs and ritual occasions. It is both secular and ('Great Tom Is cast' was one), that frightened religious.” According to Ayo Kehinde(p. 27), me… Brathwaite's reconversion to African aesthetics … telling us stories acts as a psychotherapeutic guidance for round her fat white lamp. It was rediscovering an identity that is truly African. her Queen Victoria lamp, she said; Perhaps the most striking feature of “prelude” is although the stamp read Ever Ready. And the persona's resolve to reconnect to the mother in the night, I listened to her continent of Africa. In the following lines the singing in a Vicks and Vapour Rub-like narrator is conceived as one who has been voice what you would call the reunited with both his physical and spiritual blues. ancestry: (Ancestors, 240) Asase Yaa, You, Mother of earth, In this section Brathwaite talks about the birth of on whose soil a mixed-race person; a new Caribbean human I have placed my tools type whom Brathwaite once referred to as “...not on whose soil Africanism but new Caribbeanism...” (Young, 1- I will hoe 11). Ironically, the voice of oral culture (“...telling I will work stories...”) is juxtaposed against the monarchy The year has come round again; that was instrumental to slavery and colonialism (Prelude, P. 91) in the Caribbean. So the persona uses the knowledge of slavery and colonialism as building Because of this reunion, he appears to be a man blocks to choosing an identity and oral culture of more aware of his lyrical ability and this nation language. His memory of the strict realization spurs him to use language that is keyed enforcement of English language actually to the theme of reconnecting with Africa: instigates a subtle resistance, hence the singing of A Voice for the Voiceless 'blues' (or soulful songs) became the means of It was Young (p.1-11, 57-69) who suggested that displaying his objection of a foreign culture and postcoloniality allows “people emerging from tradition. socio-political and economic domination to

182 African-Caribbean Life in Brathwaite's Poetry: A Postcolonial Perspective Mustafa, Linda Jummai and Usman, Joshua

Invariably, the persona is compelled to deviate Nation Language: Defining Identity from the total adoption of the Whiteman's Many West Indians labour under their collectively culture. This deviance from the strident use of unaddressed layers of the colonial past as well as English language to the tongue twisting form of the falsification and demonization of ancestral the Creole language which is also soothing, is the indigenous African history. It is this history of persona's poetic device to persuade the reader falsification of economic and political into believing that the poet's English identity is e x p l o i t a t i o n , r a c i s m a n d E u r o p e a n dead and his African ancestry is alive and will be a ethnocentrism that has created the downward fundamental tool for reclaiming his voice: spiral of ignorance, shame and fear, which has also become an integral part of the West Indian Come-a look psyche. Given this scenario, it is then no surprise come-a look that the Caribbean dilemma has always been the see wha' happen... construction of identities. The West Indian Sookey dead history has long presented a shattered Sookey dead consciousness in such a way that anything positive Sookey dead-o... was the making of the oppressor and all that was Him a-wuk negative was attributed to the Blackman. Writers him a-wuk like Brathwaite however revisited history in order till 'e bleed-o... to imbibe a more reckoning and self- (Ancestors, 240-241) identification posture that is holistic with a positive outlook. Again, using the techniques as present in Jazz and Blues, Brathwaite is able to conceptualize his past Brathwaite's “Atumpan” indicates that he has with the aim of coming to terms with his exilic been able to master traditional speech pattern and status. In “New World A-Comin' ” , Brathwaite mode of praying to the gods of his ancestors. The projects the image of slavery as a negative aspect invocatory and repetitive esthetics in the poem of the new world. The whip of enslavement and point to this, especially in the following lines: the cruelty of forced imposition of the white man's culture threaten to cut off all remembrance Kon kon kon kon of his African ancestry. This amnesiac condition kun kun kun kun turns the West Indian into a violently fragmented Fatumi Akore person who struggles with severing all his Tweneboa Akore ancestral ties and accepting a totally new culture Twenaboa kodia but because he is traumatised by the unnatural Kodia Tweneduru… alteration of his existence he takes an inward …Funtumi Akore inventory into his past of genocide which gives Spirit of the Cedar him the strength to speak out against his Spirit of the Cedar tree oppressors and his despondency: Tweneboa Kodia Helpless like this (Atumpan, 98) leader-less like this, heroless, Moreover, in its integration of the poetics of the we met you: lover, Atumpan drum, Brathwaite's verse seeks to warrior, hater, establish an interaction between the esthetics of coming through the files African orality and conventional written of the forest literature. So we see a persona more concerned soft foot with performing the rites of initiation which to soft soil announces and confirms his African ancestry. In of silence: performing this rite, the Atumpan drum is highly (New World A-Comin', 9)

183 African-Caribbean Life in Brathwaite's Poetry: A Postcolonial Perspective Mustafa, Linda Jummai and Usman, Joshua revered as the main constituency of the African … [an] attempt to repossess a cultural sound culture and identity hence the invocations, the identity in the Caribbean. It is of necessity drumming and the drama are all analogues of the that this identity subsumes the African persona's true identity as can be perceived in these side of West Indian existence(20). lines: It is for this reason that the poet under study can Odomankoma 'Kwayerema says be said to be a representation of Afro-Caribbeans Odomankoma 'Kwayerema says whose identities is firmly rooted in African The Great Drummer of Odomankoma tradition. says The Great Drummer of Odomankoma As a result of their dual heritage, Africans in the says West Indies are lost, unsure, vulnerable and that he has come from sleep disconnected from ancestral history. The that he has come from sleep apprehension of a tragic past which did not allow and is arising the West Indian to be himself is conceived in the and is arising poem, “A New World A-Comin' ”. The fear of his like akoko the cock 'boss', the new world and the place of his new like akoko the cock who clucks language (Creole), amplify his exilic status so who crows in the morning much that the persona is tired of an infinite who crows in the morning journey to rediscover himself as well as his (Atumpan, 98) (re)admittance into the new world. Placed between a new world that is hostile to people with The language of this invocation, which is highly dual heritage, the persona seeks to define himself, reflective of African orality, situates the poet at his plight and a hopeless future through a the dawn of consciousness of his Africanness. In language that gives him hope: reliving his distant history while also adopting the How long poetics of the Atumpan drum, Brathwaite has How long been able to express his preference for the O lord African tradition, religion and culture over the O devil Christian religion of his former white colonialist O fire masters. For Brathwaite, the rejection of western O flame values is a sure step towards his affirmation of his have we walked African identity. have we journeyed to this place In The Arrivants (88) Brathwaite quoted the Akan to this meeting proverb “Only the fool points at his origin with this shock his left hand.” This proverb illuminates clearly and shame Brathwaite's association with and pride in his in the soiled African roots. Through the distinct silence representation of the African tradition, norms, (New World A-Comin', 10) culture and artefacts, Brathwaite has been able to cohesively affirm his identity with Africa. His Fragmented, Lonely and Exiled mastery of African ceremonies and the deft The history of the Caribbean is constituted with application of the Creole language show that he is the crux of slavery, colonialism, diaspora, exile, more comfortable with his African identity as hybridity and identity. Centuries before against his colonial white heritage. Brathwaite's Christopher Columbus arrived in what he position, in John Glenn's words is: mistook for the East Indies, indigenous Indians- the Tainos, Arawaks and Caribs had transversed

184 African-Caribbean Life in Brathwaite's Poetry: A Postcolonial Perspective Mustafa, Linda Jummai and Usman, Joshua the arc of the islands that form the Caribbean. Towards the end of this section of the poem, we find These indigenous societies were destroyed with that the persona has no choice than to embrace exile. the coming of the Europeans, and in their wake Exile here is the Caribbean Islands. His futile search came millions of African slaves. After the for new hope and a new beginning ends in the abolition of slavery in the mid-19th century, Chinese realization that his new world is really a world of and East Indian indentured labourers were drafted in uncertainties. Captivated, dislodged from his home to support the colonial economies. This and his ancestors, the fear of the unknown slowly kaleidoscopic array of imported cultures has given moves through his body. So by the time he gets to the the Caribbean its particular, unique character where new world, the narrator has lost his ancestral roots Europe seems to blend with the 'New World'. and African identity only to be replaced by impersonal identity that profoundly announces a But the blending has come at some cost which is the divided self and his exilic status: creation of exile in the minds and physical well being in indifference, in anger, of the 'new Caribbeans'. Because of the horrors of will create new soils, new souls, new slavery and colonialization, most Caribbeans see ancestors; will flow like this tide fixed themselves as exiles whose historical contingency of to the star by which this ship floats the relationship of Blacks, Whites and Asians raises to new worlds, new waters, new the question of their true roots. In describing the habours, the pride of our ancestors mixed reason why his poetry talks much on the West Indian with the wind and the water in a new world, Brathwaite interrogates his origins the flesh and and the flies, the whips and when he says: the fixed How did we get into the Caribbean? fear of pain in this chained and Our people, welcoming port. the black people of the Caribbean… What (New World A-Comin',11) was the origin of their presence in the Caribbean? The poem “Postlude/Home” raises insistent (Mackey, 47) questions that bring the Afro-Caribbean's exilic status to the fore and serve as referential notes of the The statement made previously by the Barbadian poet's song of exile: poet, draws the attention of readers to the fact that Where then is the nigger's home? exile is a trope that is strikingly evident in his poetry. In Paris Brixton Kingston Rome? In part two of the poem “A New World A-Comin', is Here? a deep attachment to and unwillingness to leave Or in Heaven? Ghana. There is a feeling of nostalgia here. Ghana What crime has become home; the persona is in the place where his dark he can be himself but the West Indies to him is exile. dividing He is not content with the West Indies as home; he skin is hiding? laments a return to Ghana; he sees himself one with What guilt Ghana: now drives him It will be a long time before we see on? this land again, these trees Will exile never again, drifting inland with the sound end? of surf, smoke rising (Postlude/Home, 77) It will be a long long time before we see these farms again, soft wet slow green It is with these questions that the archetypal figure again: Aburi, Akwamu, of Tom who is a father, founder and a flounderer mist rising… is concerned with a constrained existence which (New World A-Comin', 11) was as a result of centuries of a harsh history of

185 African-Caribbean Life in Brathwaite's Poetry: A Postcolonial Perspective Mustafa, Linda Jummai and Usman, Joshua slavery and colonialism, coupled with a systematic …lonely hearts denigration. The effect of a systematic pinin,… humiliation of 'Tom' is an enfeebled self- we, winnin' apprehension: we dinner, The memories is pick are cold: up we tools fun the hit the old an' run raid unflamed remains an' you better of Tom we sometimes look our for joke you wallet. about… An' watchin' me brother For we here sharpen 'e blade, Who have created nothing, I is find meself must exist wonderin' if on nothing; Tawia Tutu Anokye or (Postlude/Home, 78-79) Tom could' a ever have live According to Abiola Irele: such a life. It is noteworthy that Brathwaite (Postlude/Home, 80) reformulates here [Postlude/Home] Aime Cesaire's famous “South” commences with the image of the sea as lines in a reminder of the Caribbean apprehension of 'Cahier d'un Retour au' Pays Natal as a rootlessness. Here, we find that the narrator paradox of imagines and testifies of the fear of never taking historical being, so as to redefine the roots in a particular place. According to Said terms of existence (2001:173) he (the Caribbean man) seems to have of a constrained humanity as one that “left something behind” which makes his manifests itself predicament to be that of despondency and exile in the act of remembrance so essential to as can be noticed here: the vitality But today I recapture the islands' of his people's consciousness and bright beaches: blue mist from the ocean historical will (80). rolling into the fishermen's houses. By these shores I was born: sound of the With the buildup of the evocations of black man sea in exile, the narrator switches from the use of came in at my window, life heaved and Standard English to a more personalized Creole breathed in me then language. The allusions, the imagery and the with the strength of that turbulent soil. sorrowful manner in which he presents his (South, 57) loneliness produce in readers of this poem a sense A future that is bleak because of constant travels of an overwhelming fragmented self and one is suggested in the second stanza. The persona who is not comfortable with sojourning on alien passionately delineates endless journeys he had ground. He therefore whines about his loneliness, undertaken but none of these journeys has and ultimately seeks solace in armed robbery as a satisfied his quest for true Caribbean identity. His means of getting back at his oppressors but this dreams, aspirations and desires are all thwarted as notorious act makes him wonder what life would a result of drifting from place to place: have been like assuming he had not been exiled: Since then I have travelled: moved far from the beaches: sojourned in stoniest cities, walking the lands of the north

186 African-Caribbean Life in Brathwaite's Poetry: A Postcolonial Perspective Mustafa, Linda Jummai and Usman, Joshua

sharp slanting sleet and the hail, The fisherman, hawking the surf on this crossed countless saltless savannas and come side to this house in the forest where the of the reef, stands up in his boat shadows oppress me and halloos us: a starfish lies in its pool. and the only water is rain and the tepid And gulls, white sails slanted seaward, taste of the river. fly into the limitless morning before us. (South, 57) (South, 58)

Trying to find a solution to his wanderings, he From all the poems studied, there has been an looks into his inner self. Eventually, he is doubtful attempt to locate exile and identity as major motifs of of fitting perfectly into a new world because of Caribbean literature. Brathwaite particularly used his his earlier engagement with his native Island. poems to re write the history of West Indians. This engagement makes him wonder about the According to him, the feeling of a fragmented possibility of living in an alien land with an alien identity as experienced by most Caribbeans is as a culture without the clash of interest from his result of a life lived without retracing their roots back multi-cultural heritage. The wonder is expressed to Africa. Exile therefore becomes a situation most in the following words: West Indians must live with yet Brathwaite's view of We who are born of the ocean can never living in exile does not mean that the Caribbean man seek solace is rootless; rather exile can be used as a medium for in rivers: their flowing runs on like our reclaiming lost rights. longing, reproves us our lack of endeavour and According to Serap Turkmen (6), the colonized (the purpose, Caribbean man) is forced to abandon his proves that our striving will founder on 'Africanness'. Since he is de-culturated, he is left with that. no other alternative than to emulate the colonizer and We resent them this wisdom, this so he is stripped of his identity. This situation makes freedom: passing us him neither a true European nor an African. To the toiling, waiting and watching their Whiteman, the perceived ambiguity of the Caribbean cunning declension down to man makes him non-existent and so a life of exile is the sea. what the Caribbean man must live with. However, (South, 57) Brathwaite is of the view that no Caribbean should live a life of servitude. They are instead to turn the The next two stanzas are also reflections of the disadvantage of a dislocated history into that which pains of slavery, colonization, humiliation and gives them the power to live as men with degradation. Words such as 'past pains', 'sorrows', identities, men who despite the pains of slavery 'hatred', 'washes', 'plains', 'processioned in can raise their heads high and say they are not tumult', 'thatch', 'urchins' are reminders of the without a culture, heritage and language. harsh predicament of the Caribbeans. This registers a more resistant imagination towards the Works Cited rejection of an African-Caribbean heritage. By Brathwaite, Edward, Kamau. The Arrivants: A Brathwaite's evocation, the narrator commands New World Trilogy. New York: Oxford an awareness which is visionary with a view to University Press, 1967. questioning a Caribbean identity that is not ---- History of the Voice. London: New anchored in African tradition. The poem Beacon Books, 1984. therefore ends with the prospect that a Caribbean ---- “Imehri”. Savacou.2, Sept. 1970. man could live with being an exile if he is not ---- The Arrivants. Oxford: Oxford confined by exilic exigencies: University Press, 1967.

187 African-Caribbean Life in Brathwaite's Poetry: A Postcolonial Perspective Mustafa, Linda Jummai and Usman, Joshua

---- “Caribbean Man in Time and Space.” In Glenn, John. “Kamau Brathwaite and the Poetics of Carifesta Forum Kingston: Institute of (re)Possession”. Journal of Jamaica, 1976. Caribbean Literatures. 2009, June 22. ---- Contradictory Omens: Cultural Diversity Griffths, Glyne. A. “Kamau Brathwaite as Cultural and Integration in the Caribbean. Critic.” In Stewart, Brown. (ed.). Mona, Jamaica: Savacou Publications, 1974. The Art of Kamau Brathwaite. Mid Glamorgan, ---- Roots. Ann Arbor: University of Wales: Seren, 1995. Michigan Press, 1993. Irele, Abiola. “The Return of the Native: Edward Kamau ---- The Arrivants: A New World Trilogy. Brathwaite's “Masks.” London: Oxford, 1973. World Literature Today. Vol. 68, 1994. ---- The Development of Creole Society in ---- “The Poetry of Edward Brathwaite.” Third Ife Jamaica, 1770-1820. Oxford: Oxford Festival of the Arts, 4th-18th December. 1970. University Press, 1971. Kehinde, Ayo. “ Edward Brathwaite's The Arrivants and Bodunde, Charles. “The Black Writer in the the Trope of Cultural Searching.” Multicultural Caribbean: The Vision of The Journal of Pan African Studies. Vol. 1, No. 9, Africa in Edward Kamau Brathwaite's The August 2007. Arrivants.” In Glaser Marlies and Marion King, Bruce. The New English Literatures: Cultural Pausch. (eds.). Caribbean Writers: Between Nationalism in a Changing World. London: Orality and Writing. Macmillan, 1980. Amsterdam: Rodolpi, 1994. Mackey, Nathaniel. “An Interview with Edward Kamau Chamberlin, J. Edward. Come Back to Me, My Brathwaite”. Hambone, 9 (Winter 1991). Language: Poetry and the West Indies. Nketia, J.H. Kwabena. Funeral Dirges of the Akan Urbana: University of Illionois Press, 1993. People. New York: negro University Press, 1969. ---- Come Back to Me, My Language. Urbana: Said, Edward W. Introduction to Orientalism. New York: University of Illinois Pantheon, 1978. Press, 1993. ---- “The Mind of Winter: Reflections on Life in Exile.” Collymore, Frank. (ed.). West Indian Magazine, Harper's 269, 1984. Bim. 1976. ---- Representations of the Intellectual. New York: Dash, Michael. “Edward Brathwaite.” In Bruce Pantheon, 1994. King. (ed.) West Indian Literature. London: ---- Reflections on Exile. London: Granta Books, 2001. Macmillan, 1970. Turkmen, Serap. “Identity in the Colonial Lands: A Egudu, Romanus. N. Modern African Poetry and Critical Overview of the Postcolonial Studies”. African Predicament. London: Alternatives: Turkish Journal of International Macmillan, 1978. Relations. Fall and Winter 2003, Vol. 2, No. 3 and 4. Frantz, Fanon. Black Skins, White Masks. Young, Robert J.C. Postcolonialism: An Historical London: Pluto Press, 1986. Introduction. London: Blackwell, 2001. Gallagher, S.V. “Linguistic Power: Encounter with Chinua Achebe”. The Christian Century. 12 March, 1997. Vol. 26.

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Folktale as Catalyst for Moral Instruction in Selected Nigerian Movies

Usman Joshua, English Unit, SPS, IBB University,P.M.B. 11, Lapai, Niger State And Ohwovoriole Felicia Ph.D Department of English University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria.

Abstract The significance of proper moral educationinshaping the character of children, youngsters and even adults cannot be overlooked.Folktale has been a material resource for movie production in Nigerian movie industry (Nollywood). It portrays morals and values which represent a large part of the lives of people in modern society. This has forced scholars to question the way in which stories and storytelling affect the fabric of society and its ideals. The study examines the influence of folktale on moral instruction via drama films in Hausa movies. The plots of five selected Hausa movies are used for the study. A textual analysis of aspects of folktale in the selected movies is also carried oust. The study discovers that the movie industry adopts folktale to preserve, transfer and educate the people on ethical and moral values in the society. In addition, the movie practitioners develop folktales (fairy tales/fables) to explore the concepts of morals and values so as to make these tales in movies relevant to the 21st century viewer. This further promotes good governance, informing the public about conflict resolution mechanisms and cautioning against anti-social behaviours in the society. At the end, the study recommends that folktale should continue to be held and regarded with high esteem despite the emphasis on written records. Keywords: Folktale, Movie, Drama,Hausa film, Moral Instruction

189 Folktale as Catalyst for Moral Instruction in Selected Nigerian Movies Usman Joshua and Ohwovoriole Felicia Ph.D

Introduction and Literature Review Oral tradition consists of history, religious Throughout history, stories have been used to practices, cosmology, rituals, folktales, proverbs, teach and to pass the wisdom of the elders down riddles, games, songs, dance, magic, epic tales, from one generation to the next in order to ensure myths and narratives. The African incorporated survival. As the years progressed, these stories the everyday rhythms of life into his expression. became a part of culture and were turned into African traditions of communalism, respect for myths, legends and fairy tales, captivating elders, rituals of life and death, child rearing generations of young children and adults and practices and storytelling were to later appear in helping them to learn about and engage with the the western hemisphere, having been brought by world around them, as well as to understand the the enslaved Africans. social customs and expectations of their societies (Ryan, 1). “without a story which gives a sense of The Folktale shape, space and time to the people”, and Thornham The Folktale, like other aspects of oral forms, is and Purvis suggest that without narrative “history shrouded in controversies among different becomes obscure, people less familiar and space and scholars of folklore. According to A.M. Mungadi time less clear...Narratives are the principle means & Y.A. Gulumba (85), 'folklore is nothing but a by which the past is made intelligible in the fiction'. They go further to say that the author of present” (30). Zaman Hausawa posits that folktale is a story narrated usually at night for moral and Barker suggests that “the globalisation of entertainment purposes”. By this definition, television has become a proliferating resource for folktale is a narration targeted at children for both the deconstruction and reconstruction of moral rejuvenation as well as entertainment. This cultural identity (3). Television sets itself apart is usually after supper and before they go to bed. from cinema in that it is private and domestic Folktale also known as tale telling is used by oral (Crisell, 2). The Nigerian Movie Productions artists to provide relaxation and teaching moral started over fifty years ago with the likes of Latola lessons. The telling of stories is used by narrators Films (1962) and Calpeny Nigeria Ltd. anchoring to instruct the young and teach them to respect The Escapade(Wikipedia, online source). Film is a the dictates of their customs. As a result, a large powerful tool for the transmission of cultural body of moral instruction, of societal values and values. In an analysis of how film could further norms are preserved for posterity. This aspect of the course of cultural identity, Arulogun (26-29) oral literary form is portrayed in almost all the identified four main areas. As a propaganda tool, movies used for the study. film remains a vehicle employed by governments and others interested in the art of subtle The Role of Stories in Society diplomacy. Because of its popularity as an “Storytelling is an art form that has been a most entertainment medium, it easily becomes a means effective teaching tool for at least as long as of relaying and reinforcing information meant to history has been recorded” – Jim Lord. The promote a certain reality. Film also plays the role ancient custom of tale telling is one that has been of stereotype, helping to shape perspectives on a practiced among all social classes since the first people's culture. The storylines of popular videos stories were told around the tribal fire (Pirkova- are indicators of a trend which affects films by Jakobson, Propp& Tomaðèikovâ,19, 281). As Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba producers alike, or use they are passed down from one generation to the either language with or without English sub-titles. next, stories captivate the imaginations of young Popular themes which recur are sex, infidelity, children and adults, helping them to learn about fraud, violence, intrigue, conflict and other such and engage with the world around them as well as subjects which are designed to entertain, excite, understand the social customs and expectations provide escapism and appeal to the emotions. of their societies (Ryan,1). According to Tway (15), storytelling has its roots in the attempt to

190 Folktale as Catalyst for Moral Instruction in Selected Nigerian Movies Usman Joshua and Ohwovoriole Felicia Ph.D explain life or the mysteries of the world in order works to the social and historical currents of their for people to try and make sense of the universe time. It suggests that literature must be studied that surrounds them. and interpreted within the context of both the history of the author and the critic. The theory According to The Call of StoryBroadcast at Brigham assumes that we cannot know(study or Young University, stories serve to give culture its understand)the text separate from their historical values, beliefs, goals and traditions and help to context. It insist that all interpretation is bind people together into a cohesive society subjectively filtered through one's own set of (Ciardi: 2) This idea is supported by Greg Urban historically conditioned viewpoints. History is an who identifies stories as the “transitory home of intersection of discourses that establish a culture”, the simplest way in which culture is dominant ideology. The real centre of enquiry is moved from one person to another and from not the text but history. Each text is only one region to region (Urban :1). example of many types of discourses that reveal history. Consequently, it can be said that New Methodology Historicism investigates the life of the author, Five selected movies are used for the research viz: social rules found within a text, the manner in Daskin Da Ridi (Name of a Prince), is also a which a text reveals an historical situations and the production of Sarauniya Film, Kano.Samu way in which other historical texts can help us (Wealth possession), a film produced by UNA understand the texts. Enterprises, Kano. Sangaya ( pure love), is produced by Sarauniya Film Production, Kano. Sai Na Analysis of Results Dawo( I Shall Return), is produced by Sani Danja, It is evident from the research that folktale directed by Yakubu Mohammed and marketed by which is largely to pass moral traits is done 2 Effects Empire films Kaduna. Karshen through the media to the new generation. The Makirci(End of the mischief), it is produced by preservation and transmission of cultural traits is Mansur Abba Sheriffs Company, Ibrahimawa normally achieved through many methods that Film Production, Kano. The research analyses the include; writing books, storytelling, tales, plots of these selected Hausa movies with a view folkways, songs, drama and plays. The study to determining the essence of the application of identifies entertainment as another method of these oral forms. cultural and historical retrospect. Consequently, it is discovered in the movies, that folktale is not Theoretical Frame Work only a material resource but also influences the The researcher attempts an examination of the quality of these movies. use of folktale for moral instructionvia movies. Folktale is a cultural base phenomenon, it is in this Textual Analysis of Films regards that the study is guided by the theory of The movie titled 'DaskinDaRidi' is a folktale base New Historicism. It is the theory that connects on morality. It is a moral story on humility and literary works to the social and historical currents simplicity as oppose to pride. The movie reveals of their time. The theory assumes that we cannot that both Indo and the Prince are humble and at know (study or understand)the text separate from the end they both achieve the desires of their their historical context. heart. This story is a folktale told for the purpose of moral lesson. The Literary theory of New Historicism which Greenblatt, Stephen propounded is developed The movie Sangaya is another folktale on morality. in the late 1970s in response to perceived excesses It is produced by Sarauniya Film Production, of New Criticism which tended to ignore the Kano. It is about love affair between a Prince importance of historical context of a work of art. (Maina) and a housemaid(Zubaina). It is a folktale It is therefore a theory that connects literary on morality that proves that destiny has no

191 Folktale as Catalyst for Moral Instruction in Selected Nigerian Movies Usman Joshua and Ohwovoriole Felicia Ph.D obstacle, that is, what God has destined for one narratives. The importance of Folktale is must surely come to fulfilment. It teaches about evident,considering how it influences the film the reward of patience, showing maturity and industry viz: it boosts the quality of the messages understanding on complicated and serious life in the movies by being inspirational, instrumental, issues(on the part of the marabout's son). and motivational in portraying and teaching the customs, traditions, and history of the people. So The movie KarshenMakirci is another folktale on oral tradition develops as the community looks morality. It is produced by Mansur Abba Sheriffs for a recreation of memory in her life. Therefore, Company, Ibrahimawa Film Production, Kano. the movie industry, is seen as the vehicles in which The movie is about a girl, Sadiya who happens to oral traditions develop and vice versa be neglected by her father, Alh. Usman following her mother's divorce. In the absence of her The qualitative impute of Folktale in film making mother, Hajia Zainab, Sadiya finds herself in a is obvious. The media as a system of difficult situation because her stepmother, Hajia communication is a constituent feature directly Asama'u maltreats her like a slave but later gets linked to the processes of globalisation of culture married to a good husband. It also emphasizes on due to its role in mediating a range of aspects of the moral fact that people reap what they sow. popular culture like film, dance, music and other aesthetic expressions. The frequent use of oral The movie SaiNaDawo is a moral folktale about traditions by the Hausa people in their films has an honest man who is contented and humble. He proved that they are inevitable aspects of Hausa discovers that he is not the legitimate heir to the culture. One important genre of Hausa oral kingship throne and steps aside in humility for the tradition is the narrative/folktale, a form of rightful heir to the throne. It is a moral lesson to popular entertainment which the Hausa people all political aspirants, leaders and appointees who call tatsuniya(story telling). Since the advent of force their way to leadership by any means, hook Hausa movie industry, it has served as one of the or crook, rigging election, violence or crisis to significant source materials for the popular Hausa embrace peace and honesty when vying for video movie. The traditional Tatsuniya(story political positions. This sensitizes the need for a telling) reflects the social and cultural life of the change in our attitude. Let the people's votes, Hausa people, at the same time drawing attention views, mandate and rights be respected. to the salient aspects of Hausa culture and how to live it according to a set down societal norms and The movie Samu is another moral folktale about values. Oral tradition in Hausa movies has discovered the the reality of life. From what transpires between use of films as meta-narrative in exploring the cultural and Musbahu(the spirit) and Khalifa(the prince), religious identity of not only Nigerians but also Africans. preaches the fact that we should be good to Most of films making in Nigeria, especially those people we meet because they might be the with cultural or moral backgrounds are collages solution to our problems. This by implication is of the lives of different people from different telling us to be good to everyone.Folktale is backgrounds. It mirrors intrigues, desperation, didactic; therefore, it brings to our consciousness greed, misfortune, betrayal, and leaves lessons through the media our cultural values in order to which challenge the imagination of viewers. It achieve morals. They use it unwittingly in trying to portrays culture in its richness, leaving out the convey the message they imply in these movies. kind of abusive and rotten language used in some other films ostensibly to raise their popular Discussion appeal. Folktale is one of the bases of African culture,others include;history, religious practices, However, producers are not about to champion cosmology, rituals, proverbs, riddles, games, the cause of cultural purity since the elements of songs, dance, magic, epic tales, myths and local cultures are daily refined by influences which

192 Folktale as Catalyst for Moral Instruction in Selected Nigerian Movies Usman Joshua and Ohwovoriole Felicia Ph.D dictate the mainstreaming of values to fit global Considering oral tradition as a method of prescriptions. Packaging of films for export is conveying movie messages, some of the also influencing the drive to satisfy criteria rooted producers are aware of the techniques they in Western commercial standards in the scripting, employ in producing the movies, some are not characterisation and production of films. Local aware, but used those aspects of oral literature cultures in their original form, therefore, become unwittingly. They use them unwittingly in trying secondary considerations in film content. The to explain the message they imply in the movies. middle ground between the commercial The lasting contribution of video films to consideration which is primary and other Nigerian society will depend on how the industry secondary considerations, including culture, yield responds to the challenge to stay profitable products which neither please local people nor without compromising the rich cultural heritage are strong enough to break significant grounds with which the country has for centuries been with overseas audiences. Local cultures are, of associated. course, in transition all over the world. Globalisation is setting the pace in the interaction Having considered the textual analysis of the of cultures with the consequence that local selected Hausa movies, it is concluded that cultures are overwhelmed. folktale has been, and may continue to be a reliable means of conserving, and transmitting It is evident from the study that folktale which is a the Hausa culture. Also, folktales used as case very concrete method of preserving a society's study in movies assist in informing, educating and culture is as old as humanity. Available evidence entertaining the people. It is also a good means from this study shows that all societies, of guidance and counselling. The research has particularly the Hausa society, make efforts to realised the quest for social revolution in the preserve the elements of their culture over time. Hausa society which is antithetical to Hausa It is therefore pertinent to note that folktale culture where social stratification is prominent. which is which is one of the elements of oral However, many Hausa movies like the one titled; tradition among others such as; myth, legend, Sai Na Dawo are making meaningful fables, etc is basically meant to keep the past alive; contributions in Nigeria's democratic process by introduce young people to history, beliefs, and promoting good governance, transparency and religions of their society, teach moral lessons such accountability and the implications of the as; hospitality, honesty, kindness, courage etc, and absence of these values. Hausa movies have to warn against negative qualities; greed, cautioned against political violence, election wickedness, foolishness, mischief etc. This is rigging and preach on the other hand proper largely to pass these cultural traits to the new conflict resolution mechanisms as seen in the generation. The study made efforts to identify the movies especially the movie 'Sai Na Dawo'. use of folktale in film making as new innovations Furthermore, there is the need to caution by way in Hausa movies, as well as the reasons and of guidance or scrutinizing these movies because implications of the innovations. folktale has Hausa movies are likely to be agents for the added verisimilitude and plausibility to film adulteration of our culture. This is because nearly production, hence, experiences of Nigerians are all the producers in the film industry model the ones being depicted in the film production. It themselves after foreign industries. also authenticates the Nigerianisation and Africanisation of the content of the films In view of the above, because of our recent depicted and it promotes Nigerian histories, dependence on written records, modern society cultures and experiences. The research establishes often fails to respect folktales. We know how a a link between Hausa people's traditional verbal message can get changed in the telling, and practices, and the content of Hausa movie. find it hard to believe that oral histories can be accurate. We tend to place a great deal of trust in

193 Folktale as Catalyst for Moral Instruction in Selected Nigerian Movies Usman Joshua and Ohwovoriole Felicia Ph.D the idea that once a fact has been written down, it The impressions which viewers develop will never change. In this belief, we somehow about a people and their cultural values are manage to overlook the masses of conflicting greatly influenced by film portrayals. information that have been written down over the (9) The preservation and transmission of moral years. These changes mean that much important traits could also normally be achieved traditional knowledge is being lost. The through other methods which might include; knowledge that is being lost can provide people writing books, storytelling, tales, folkways, with a sense of identity. Knowing who you are, songs, drama and plays. can give you pride in your culture. Elders have knowledge that is needed for survival. They know Works Cited a lot about the land they live in. They know where Abdulkadir, Dandatti: Oral Composition: 'A to find animals to hunt or trap because they know Historical Appraisal in Oral Poetry in of places where animals will go to find food. They Nigeria'. U.N. Abalogu et al. Lagos: Nigeria know how to find their way around the land Magazine, 1981. because they know the landmarks. Traditional Accessed: 3 January 2011. knowledge still has many uses in our world today. Adamu, Abdalla Uba, Tabiyar Bahaushe, Mutumin Kirki and Hausa Prose Fiction: “Towards an Recommendations Analytic Framwork, Unpublished paper Folktale as one of the bases of African culture presented at the Department of English and expresses Ideas about truth, ethics, morality, European Languages, Bayero University, beliefs, and ways of knowing the world and Kano; 2000. how these were kept pure within the context Barker, Chris. Television, Globalisation and Cultural of each society. Therefore; Identities. Maidenhead: Open University (1) Folktales should continue to be held with Press, 1999. high esteem. Ciardi, M. R... Storytelling and Oral History, (2) Folktales could be used to teach morals in the 20102010. school setting. Crisell, Andrew, A Study of Modern Television: (3) Movies should be critically censored to avoid Thinking outside the box. New York: Palgrave moral adulteration in the society. Macmillan, 2006. (4) Parents should use folktales in teaching their Femi, Osofisan From Nollywood to Nollyweight children important lessons that will prepare ? or, Reflections on the Possibilities of them to live well with a deeper understanding Literature and the Burgeoning Film of their fellow human beings. Industry in Nigeria, 18/07/2006. (5) The stakeholders in the movie industry Finnegan, Ruth, African Oral Literature, should continue to be original and avoid Heinemann Educational Books, 1976. unnecessary foreign influences because Franco, Sacchi and Robert, Caputo This is unoriginality tampers its uniqueness. Nollywood, 2007. (6) While it is acceptable and normal for the Galadima, U.S.A, Making Movies - Nigerian producers/directors in the movie industry to Factor' Film and Video, Vol. 1 No. 1., make money,they should not over September, 1993. commercialize their endeavours or Hallam, W.K.R. The Bayajidda Legend in Hausa compromise their dignity. Folklore in Journal of Africa History, Vol. 7, (7) There is the need for a periodic review of the 1966. industry by the stake holders so as to update Kolawole, Gboyega, Form of the African Oral existing issues that might concern the Performance” in the Abuja Communicator. industry. Laura, Adibe The Narrow Path; Tunde Kelani's (8) Film also plays the role of stereotype, helping film:Film Policy for Nigeria. Film and Video, to shape perspectives on a people's culture. Vol. 1 No.1. September, 1993.

194 Folktale as Catalyst for Moral Instruction in Selected Nigerian Movies Usman Joshua and Ohwovoriole Felicia Ph.D

Ngal, M. Literary Creation in Oral Civilization in Teen Drama.Boston Globe: p. E1 5 August New Literary History Vol. 8, No. 35, 1977. 2003. Nwachukwu, Frank UkadikeQuestioning African Saidu G.A. The Fulfulde Poet in Oral Poetry in Cinema: Conversations With Filmmakers. Nigeria ed. Abalogu et al. Lagos: Nigeria Minnesota, University Of Minnesota Press; Magazine, 1981. 1st edition May 22nd, 2002. Sekoni, Ropo The Narrator, Narrative-Patterns and Ododo, S.E. The Makeup Artist and the Nigerian Audience Experience of Oral Narrative Theatre Issues: An International Journal Performance” in The Oral Performance in Africa of African Studies Vol. 3. No. 1. 1999. ed. Isidore Okpewho. Ibadan: Ibadan: Okoye, 1. Video in the Lives of Nigerian Children: Spectrum Books Ltd. (1990). Some Socio-Cultural Implications'. Africa Skinner, Neil. An Anthropology of Hausa Literatures Media Review, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1993. in Translation. Zaria: Northern N i g e r i a Okpewho, Isidore, Myth in Africa. Cambridge: Publishing Co. 1980. University Press, 1983. Smith, M.G. The Hausa System of Social Status in Okpewho, Isidore, The Oral Performer and His Africa, Vol. 29, 1959. Audience: A Case Study of the Ozidi Saga in The Thornham, S and Purvis, T. Television Drama: Oral Performance in Africa. Ibadan: Ibadan Theories and Identities. Hampshire: Palgrave Spectrum Rooks. 1990. MacMillan, 2005. Okpewho, Isidore: The Epic in Africa, New York: Tomaðèikovâ,S.. Narrative Theories and Narrative Columbia University, 1979. Discourse. Bulletin of the Transilvania Opubor A., O. E. Nwuneli and O. Oreh The Status, University of Braºov. Vol 2 (51), 2009. Role and Future of the Film Industry in Umaschi Bers, M and Cassell, C. Interactive Nigeria in A. Opubor and O.E. Nwuneli Storytelling Systems for Children: Using (eds.) The Development and Growth of the Technology to Explore Language and Identity, Film Industry in Nigeria. Lagos: National 2010. Council for Arts and Culture, 1979. URL: http://www.oceanexplorium.org/ Pierre, Barrot, Nollywood: The Video Phenomenon in curricula/03_storytelling_grade_4-8.pdf Nigeria. URL: www.AYJW.org . 2004. Pirkova-Jakobson, S. Introduction to the first edition” U R L : w w w. m e d i a . m i t . e d u / g n l / in Propp, Vladimir. 1968. Morphology publications/ JILR-sept-98.pdf of the Folktale. Austin: University of Texas Yushau, Mohammed, Hausa Home Videos: The Press, 1958. Moral Question and Political Economy of the Ryan, KatieFairytales and their modern day Media.Being a paper presented at the counterparts. International Conference on Hausa Films Ryan,Suzanne.. At 26, Josh Scwartz is Living His at Murtala Mohammed Library, Kano 3rd – Childhood in L.A. as Creator of Fox's New 8th August, 2003.

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Themes and Techniques in African Novel: A Review of Ngozi Chimamanda Adichie's Half of a Yellow Sun

Mbah, Victor Chukwudi Department of English Nwafor Orizu College of Education Nsugbe, Anambra State

Abstract Theme is the subset of a talk, piece of writing or a person's thought, a topic. It is he author's major idea in the story. Usually, it is not presented directly but understood from its association with the components of the techniques employed, that is, with plot, characters, setting and style. The peculiarity in terms of relating the story in a work of literature is what is usually regarded as narrative technique. According to Wikipedia, narrative technique is the style of telling the story. It means the technical or mechanical skills employed in telling the story (1230). M.H. Abrams in A Glossary of Literary Terms refers to it as the author's method of writing a novel including the sentence patterns, dialogue or monologue, symbols, imagery, the stream of consciousness or flashback technique and figurative expressions like simile, irony, etc. (103). Based on this point, this third person point of view, which is also known as the “eye of God point of view,” can be seen in Adichie's Half of a Yellow Sun, whereby the author tells the story from the beginning to the end. He knows what characters can do, what they cannot do, or what they fail to do. We, therefore, see Chimamanda Adichie in Half of a Yellow Sun portraying the images or symbols of dismal situations and pains which recur very often in the society, appropriately depicting the conditions prevalent in the era of Nigeria-Biafra war. She advocates the themes of discipline, peace, love, honesty among the people in the society and elimination of intimidation, man's inhumanity to his fellow man, and social misdeed in our society as she discusses events and experiences of the Nigeria- Biafra war. Keywords: Biafra, Technique, Theme, War, Propaganda, Pains, Betrayal.

196 Themes and Techniques in African Novel: A Review of Ngozi Chimamanda Adichie's Half of a Yellow Sun Mbah, Victor Chukwudi

Introduction All literary works have techniques or devices “All art is propaganda, though not all propaganda through which writers achieve their aims. This is art.” In these words Chinua Achebe states his paper, therefore, is geared towards exploring how understanding of the nature and role of art as a a writer uses narrative techniques and themes in a writer. This statement means that all forms of work of art in order to achieve his aims. artistic expression, especially literature, must have a reference to human life and this could often be Themes and Techniques in Chimamanda achieved through the use of some techniques. Ngozi Adichie's Half of a Yellow Sun Theme is usually regarded as the main idea of a Adichie in her novel Half of a Yellow Sun explores story that contains the novelist's most important different themes that relate to family, love, perception of some aspects of existence in his passion, betrayal, infidelity, forgiveness, broken immediate environment. Thus, the novelist's dreams, identity and the effects of the Nigeria- message or theme, according to Cornel Ujowundu Biafra war. The effects of the war is shown in English Usage for Higher Education, “is the story's through the dynamic relationships of the motivating force and influences the author either persons, ranging from high ranking political consciously or unconsciously” (131). figures, a professor, a British citizen and a houseboy. Also, to Ujowundu Cornel in Basic Study, Communication and Research Skills, the theme of a The lives of these characters are strongly story is what motivates the: connected as they undergo experiences of writer in writing his story. It is like a length Nigeria-Biafra war, and this is when their of rope with which the writer patiently individual stories start. Through these characters and mechanically trusses the story neatly their families and their connections, Adichie into meaningful shape, and without it, a explored he aforementioned themes. story would be trite and pointless (410). After the British left Nigeria and handed over the To him, theme can also refer to what a reader is mantle of leadership to the local elites, conflicts able to interpret a story to mean as long as his arose over who should be at the helm of the interpretation can be justified with evidence from government. The land was split along many lines: the text. ethnic, language and, most heinously, religious, and the Nigeria-Biafra war started. The lives of Thus, it is pertinent to note that the most the main characters drastically changed and were important point with regards to “theme” is what torn apart by the war. the reader is able to interpret a story to mean, as long as his interpretation can be justified with The war began on July 6, 1967 and lasted until evidence from the text. While this theme or January 15 1970. The war broke out due to message is important, a “well-made” novel must political/ethnic struggles, partly caused by the be a composite of message and technique. It is the decision of the South-eastern provinces of narrative techniques used that helps the artist Nigeria to secede and form the Republic of realise his theme. Because, as Eustace Palmer states Biafra. Political conflict between the Igbo, in his work, An Introduction to the African Novel: Yoruba and Hausa and Fulani people led to two deadly military coups. The Igbo tried to break One expects that a good novelist, apart from his away from Nigeria to become the Republic of preoccupation with his message (theme) should Biafra, but was met with little support. From 1968 show some consideration for the appropriate onwards, the progressed as the Nigerian forces style and technique which will help him to achieve were unable to make significant advances into the clarity (ix). remaining area of Biafra. Nigeria cut off humanitarian aids to Biafra, resulting in hundreds

197 Themes and Techniques in African Novel: A Review of Ngozi Chimamanda Adichie's Half of a Yellow Sun Mbah, Victor Chukwudi of thousands of civilians dying of starvation and unfolded and refolded his arms. His bones were disease. Many lives and resources were lost during clearly outlined and the wrap of his arms was flat the war, and even today there are still tensions in a way that would be impossible if he had some between different ethnic and religious groups in flesh underneath the skin (356). Nigeria. This shows the effects and consequences of the The story in the novel, Half of a Yellow Sun, is imbroglio on the people. The novel explores the centred on the war. The novelist believes that theme of infidelity and betrayal. This theme many of the issues that caused the war remain revolved around Odenigbo, Olanna's lover, unsolved today. Her novel features today as it was Richard, Kainene's lover and a British writer. then because none of the major political events Odenigbo slept with Amala, the village girl his were changed in the novel. Adichie's novel mother wanted him to marry. This was captured contained “emotional truth” and the novel in these words: showed the war had a significant impact upon the It's you and not your mother. It happened people of Nigeria. Adichie brings relief and because you let it happen. “You must take succour to the painful history of Biafra in the responsibility.” “I am not a philandering novel. Her powerful focus on the war's impact on man, and you know that this would not civilian life and the trauma beyond the trenches have happened if my mother didn't have are vividly portrayed. a hand.” “Did your mother pull at your penis and insert in into Amala as well? The novel reflects the effects of the war on Olanna asked? (245-246). Nigerians, especially the Biafrans. Many lives were lost, properties worth of millions of naira were Despite the love Olanna has for him (Odenigbo), lost as well. People suffered from kwashiorkor he betrayed her in her absence. As a result of and starvation as a result of the war. Even when Odenigbo's action, Olanna went ahead and slept Kainene visited Olanna at Umuahia where they with her sister's lover Richard. The scenario is took refuge, the suffering and the effect of the captured thus: war is written all over the place thus: She kissed his lips. He pulled her Kainene came in the middle of hot forcefully close and then, just as quickly, afternoon soaking some dried cassava in he let go and moved his force away. She water when Mama Oji called. Olanna unbuckled his trouser and moved back to dragged the bunch in front the veranda pull the down and langue because they and Kainene looked warily at it before she got stuck at his shows. She took her dress. sat down and placed her hand on the He was on top of her and the carpet latter . . . (351). pricked her naked body and she felt his mouth limply enclose her nipple. It was In other words, Adichie used the novel to portray nothing like Odenigbo's bite and suck, the time of abundance and sumptuousness, that nothing like those shocks of pleasures. is when people lived comfortably and have Richard did not run his tongue over her in enough to eat and the period when there is that flicking way that made her forget nothing to eat as a result of the war. More still, everything; rather when he kissed her when Olanna and Kainene visited the refugee belly, she was aware that he was kissing camp, the scene was very horrible as stated below: her belly (238). They went into the first classroom. About twelve people were lying on bamboo beds, on mats, on From the above, Adichie explores and x-rays the the floor, not one of them reached out to slap theme of infidelity and betrayal through the away the fat flies. The only movement Olanna saw action of the major characters in the novel. was that of a child sitting by the door. He Odenigbo betrayed Olanna and as a result of

198 Themes and Techniques in African Novel: A Review of Ngozi Chimamanda Adichie's Half of a Yellow Sun Mbah, Victor Chukwudi

Odenigbo's action, Olanna slept with her sister's shirts with expressionless, disciplined lover Richard. demeanours were standing by. The first two points were easy for him to pass, but near Enugu Again, infidelity could be seen or traced between the civil defenders that blocked the road asked Odenigbo and Alice: him to turn back. One of them said: “Are you sure She is a kind of woman who will steal you are not an agent of the Nigerian government? somebody's husband. Every time you go It is you white people who allowed Gowon to kill to Orlu, she will come out and sit with innocent women and children.” your husband. Olanna stared at Mama Oji surprised, because it was the last thing she But when Richard said, “Abu m onye Biafra,” the had expected to hear and because men laughed and asked him, “Where did you Odenigbo had never mentioned that learn to speak our language?” (180). With this, Alice spent time with him when she was Adichie used language for identification as well as away. I am only saying that you should be communication. careful with her even if she is not a saboteur. She is not a good woman (386). The novel is written in post-independent Nigeria. It exposes the Nigeria-Biafra War which began on In view of the above, one can declare that July 6, 1967 and lasted till January 15, 1970. infidelity and betrayal mostly revolved around According to Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopaedia: Odenigbo. “The war broke out because of political and ethnic struggles partly caused by the numerous attempts However, the novel also portrays the theme of of the south-eastern provinces of Nigeria to forgiveness. This could be traced as well between secede and form the Republic of Biafra” (2). Kainene and Olanna, Kainene and Richard, and Olanna and Odenigbo. After Olanna's betrayal of Adichie, in order to drive home the message, her twin sister, Kainene at the end forgave her. makes use of certain narrative techniques to Also, Olanna also overlooked the hurt in highlight the meaning and they include the use of Odenigbo sleeping with Amaka. Kainene on her symbols, imagery, suspense, flashbacks, own forgave Richard for sleeping with Olanna. metaphor, irony, rhetorical questions, third person point of view and other figurative In addition to this, there is also the theme of love expressions. in the novel. Odenigbo is in love with Olanna. It is this love that made them to forgive each other First of all, in the use of symbols, Adichie's when Odenigbo betrayed Olanna and when characters are symbolic. Adichie uses them to Ricahrd betrayed Kainene. Odenigbo is in love represent or reveal much about the class and with Olanna while Richard is in love with economic conflicts found in Nigeria, the issue of Kainene. moral responsibility, the consequences of ethnic ties, the relationships on a personal level between Furthermore, there is the theme of identification the legacies of colonialism, racial divisions in in the novel. The novelist used language as a post-colonial Nigeria. means of communication and identification in Half of a Yellow Sun. The Igbo characters in the The novel also revolves around five major novel used Igbo language to communicate with characters: Odenigbo, a professor and Biafran members of their own tribe. For instance, when nationalist, whom the war particularly affected. Richard was going to Nsukka University, he He is an outspoken leader among the discovered that checkpoints had been placed missionaries. He is not happy with the Biafran everywhere, tyres and nail studded boards were military losses, the genocide against his people, placed across the road, men and women in khaki also the failure of the West to recognise Biafra as a

199 Themes and Techniques in African Novel: A Review of Ngozi Chimamanda Adichie's Half of a Yellow Sun Mbah, Victor Chukwudi legitimate nation and his personal loss. Ugwu, his have started suffering from shortage of food. thirteen year old houseboy; Olanna, daughter of a Many people are dying of starvation, most wealthy Igbo businessman and Odenigbo's lover; especially the middleclass and lower class. Even Olanna's twin sister Kainene, a more distante some of them eat lizard (352). Many families lost character and Richard, Kainene's lover, a British their lives. Odenigbo, Olanna, baby and Ugwu writer. went to live with Kainene and Richard, who decides where Kainene is running a refugee The lives of these characters are strongly camp. As a result of lack of food and medicine, connected as they undergo experiences of decides to trade across enemy lines and did not Nigeria-Biafra War and this is when their return. individual stories start. According to Carolquin in New York magazine, “Adichie does not describe Adichie also employs suspense to show the fact historical facts, instead she uses the characters to that Kainene's journey keeps the reader in double describe the unfolding of events.” mind, whether Kainene is alive or dead. As the story notes: In the beginning of this novel, there is enough to When some relatives come from eat. Ugwu, a poor village boy has gotten a job as a Umunachi, and suggested that they houseboy to Odenigbo, a well-to-do intellectual consult “a dibia” Olanna asked his uncle of Igbo descent. In Odenigbo's compound, there Osita to go. She gave him a bottle of are swimming pools, flowers and food is in whisky and some money to buy a goat for abundance (58). the oracle. She drove to the River Niger to throw the copy of Kainene's photo. She On the other hand, Adichie uses orange, beer, went to Kainene's house in Orlu and bread, cans, chicken as images which suggest walked around it three times. And she good times when one is enjoying life. As the waited for the week that the “dibia” had narrator says: stipulated, but Kainene did not come Ugwu, go to the kitchen, there should be home (437). something you can eat in the fridge. He opened it and gasped as the cool air rushed As regards the use of symbols, the title of the into his face. Oranges, bread, beer, soft novel is itself symbolic. The rising sun is used by drink, many things in packets and cans the Biafrans to represent their fledgling were arranged on different levels and at the independence and as a symbol of hope. Again, top, a roasted shimmering chicken, but for the Biafran flag is also symbolic. The red a leg Ugwu reached out (6). symbolises the blood of the siblings who are massacred in the north; black represents the From the above point, we observe that people mourning of the people who were killed in the were enjoying themselves but once the civil war war and the green symbolises the property which breaks out, air raids, civilian attacks, mass the Biafrans will have and “half of a yellow sun” evacuation, malnutrition, corruption, abuse by stands for the glorious future of Biafra. soldiers, alcoholism and depressions, all take their own part. They sat on wooden planks and the weak morning sun streamed into the roofless Moreover, the families are forced to flee. People classroom as she unfurled Odenigbo's cloth flag are deprived of food, starvation start its game and and then what the symbols meant. Red was the families scruple to survive. This brings about the blood of the siblings massacred in the north, refugee crisis to the extent that Olanna, black was for mourning, then green was for Odenigbo's mistress, joined the queue for prosperity (102). collection of powdered egg for baby, when they

200 Themes and Techniques in African Novel: A Review of Ngozi Chimamanda Adichie's Half of a Yellow Sun Mbah, Victor Chukwudi

Furthermore, Adichie also adopts flashback into Nigeria? Shall we ignore the thousands of technique in order to recall the past for the our brothers and sisters killed in the north?” understanding of future developments of the (170). present and she achieved her aim in this technique through Ugwu, one of the protagonists who Besides, the novelist also employs dramatic mostly portrays the act. For instance: monologue whereby Ojukwu speaks, people were Ugwu examined the scarf tied round his listening to him silently. Another monologue also aunt's head. He could see where it was takes place as soon as Biafra national anthem threadbare, the fabric stretched then. He burst out, everywhere would be silent, whenever remembered that when his cousin's Biafran national anthem starts, people will pay father died, the family had sent word to attention and listen until it ends. For instance, her in Lagos, telling her to come home when the anthem started on the radio, baby was because her father was very sick. If you crying, Olanna told Ugwu to take her to the were far from home, they told you the veranda. dead person was very sick (87). Further still, Adichie's use of language is another The flashback also helps in the development of interesting style in the novel. The novel reflects the story and the characters. Another example is on language both as a means of communication when Ugwu recalls his cousin's father's death in and of identity. The novelist combines Igbo and which the reader is not aware when he died, but English language, simple and straightforward through the technique of flashback we got to language, and minute details which an average know. Also his aunty is one of the characters reader would understand. though she did not participate in the story. The novelist is a great writer. Chinua Achebe The author makes use of third person or acknowledged this when he says in Elle magazine: omniscient point of view. That is, he sees all, We do not associate wisdom with beginners, but hears all, and knows all point of view. Adichie tells here is a new writer endowed with the gift of every bit of the story from the beginning to the ancient storytellers. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie end with what is known as “the eye of God point knows what to do about it. She is fearless, or she of view.” She knows what the characters can do, would not have taken on the intimidation horror what they cannot do and what they fail to do. of Nigeria's civil war. Adichie came almost fully When she took love walks on campus, past the made. tennis courts and freedom square, she thought how quick leaving had been and how slow There is also the use of metaphor in the novel, for returning was (432). example, when Odenigbo talks about the members of the Western House of Assembly If it is not for the omniscient point of view, we who punched and killed one another until police would not have known what she has in mind. came and sprayed teargas on them before they all Adichie used flies, mat, dirty wrappers as images. dispersed. When Ugwu heard teargas, this These suggest her environment, how the fascinated him. He wanted to use it on northern areas are during the Nigeria-Biafra War. Nnesinachi, when he gets home and said so in The writer uses various techniques to enhance the Jomo's hearing, who said to him “You are a sheep, quality of her work. She further employs aturu” (211). We observe that Ugwu is being rhetorical question. When Ojukwu came to regarded as an animal which metaphorically Nsukka University to talk to the students and the depicts how foolish and ignorant Ugwu is about lecturers about what is happening, he says: “I what and how dangerous it is for human beings to came to ask you a question, What shall we do? inhale teargas. Shall we keep silent and let them force us back

201 Themes and Techniques in African Novel: A Review of Ngozi Chimamanda Adichie's Half of a Yellow Sun Mbah, Victor Chukwudi

Another technique employed in the novel is In fact, Adichie's Half of a Yellow Sun is one of the dialogue. Some are long while others are short, African novels in which the novelist uses such as the dialogues between Odenigbo and techniques to tell the world the good, the bad and Olanna, Richard and Kainene, Ugwu and Olanna. the ugly of the Nigeria-Biafra Civil War. The fact Their conversations lasted long, while the one that literature concerns itself with human between Richard and Olanna, and Amaka were experiences in life is obvious in this novel. The short. novelist uses symbols, images, flashback, suspense, monologue, irony, metaphor and Another narrative technique employed in this varying aspects of language to convey messages novel is suspense, as seen in the conflict between in the novel. Olanna and Kainene, Richard and Kainene, and Olanna and Odenigbo. Odenigbo slept with a Conclusion village girl, Amala, whom his mother brought to The novelist, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, is him under three weeks while Olanna was away aware of the importance of themes and narrative from home. When she came back, she was very techniques in a literary work. There is a conscious angry about the brief rash lust to the extent that she use of these in her novel Half of a Yellow Sun. She locked Odenigbo outside. As the narrator says: exposes and x-rays the colonial and post-colonial The first time Odenigbo came to her flat shortcomings that led to the civil war. As she was unsure whether to let him in, but Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia says: he knocked and knocked and said, The novel takes place in Nigerian Biafran “Nkem please open, biko, please open,” war in 1967-1970. The effect of the war is until she did. She sat sipping some water shown through the dynamic relationships while he told her that he had been drunk, of five people's lives ranging from high that Amala had forced herself on him, ranking political figures, a professor, a that it had been a brief rash lust (275). British citizen, and a houseboy. After the British left Nigeria and stopped ruling, Olanna being annoyed about Odenigbo's betrayal conflict arouse war, what government also slept with Richard in a moment of weakness: would rule over the land. The lives of the She placed the wine bottle on the floor main characters drastically changed and and sat next to him and touched the hair were torn apart by the war, and decision that lay on his skin and thought how fair and in these personal life (89). soft it was, not assertively brittle like Odenigbo's, nothing like Odenigbo at all. Against this background, for the reader He looked at her and she wondered if his unfamiliar with African history, the credibility of eyes had really turned gray or if she was this fictional portrayal of war is truly enhanced imagining it. She touched his face, left her through the use of three voices to communicate hand resting on his cheek. “Come, sit on the the experiences. For instance, Ugwu, a young boy, floor with me,” she said finally. She kissed his lives in a university lecturer's house. Another is a lips. He pulled her forcefully close, and then, young middleclass woman, Olanna and third is a just as quickly he let go (234). white man, a writer who lives in Nigeria for no clear reasons and who falls in love with Olanna's This is also ironical in the sense that Olanna who sister. All are involved in one another's lives, but is annoyed about Odenigbo sleeping with Amala their emotional responses to the unfolding was on her part also falling victim of sleeping with political events that confront them display a raw her twin sister's lover, Richard in a moment of honesty that is shared with close friends. weakness and this brought a serious case between her and her sister. Besides, the power in Adichie's story is found in her simplicity of description, the combination of

202 Themes and Techniques in African Novel: A Review of Ngozi Chimamanda Adichie's Half of a Yellow Sun Mbah, Victor Chukwudi local language (Igbo) and Standard English in Akachi, Adimora-Ezeigbo. Roses and Bullets. trying to drive home the consciousness and Lagos: Jalaa Writers' Collective, 2011. language patterns. She employed this language Encyclopaedia Britannica. Online. 2009 technique so that the Igbo in particular would Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15 June 2009, know and understand the secret of the Nigeria- http://www.britannica.com/>. Biafra war that had been forgotten. Hornby, A.S. Oxford Advanced Learners' Dictionary of Current English. London: Oxford Furthermore, themes that Adichie explores in the University Press, 1984. novel help the reader to understand the negative Nzebunachi, A.I. Corrects Steps in Literature. effects of war; which also reflect in the lives of the Nnewi: Mick-Sub Publishers, 2001. five people in the novel. Palmer, Eustace. An Introduction to the African Novel. London: Heinemann, 1972. Works Cited Pierre, Jacob. What the Mind Can Do. Cambridge: Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms, 4th ed. Cambridge University Press, 1996. New York: Nartion and P. Rushton, 1987. Ujowundu, Cornel O. English Usage for Higher Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. London: Education. Onitsha: Bels Books, 2014. Heinemann, 1964. http//enwikipedia.org/wiki/half_of_a_yellow- Adichie, Chimamanda. Half of a Yellow Sun. sun. Lagos: Farafina, 2006. http://www.the_bookbag.co./review/index.phy. half_of_a_yellow_sun

203 26

Authoritarianism in Nigerian Literature: An Analysis of Helon Habila's Waiting for an Angel

Ngozi Chuma-Udeh Ph.D Department of English Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University

Abstract Authoritarianism in a society negates basic human rights, generates socio-economic cruelty and perpetrates physical and mental brutality. Literature as a phenomenon thrives on the social, political and economic forces predominant in a particular society. It is nurtured, shaped, directed and even moulded by these collective experiences of the people (3). The relationship between creative literature and these communal experiences are symbiotic. One cannot survive without the other (79). This is the case with most African societies, where modern literature has developed against the backdrop of colonialism and its varying manifestations of neo-colonialism and post independent imperialism occasioned by military despotic interventions. These societies have developed against authoritarian backgrounds riddled with hostility, aggression, wanton political cruelty and wilful physical and psychological brutality on the masses. In Nigeria, since independence in 1960, that is fifty-three years ago, the military had served in the political arena for over 30 years. The military rulers claimed their interventions were as a result of wide spread cases of ethnocentrism, political bedlam, disorder and collapse of law and order, reckless fraud, distortion of voting results, bribery and corruption by the civilian rulers. They however, had held tenaciously unto power with endless authoritarian decrees prohibiting any form of condemnation of the military officers, the President, and his cabinet, thereby subjecting the masses to the trauma of political and social trepidation. This paper looks at military authoritarianism as depicted in Helon Habila's Waiting for an Angel with a view to establishing the role of literature as a voice against dictatorship and repressive governance. Keywords: Authoritarianism, Nigerian, Literature, Repressive, Governance

204 Authoritarianism in Nigerian Literature: An Analysis of Helon Habila's Waiting for an Angel Ngozi Chuma-Udeh Ph.D

Introduction country. He implicated authoritarianism as the Initially, there was a general belief among many bane of the nation because it absolutely negated Africans that military politics was a reaction to the basic human rights. corrupt practices of the civilian political class. Chinua Achebe's A Man of the People was upheld as He presented in series of first person accounts a prophetic work because it was published almost what one might term a “unity in diversified plots” at the threshold of the first military coup d'état in of the real life situations in the Nigeria of the 90's. Nigeria. Chinua Achebe and other Nigerian post It was a period when the rulers of the country colonial writers must have believed then that the became hideous monsters, vampires seeking to corruption and political excesses predominant devour any form of opposition. The government among the First Republic politicians in Nigeria became an unfathomable, inaccessible enigma might trigger off a possible coup as a 'corrective offering nothing but pain and sorrow to the masses. measure.' The military intervention was therefore It was during an epoch in which the average a welcome change. It was the hope for redemptive Nigerian character suffered “internal disintegration force that would sanitize the already putrid of humanness” resulting from the struggle to political arena (16). However, this dream of survive the intense suppressions of dictatorship. correction turned into pure anarchy as the military leaders projected their militarism as The author consciously chronicled the tragedy tactics in governance. It became apparent that the and emotional ordeal of a chaotic society devastated by hallmark of authoritarianism was hostility, the monster of dictatorial rule. It was a pure depiction of aggression, wanton political cruelty and wilful life as it was in Nigeria of the 1990s. Habila physical and psychological brutality on the succinctly x-rayed life in the nation which he masses. This went together with the rapid and portrayed as a police state of 'unutterable, reckless draining of the economic base of the atrocious sadism and bloodshed.' The author country. The soldiers brought in a more summed up the degeneracy in the country from a militarized siphoning of the economic base with prisoner's perspective: huge sums going into foreign accounts. Here in prison loss of self is often expressed as anger. Anger is the baffled As the country's treasury was converted into their prisoner's attempt to re-crystallize his personal accounts, the song on the lips of the slowly dissolving self. The anger creeps modern Nigerian writers turned from the up on you, like twilight edging out the day. prophetic lyrics of A Man of the People to a very It builds in you silently until one day it dismal dictum. The situation seemed very pathetic explodes in violence, surprising you. I saw in the book under study as the abuse of power led it happen in my first month in prison. A to perversion of justice, underdevelopment, prisoner without provocation had wanton waste of human and material resources and attacked an unwary warder at the toilets. wide spread paucity in the country. The prisoner had come out of a bath-stall and there was the warder before him, Authoritarianism in Helon Habila's Waiting monitoring the morning ablutions. for an Angel Suddenly the prisoner leaped upon him, Helon Habila wrote with the apt of an author pulling him by the neck to the grounds, greatly affected by the ills in his society. His aim grinding him into the black slimy water was obvious as he took pains to establish the role that ran in the gutter from the toilets. He of literature as a voice against despotism and pummelled the surprised face repeatedly oppressive governance. In Waiting for an Angel the until other warders came and dragged author appropriately spun a surreal, omniscient him away. They beat him to pulp before account of the catastrophe which bedevilled the throwing him into solitary (10). country under the military autocracies in the

205 Authoritarianism in Nigerian Literature: An Analysis of Helon Habila's Waiting for an Angel Ngozi Chuma-Udeh Ph.D

The novel gave a true picture of the lawlessness dreaded enemies of the government. They were and insecurity in the country. The unwritten but systematically hunted down like rabbits and minced very feasible code of conduct was immeasurable into pliable conditions. Censorship on printed human right abuses that almost the whole globe works was just as absolute. The bowdlerization gave cried out against. Life in the whole country was no space for one to utter or pen down a word, be it like one whole compact form of prison yard. The of dissonance or of harmony on the socio-political prisons were a miniature representative of life in conditions in the country. The government aimed the entire nation. Just like inmates in any of the at quelling any discordant voice with every available numerous jails in the country, the masses were force. At the slightest tone of dissension of opinion, a helplessly weighed down by stringent autocratic citizen was pounced on by rabid fiery eyed 'law laws. Every day survived became a victory against enforcement' workers. Once in the government net, the junta. Impotent anger gnawed at every soul in they were placed in conditions where their squirms and the country like a devouring cancer on the human squeaks resounded into nothingness-top-security membrane: prisons. Habila's novel related therefore, a period in the Sometimes the anger leaves you as history of the nation when even the slightest hint of suddenly as it appeared, then you enter a opposition meant imprisonment and death. Like a state of tranquil acceptance. You realise pastime, the military government whose leader was the absolute puerility of your anger: it was supposedly, one of Nigeria's most recent military nothing but acid, cancer, eating away your despots, wiped out any hint of dissent and every bowels in the dark. You accept the suspicion of egalitarian philosophy from many of the inescapability of your fate; and with that, country's intellectuals. you learn the craft of cunning. You learn ways of surviving-surviving the mindless The main character Lomba was a journalist and a banality of the walls around you, the frustrated novelist. His inability to complete his incessant harassment of the warders; you novel represented fully the chaos in the learn to hide money in your anus, to hold a consciousness of the masses: cigarette inside your mouth without For the past two years I had been locked in wetting it. In addition, each day survived is this room, in this tenement house, trying to victory against the jailer, a blow struck for write a novel.... I looked at the papers spilling freedom (10). out of a thick folder on my table. The words and sentences, joined end to end, looked The most ironical portrayal of this brazen absolute ominously like chains, binding me forever to rule was the deaf ears the rulers turned to the this table. I felt a deep, almost fanatical supplications of all world organisations including loathing for them. two years, and still no the Commonwealth of Nations. The rulers single sentence made sense to me. Standing brought the country an intense bad reputation of by the window, staring at the manuscript, I barbarism and brutality and were just about at felt, with emphatic clarity that if I sat down enmity with the rest of the world. Almost every and picked up my pen and added a sentence other country abhorred the junta government and more to this jumbled mass, I'd die. The their brutish operational code of conduct which uncompleted novel would grow hands of borders on ferociousness and violence. This led to a iron and strangle me to death (82). multiplicity of sanctions against this vicious state. Intellectualism was totally banned from the state. The novel depicted the horror of the period when Writings were seriously censored and publishing the masses were denied a voice, as the leaders of the was done under severe checks and balances. country were at confrontation with integrity and Lomba lost hope of ever getting his novel truthfulness. The journalists and the writers were published and obtained a job writing for the Dial the most wanted quarries. They were the most where his job entailed writing details of any political dissentions or demonstrations. He was

206 Authoritarianism in Nigerian Literature: An Analysis of Helon Habila's Waiting for an Angel Ngozi Chuma-Udeh Ph.D such a totally disillusioned character and his Then I go throw send-off party. My send- inability to complete his work symbolised the off from life of poverty. I go repaint unsatisfied life, chaotic existence and loss of self every house for this street. I go hire that was the lot of the masses. He was later labourers to sweep everywhere till robbed as an enemy of the state, nabbed by everything de shine like glass. All of us go security agents and thrown into jail as a political wear aso ebi, fine lace, and Italian. The prisoner, where he languished in a Lagos jail on Military Governor and the Local false accusations of political disturbance and Government Sole Administrator-all go treason. The book in its irregular shift in montage come here. I go pay Teacher Joshua to sequence portrays the scattered thought pattern write my speech for good colo English, of this character. In a bid to follow up the chaotic no be this kin' yeye English wey dem de thought patterns of his chief character, the teach children for school now. We go eat author seemed to present the book in an and dance and smoke fine imported igbo assortment of correlated short stories with each from Jamaica, the type Bob Marley use to story having a full contextually developed plot to smoke. Then finally I go stand before the it. In each episode, the author robed a persona TV people dem for final last handshake with narrator who deftly gave insight into the harsh Poverty. “Oga Poverty,” I go say, “we don conditions in the country as it affected him. finally reach end of road. We don dey together since I was born, but now time don All the other characters like Lomba lived in an come wey you and me must part. Bye bye. erratic world of fear and uncertainty. The author Goodnight. Ka chi foo. Oda ro, Sai gobe (98). presented helplessly agitated characters beaten and silenced into submission by the government. Apart from the out-rightly disillusioned Almost every soul in the country lived in an characters like brother, all other characters escapist-dreamlike world. Most of the characters inwardly and feebly sought solutions to the took recourse to drug addiction and alcoholism. prevalent political situations in the country. They One of the characters Joshua, the teacher told pathetically sought ways out of the mass socio- Kela, his student, that people become dreamers economic misdemeanour and the intrigues and when they are not satisfied with their reality, and tyranny of the military regime in the country. This sometimes they don't know what is real until they led to the organisation of the 'peaceful' rally by the begin to dream again (91). people living in Morgan street. Auntie Rachel warned Joshua that such demonstrations are never Another set of characters, Brother and his peaceful (124). Her fears became reality on the day cohorts were depicted as submerged in an of the demonstration. As Kela was about to leave escapist world of hazy dreamlike-marijuana for the demonstration, Auntie Rachael cautioned clouded life. In the comfort of his shop him prophetically to be careful and to run at the submerged by garbage heaps, with marijuana and first sign of trouble... Because I know there will be alcohol filling their bemused brains, they kept trouble. I can feel it in my bones (128). projecting into the future. In the figment of his imaginations, Brother drew a perfect chart on Lomba threw his weight behind the how to use his millions when they start rolling in. demonstrators. He went to cover the protest in He dreamt perfectly of his escape from abject and which he deemed to be that of people peacefully suffocating poverty. He would dish out twenty protesting the neglect of their neighbourhood. thousand naira to each of his ever appreciative These were ordinary, harmless placard-carrying followers as good settlement for their citizens who were seeking the attention of the discipleship: government to their pitiable socio economic plights. Their placards read peaceful maxims.

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The helplessness of the masses was better The demonstration was peaceful until a squad of portrayed by the author as Joshua stepped out of about fifty armed riot police, who shot tear gas the Local Government to announce to the randomly, unexpectedly set upon these unarmed demonstrators the refusal of the Sole protesters. Most of the protesters were severely Administrator to hear them out and Joshua's beaten. There was a serious pandemonium as declarations summed up the unscrupulousness people raced across the adjacent highway to of autocracy: escape the brutal beatings from the police. As ... We have a right to complain to him, they attempted crossing the road in a mad rush even though we didn't vote him into for safety, cars speeding on the highway crushed office... And in a sense, this address is an running women and children. The reader is made accusation of this entire regime. We, the to become one with these hapless characters who honest, peace loving and taxpaying in the course of life and for no fault of theirs were citizens of Morgan Street are tired of condemned to a life of penury as victims of waiting for the government to come to circumstance under a junta of absolute power and us. That's why we came. We came to tell corruption. The author's description of the you, Sir, that our clinic is run-down and sorrowful episode was just as vivid: abandoned; we came to tell you that we The people, scared witless, hemmed in on don't have a single borehole on Morgan all sides, stupefied by choking tear gas, ran Street. We have to go to other streets to out in all directions, like quails beaten out fetch water; our schools are overcrowded of their hiding places, coughing and and our children have to buy their seats falling. Agile youths attempted to scale and tables because the ones there have the high Secretariat wall, but were swatted not been replaced since the schools were down by police batons, like mosquitoes, built ten years ago! (122-3). to fall into the open gutter, shaking and writhing with pain and terror. Those that The administrator's refusal to listen to the masses were able to reach the top had their was reminiscent of the high handed and grasping hands cut to laces by the barbed insensitive governance of the Junta. Joshua's apt wire on top. Others, mainly women and description of the demonstrator's state of being children attempted to run across the road, was like stating the obvious because it drew only to be knocked down by speeding applause even from the curious eyes at the vehicles (134). balconies of the Administrative building. The author used Joshua's speech to finally indict the Habila's use of perfect shift in time sequence was military government as a curse to the society. just the perfect mixture for leading the reader Joshua declares: through the ghastly events in succeeding chapters We don't know who Morgan was - some hinging on the lives of ordinary citizens of Lagos, colonial administrator perhaps, a men and women, including Lomba himself, living reminder of our hopeless, subjected state. on Poverty Street, and trying to maintain a little No, that is too grand for us. We are a poor, facade of hope in a progressively more desperate neglected people... We do not know who world. All lives in the country moved in the same Morgan is or was, but we do know what pathway with Joshua's declaration at the Poverty is. We live with it daily... This is demonstration that they are dying from lack of our decision: that our street, presently hope (132). known as Morgan street, ceases from this moment to be known by that name. It Lomba, the chief character was a core idealist and shall, from this moment be known as his views of the government were as much Poverty Street!(123). horrific as that of every other of the silenced voices in all the nooks and crannies of Nigeria.

208 Authoritarianism in Nigerian Literature: An Analysis of Helon Habila's Waiting for an Angel Ngozi Chuma-Udeh Ph.D

His co-habitants of Morgan Street or Poverty harsh, miserable life in the country under the Street represented the entire masses denied a guidance of the patrons in the eating house and voice and franchise. He took his job of covering his futuristic English teacher, Joshua Amosu. arts for the Dial newspaper as the only means of Through these mentors he learnt about the harsh speaking for his people. He felt greatly realities of life in the country and the hazards of responsible for the fate of his neighbours and living in the junta political structure. The teacher appoints to himself the onerous job of speaking did not waste time in drumming it into the young for them in no matter how feeble a voice. He impulsive ears of his pupil: watched helplessly as his close associates are As you grow older, you'll find life demanding you crippled and mangled by the authoritarian regime. to make certain choices. Some people choose the He became conscious of the fact that he must easy roads, some the hard ones; but they all have take action, no matter how ineffective to maintain their reasons. Never condemn a man or give up his battered soul. His decision to take part in a on him because of the road he has chosen – demonstration with his neighbour was as a result because sometimes it is actually the road that of this firm belief that he could speak up for chose him. People can change. People do them. His arrest and imprisonment therefore change… 150) signified the helplessness of the masses in the face of the absolute rulers. The multi narrative The student persona also learns more about life technique also indicated the scattered and its intricacies in the Nigerian context through consciousness of the characters. The author the experiences of the graffiti writing serving girl, presented some of his chapters in the third Nancy. Just like every other disgruntled character person point of view, in some others he robbed in the novel, Nancy, the graffiti writer depicted at the protagonist as himself in a twisted technique the cover of the book, was portrayed as living in of an author-persona mode, still in some others an escapist world. She could only air her views the narrator person trades place with another through her paintings. The paintings therefore character, a boy in a high school known as Kela. became synonymous with life in the country- empty, baseless and insensitive. The reactions of Through the eyes of this character the author the other characters to her paintings belay their revealed a firsthand experience of the horrors of level of consciousness of the horror around authoritarianism. Kela lives near Lomba in them. Some like Auntie Rachael got more and Poverty Street and fate brought them together more engrossed in drinking and hardly noticed shortly before the ill-fated protest that led to the graffiti and its writer. Others like brother Lomba's incarceration. His disoriented, drunkard became so immersed in daydreaming that the aunt runs the Godwill Food Centre Restaurant reality represented by the graffiti hurt to the very which serves as the only recourse of the poor in soul. Brother was livid because the graffiti threw poverty Street. This character relayed a true his wretchedness right into his face. The graffiti representation of the astonishing paucity in that tagged Auntie Rachael's joint Poor Man's Poverty Street: Paradise (102) was a true representation that did not go down well with the poor patrons. It Poverty Street's real name was Morgan Street, tampered badly with Brother's dreams of soaring one of the many decrepit, disease-ridden quarters above poverty. It made a trash of his dreams. It that dotted the city of Lagos like ringworm on a told him to his face who he was. beggar's body (92). As for the hero, who has been jailed for two years From the above vivid description, one feels the without a trial at the opening of the novel, the strident sounds, the awful sights and the situation had carried him beyond the fibre of overpowering foul stench of life in an human endurance. He had departed the realm of authoritarian enclave. Kela lived through the reality where the soul reacted to such feelings as

209 Authoritarianism in Nigerian Literature: An Analysis of Helon Habila's Waiting for an Angel Ngozi Chuma-Udeh Ph.D antagonism, fright and antipathy. His condition with misery. The masses were pushed just within has gone beyond the human mindset; he hairbreadths of the margin between humanity describes the circumstance he found himself in as and bestiality. the baffled prisoner's attempt to re-crystallize his slowly dissolving self, as he enters a state of The author used multiple episodes through series tranquil acceptance of his fate (10). of montages to give details of gory crimes against innocent people. Life was so insecure and without The jailer, Muftau, the superintendent at Lomba's any guarantee of the next minute that people took prison, represented an arm of the authoritarian recourse to getting their fortunes told by marabouts. government and his mandating the prisoner, Lomba and his friends went to 'download' their Lomba to write love poems for him, became a future from a fortune teller too. This was because signal of the undermining nature of the junta every soul in the country palpitated with uncertainty government. His order for the poems was a and people would naturally want to know what would follow-up to his finding of the poems and journal become of them. entries the prisoner had written and hidden. This ironically signified an acceptance of the The situation was so critical that one of the young prisoner's superior knowledge. He courted Janice men, Lomba's friend asked to know the day of his using Lomba's verse because of his inability to death, which he knew would be soonest and write the poems on his own. His acceptance of hoped would be spectacular and momentous. The the fact that Lomba's love poems would woo his sage did not dispute his assertions of an better-educated heartthrob indicated his poor impending death. He told him that a wise man educational background. This was an indication was always ready for death. Assume it would also that the prisoner possessed an intellectual come tomorrow, or in the next minute (35).He light, which was being snuffed out by his unlawful went on to assure him that he would know when incarceration in jail. the time came because he would see the angel of death Israphael coming for him—and he did. The The superiority of intelligence imbedded in anxiety in him could not be clouded as he asked to Lomba's poetic lines were immediately decoded know Lomba's fate too: by the woman who distinguished Lomba's cryptic messages and came to the prison to meet him only “What did he say?" I asked. Lomba to discover that a more heinous crime was shrugged. "Prison. That was all he saw committed against the prisoner. The jailer had to ahead of me. Go in, try your luck, ask for refuse him amnesty so that he could continue good fortune, don't ask too closely (31).” writing the love poems for him. The lady's refusal of the jailer's love advance was symbolic. The Death perpetually lurks by the corner as a totem author was of the opinion that truth would of authoritarianism. That was the reason for the eventually triumph no matter the time span. friend asking to know when he would die. Habila hopefully projected that the effect of this Another friend of Lomba's whose parents were repugnant dictatorial government on the ordinary killed in an avoidable car crash, was so grief-stricken people of Nigeria would soon be over. Just as the that he made impetuous and unreasonable jailer lost his love, so too would the rest of the vocalizations, this earned him an arrest and a junta system crumble. Yet, the inability of Janice, thorough bashing by the securities. He was taken the teacher-lover, to offer a helping hand to into custody and was so ruthlessly trampled that he Lomba, although she was badly touched by the lost his sanity. He was then released to roam the prisoner's fate was also symbolic of the absolute streets-a raving, stark mad man. helplessness of the masses in the throes of authoritarianism. Habila here gave insight into Habila takes time to present these occurrences in the human nature when it was put side by side a rather haphazard arrangement. He represented the day-to-day life of the masses living in a hell-

210 Authoritarianism in Nigerian Literature: An Analysis of Helon Habila's Waiting for an Angel Ngozi Chuma-Udeh Ph.D like existence. He x-rayed families day after day freedom to celebrate all those courageous writers, life, aspirations that had gone cold; hopes that had who have refused to cow in the face of so much amounted to nothing and squashed dreams of the oppression; who refused to be silenced, even as members of the society. Their experiences are so power flowed from the barrels of the gun. vivid to the reader. The incidences portrayed are The writer's ultimate belief is laced in his all true to life of existence in Nigeria under a rhetorical statement that: military junta. There was the gruesome hanging Every oppressor knows that wherever of Ken Saro Wiwa despite all entreaties from one word is joined to another word to world associations and governments of other form a sentence, there'll be revolt. That is countries. The author also relates with such our work, the media: to refuse to be ardour the bombing and killing of Dele Giwa, the silenced, to encourage legitimate criticism editor of Newswatch Magazine, through a letter wherever we find it (150). bomb, and the shooting of Kudirat Abiola, wife of a jailed politician, M K O Abiola agitating Habila believes that power flows from the tip of against the continued unlawful detention of her the pen and not from the barrel of a gun or the husband. These spates of violence become a roar of an oppressor. He is of optimum hope that common feature of the government who would power still belongs to the masses. rather shut people up than reason with them. Conclusion The personalization montage introduced into the Helon Habila's Waiting for An Angel has a duty to plot by the author becomes too glaring as the accomplish. The author has a task, which is narrator persona reveals his identity at a party drawing the worlds' attention to the plight of his thrown by one of his close associates, which was people at a very perilous epoch in the history of attended by most of the writers and poets of Nigeria as a nation. He aims at drawing attention Lagos. A man out- rightly introduces himself by to the harsh realities of life in an authoritarian saying, "Hi, I am Helon Habila." This reveals the enclave. He portrays to the fullest the conditions semi- autobiographical nature of the novel as the of people under the claws of a junta and the author strives for a stronger personal attachment worthlessness of life in such a society. with the hero of the book. In real life situations, Authoritarianism is always a time of uncertainty however, Habila was said to have once worked in any country when life becomes symbolically under the pseudonym Lomba. This coupled with inconsequential as the human society degenerates his accuracy at depicting the harsh, cruel life under into a jungle where might becomes right. The brutal jailers in the prisons of Lagos, was such that stronger vamp the life blood of the powerless poor there was no hesitation as to the truthfulness of his masses in a bid to grow bigger. The author accounts descriptions. One begins to wonder if Habila coherently and convincingly the harsh realities of actually had a prison experience or if the figment of life in the authoritarian years which he succinctly human imagination could be so luminous. describes as "a terrible time to be alive."

Habila presents democratic institutions as very Despite the tyrannical state of affairs marring the fragile entities, which if not handled with care and lives of his characters, Habila presents people full utmost caution could slither into the rise of of inner strength, fighting for survival. The dictators with absolute power. The author moves characters fight against the bleak and depressing for the freedom of the press. He moves for a free situation in the country with an indefatigable spirit. society where men would be free to do what they know best how to do. He is for a society where Helon Habila's Waiting for An Angel stresses the fact people can stand up and say their minds without that the past cannot be wiped out easily. The molestations. Habila moves for the celebration of records become indelible footprints in the sands a free nation, with free citizens and a total of time; hence, the military eras would

211 Authoritarianism in Nigerian Literature: An Analysis of Helon Habila's Waiting for an Angel Ngozi Chuma-Udeh Ph.D perpetually linger on in the consciousness of the Habila's novel aims at not just telling the world average Nigerian as the worst periods in the but also retaining for posterity, the accurate existence of the nation. nature of the casualties of oppressive rule in Nigeria. Habila apparently moves against authoritarianism and its destructive influence on the masses. He is Works Cited of the opinion that the people must rise up Achebe, Chinua. A Man of the People. London: against oppressive leadership, not considering the Heinemann Educational 1966. cost. Despite the tyrannical circumstances -----. “The Novelist as Teacher”, In Morning Yet on pressuring the lives of his characters, Habila's Creation Day. London: Heinemann, seems to carry the message of hope. He is of the 1975. opinion that all should not be dreary and Chuma-Udeh, Ngozi. Trends and Issues in Nigerian disheartening at any point in human history. Literature (Prose). Onitsha: Malchjay, Humanity implies being able to stand firm and 2009. upholding an invincible strength of mind at all Ezeigbo, Theodora. “Functionality in Literature, Art times. His character Lomba has a will to survive. and Propaganda”, Savannah, Vol. 1, June 1989, He writes his prison notes because he has hopes p. 79. that they would see the light of the day. He Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, translated by struggles against all odds to be a human being Constance Far rington. London: even as the political circumstances make him McGibbon and Kee, 1965. nosedive from a promising student to an Habila Helon. Waiting for an Angel. Abuja: Cassava unsuccessful novelist, to an unfulfilled journalist, Rep. Press, 2007. to a political prisoner. Nnolim, Charles. “Trends in the Nigerian Novel”. Matatu, Vol.2 (January, 1987), pp.7-22. Obiechina, Emmanuel, “The Writer and his Commitment in Contemporary Nigerian Society”, Okike, Nos. 27/28, March 1988, p.4.

212 27

Power Structure and Inter-generational Struggle in Olu Obafemi's The New Dawn and Suicide Syndrome

Abdullahi S. Abubakar And Ibrahim Olayiwola Ajao Department of English, University of Ilorin

Abstract The centrality of context to the adoption of critical parameters is a continuous debate. This has provoked a second look at the stereotyping of some playwrights who are inclined towards change. The conscription of Obafemi to Marxism, for example, and the restrictive application of the theory to assess his plays have left some issues unresolved. This is due to the limitation of the applied theory in analyzing the socio-political context. Thus, his approach to change and the identified conflict groups he paints are subjected to a straight-jacket interpretation to fit into the adopted cannon. The haphazard attempts to discountenance the context of these plays have resulted in de-emphasizing the inter-generational aggression aptly captured by Obafemi. This paper adopts New Historicism to study two plays by the playwright, The New Dawn and Suicide Syndrome, to allow for a contextualized analysis of the aesthetics of change pursued by the playwright. The synergy between authorial experience and context make the theory appealing.

213 Power Structure and Inter-generational Struggle in Olu Obafemi's The New Dawn and Suicide Syndrome Abdullahi S. Abubakar and Ibrahim Olayiwola Ajao

Introduction only a certain kind of reality, but also In the wake of the 21st century, Nigerian youths from a certain angle of vision often, have had to face a new challenge, after the rescue though perhaps unconsciously, on behalf provided by western education from cultural of a certain class, race or nation: (6). marginalization. It is the threat of unemployment. This development has caused a return to the New Historicism is chosen to facilitate the status quo of youth being exploited by older conduct of the research as against Marxism that generation; because as in pre-industrial period the primarily identifies two-class-stratification. The social system accords the former a very little fact that the paper looks beyond the identified responsibility by the latter. The young perceive two classes, makes Marxism rather unsuitable. the old generation as the cog in its wheel of There is no gainsaying that many analysts have, progress for not providing the right leadership to over the time, considered Obafemi as pro- expand the economic domain to accommodate Marxist. Hence, they approach his works from the the youth, on the one hand, and for sitting tight, Marxist perspective. Given the complex nature of thereby refusing to give way for the vibrancy of the Nigerian society, however, multi-various the youth, (Martin 151). Irrefutably, where there is classes are discernible in the social order. The marginalization and/or exploitation, there is stance taken in this wise, is affirmed in Ake's always defiance, challenge, struggle and explication of social strata in modern Africa as confrontations of all kinds, thereby making a call aptly probed by Abubakar. for change of the social order utterly inevitable. This stance is arguably more influenced by the Ake…, in his analysis of class stratification in concept of democracy; a system of government modern Africa, admits the possibility of Africa that thoroughly preaches equality of opportunity presenting a complex picture of classes than it is and rights. With the current lopsidedness in the delineated by Marx. However, he would not trend of things in the Nigerian nation, and in accept the existence of more classes in Africa Africa by extension, a redefinition of grouping outside Marx division into bourgeois and and stance becomes inevitable. The body polity proletariat. He also could not come to terms with should not be static; the idea that there should be the diverse interests and differing emphases that political opportunity/right to office and the idea characterize the lives of the oppressed classes, that there should be equitable sharing of power which often degenerate into intra-class conflicts. and responsibility among the generations Ake's analysis of class in the African context, undoubtedly become a pressing urge, (Apter using Marx concept, presents a case of strange 111). More importantly, it is not unlikely that this bedfellows (22). perspective is also influenced by the Obafemi's position. If truly an author cannot dissociate Perceptibly, Ake reckons with the existence of him/herself from the class he/she supports, then more than two classes in African communities, a critic cannot as well do the same. While yet he maintains firm position that Marxism examining the author and class attitude, Ngugi should not be subjected to defacement in African observes: territories. Abubakar's observation, however, … literature takes sides, and more so in a crystallizes Ake's belief on the act of using class society. A writer after all comes from Marxism as a periscope to study “multi-modal” a particular class and race and nation. He strata in Africa as “a case of strange bedfellows”. himself is a product of an actual social Simply put, application of Marxist praxis to process – eating, drinking, learning, multi-societal strata in Nigeria amounts to a loving, hating – and he has developed a wrong choice of theory. class attitude to all those activities, themselves class cautioned. A writer is trying to persuade us, to make us view not

214 Power Structure and Inter-generational Struggle in Olu Obafemi's The New Dawn and Suicide Syndrome Abdullahi S. Abubakar and Ibrahim Olayiwola Ajao

Tenets of New Historicism as a bid to perpetuate it. Given the trend in New New Historicism is, in the main, an acclaimed Historicism, critics, as observed by Dobie, no theory credited to Stephen Greenblatt. While longer focus history alone (in text interpretation) Cultural Materialism is of British origin, New for it is mostly rendered subjectively. Rather, the Historicism is American. Both are meronyms of interest is now mainly on cultural context such as Cultural Poetics informed by American literary struggles, anxieties, politics etc. of a particular criticism around 1960 and 1970. New Historicism period. Intriguingly, the contemporary New is basically an off shoot of Historicism. It Historicists take special interest in a “culture's emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s as an power structure”. So, a literary text is conceived alternative version of Historicism for textual of as a tool of political sensitization and as a interpretation. It disavows solitary and statement of ideology. autonomous view of history. New Historicism suggests that history is one but a part of many Power Structure in The New Dawn and discourses and perspectives with which the world Suicide Syndrome: Modern and Monarchical could be studied. Hence, sociology, political Power Relation science, anthropology, psychology and literature On the plain the two texts under consideration etc. are the requisites for interpretation of a text. juxtapose the worlds of the affluent and the Importantly, the resultant complex interplay impoverished but within these divergent groups among these discourses does not necessarily is a sandwiched group constituted by the become somehow haphazard just as history oppressed and unemployed youths, whose future (prioritized by Historicism) is not. Taking cue is put on hang by the older generation. This from Foucault's view of history, New Historicism replicates the context of the playwright where sit- avers that there is a unifying factor in this complex tight syndrome of the old prevents growth and interaction of various discourses. This, Foucault development and the energy in the youth waste identifies as episteme (Bressler 186). By episteme, away. This contradicts the tenets of creating a he means to assert that each epoch in history viable industrial democracy as observed by evolves its own perceptions of reality, establishes Hendrick (29). The socio-political organization its norms as well as yardstick for judging what is of Nigeria is aptly portrayed by Obafemi in The good or otherwise. Following Foucault's suit, New Dawn and Suicide Syndrome. Power revolves New Historicism claims that a critic of any around old government top officials, state agents, literary text should acknowledge his/her own contractor-politicians, traditional rulers etc. biases before looking into different discourses Imbalance structure, therefore, becomes that constitute an episteme of a given period. This perceptible not only in the body polity but also in is considered imperative in that no historian nor social institutions, as the young and lower ranking any literary critic can go beyond his/her own officials are denied due benefits. Also, the latter experience, knowledge and values. More has no say in the decisions of the organizations: importantly, New Historicism is widely acclaimed among cultural critics who take special interest in To put it crassly: the self-identity, and certain groups of people that are marginalized by even more the self-realization of the the dominant parties. young man implies to a large degree his replacing the preceding generation. In In so far as there is no single accurate history order to come into his own, the old man and/or a sole world view, it automatically follows (or whoever stands in his place) must that culture of a particular community is made up move over; or, in the folklore of my native of conflicting sub-sets. To put it baldly, the Austria, he must move into the old popular and the so-called standard culture is people's quarters (9). spurious for it is an undertone of the powerful institutions and the leading classes' choice, as well

215 Power Structure and Inter-generational Struggle in Olu Obafemi's The New Dawn and Suicide Syndrome Abdullahi S. Abubakar and Ibrahim Olayiwola Ajao

The power accrued by the old generation, most Funke:What bothers me is that people in especially the haves in the society, is so much that Government are not oblivious of the young generation is denied a voice even in the these. affairs that concern it. So the old wields the power Tayo: NO, they're. I mean, part of the invested in it to the detriment of the young. Power contract aspect; they line their structure as depicted in The New Dawn shows pockets with their percentage for Tayo's boss in the ministry, a semi-literate old man awarding contracts for drugs for who, only by virtue of age and government private clinics… crooked structure, becomes the top official. He Aina: Which they jointly own with abuses the power invested in him by maneuvering physicians. After all, government the workers' salaries and the officers' car loan. people are human beings… (74-75). This becomes apparent when Tayo enquires about them. “So what do you do with the workers' To further depict the absolute power exercised by salaries and officers' car loan?” (65). the old officers, the soldiers who are state agents, murder children in their moon-light play. They are Well, man no go eat sand. (As the boss) So I have shot dead just because they demonstrate the to remind you of your G.O. don't I? Or have you protruding posture of the Emperor, who equates got another job? Anyway, go on playing with the himself with the Almighty: 'Shut your trap… the only job you have and are capable of doing. I tell maker with whom I rub shoulder presently in you. Me I don make am. I retire today, I still greatness gave my progeny a destiny. A divine employable. I fit be managing director of at least staff of office. This divinity, which I personify … ten companies… You don”t know anything; I get ' (82). When he is further provoked by the life ticket (66). youngsters, he vows to crush them with his power. He does not see killing (most especially of The old boss is so powerful and influential. He the youth) as a crime. He therefore threatens thus: believes that the etiquette of the ministry does 'Fetch me the remnants of the accused future not empower any young officer to challenge his generation whose damned luck escaped the boss on any action. It is also clear from the boss's mowing of my native guillotine, so that I CAN response that he is employable in any company put them in the PAST.' (83). via his connections, unlike Tayo who is not likely to secure any, if he gets dismissed. Tayo's boss Power structure as depicted in Suicide Syndrome symbolizes every old top officer, in different further corroborates the imbalance power sectors, whose powers are unchecked. He structure and impropriety of power by the old therefore takes undue advantage of his position generation in Nigeria, most especially, among the to stash away public funds and property. powers-that-be. Instances of this abound while the workers protest against the play staged by an This abuse of power is further portrayed by old director. Alhaji (one of the old powers-that- higher officers in the health sector, including be) threatens to get them arrested by inviting the doctors and nurses. Tayo and other youths mimic commissioner of police who is also an old officer: the behaviour in other sectors: '... I beg Professor, Minister make we go. I go ring Tayo: Yes, Sir… And thus they remove police commissioner to come clear dis people way drugs from government hospitals. dey distop the public peace' (107). The above Dele: By creating artificial scarcity excerpt presupposes that the less privileged Tayo: Pile them in their private clinics youths cannot exercise their right to freedom of Dele: I see, and buy exotic cars, build speech, even over an issue that concerns them; mansions, and fertilize Swiss banks that is showing their disappointment over the play with oil billions they paid for. Minister on his part declares workers' protest as an inkling to treasonable

216 Power Structure and Inter-generational Struggle in Olu Obafemi's The New Dawn and Suicide Syndrome Abdullahi S. Abubakar and Ibrahim Olayiwola Ajao offence, which ought to be truncated by the state taxation without amenities to cushion the adverse power. He sees staging of a new play (by the condition of the time. youth) that will reveal the living condition of the workers as an act that could easily cause and Cultural Context in History: An Assessment spread chaos. Therefore, it should be stopped of The New Dawn and Suicide Syndrome immediately: 'Industrial unrest must be nipped in the bud. Chaos through art is contagious. It must Historical antecedent and cultural environment be slammed with state power' (107). are fundamental to the assessment of the interplay between the dominant and the Abuse of power by the government and its agents marginalized. Monarchical institutions are marks is further depicted in the unnecessary of sur viving traditional authority in retrenchment of workers, without entitlement, as contemporary Nigeria. However, unlike in the it takes more toll on the youths and truncates their past when the kings and the chiefs have moral and education; Furthermore, the acquisition of land, social obligations to their communities, the trust which is done without compensation to the and respect vested in these potentates are now so rightful owners, compounds the problem of abused that the powers- that- be connive with youth unemployment. This is aside from over- them to exploit and suppress the less-privileged. taxing of the masses as unveiled by frustrated This connivance is aptly decried by Obafemi as youths in their discussion of the oppression at the the traditional rulers easily succumb and partake top: in thwarting efforts and struggles against generational exploitation. Thus, the politicians, Son: I am sorry. But this morning, having suppressed the traditional rulers by seizing Daddy was retrenched. He came power from them, now extend the domination home soaked, with cold sweat and oppression to the young. Invariably, this running down his spine. compromising posture of the monarchical Frustrated. institution further compounds the woes of the Daughter: No compensation is given. less privileged. The upturn of events, lopsided 3rd Worker: Our peasants cattle farmers values and individualism that characterized are oppressed with haraji, so- Nigeria as a society during the writing of the play called community tax, while texts- The New Dawn and Suicide Syndrome- they don't even have water to believably hold tips to proper understanding and drink. assessment of the youths' position and/or Son: Our uncle in the village pays tax, contribution, in relation to a host of moves by the jangali while his cattle die from citizenry to effect socio-political order. Hence, drought (130-133). various elements of culture and their impacts on the concept of socio-political transformation, as The unjust use of power, as presented above, depicted in the play texts, become imperative. accentuates the abuse of power against the powerless youths and their poor parents. The laid Religious Factors in the Domination of off workers without compensation portray the young generation fate of every worker in the hands of his employer, In The New Dawn, Oro festival is celebrated as a used and dump object at will The last resort of atonement to the spirit of harvest. This is a the retrenched worker(s) and the unemployed common practice across Yoruba land. It is always youth is farming on their lands. The absolute organized when a community is in chaos, power of government is again depicted in the austerity, famine or disaster of any kind. The act expropriation of lands from the less privileged as of taking to ritual as the last resort when the they are not compensated. And to worsen it all, community is in danger is utterly frowned at by the poor are further exploited via all forms of the author because the problems at hand are man-

217 Power Structure and Inter-generational Struggle in Olu Obafemi's The New Dawn and Suicide Syndrome Abdullahi S. Abubakar and Ibrahim Olayiwola Ajao made. Therefore it is an escapist and diversionary The support to eliminate the falsehood, instituted act, instead of dealing with the perpetrators by the old generation for a better polity also squarely. To shield the perpetrators of the serves the interest of the spirits, which continuity atrocities committed against humanity from depends on the community. disrepute and possible punitive measures, the youths are marginalized by referring to them as In Suicide Syndrome, religion is also part of culture, non-initiate males and females. This declaration which is unduly abused by the old generation, contradicts the general belief in the community most especially the powers-that-be. This it does to that cultures only subsist by youth involvement. stifle imminent revolt against exploitation, This common perception is in tune with New dehumanization, subjugation and oppression of Historicism, which regards religious practice like the less privileged. Obafemi clearly portrays the Oro as a custom instituted by the majority; hence, abuse in a speech by Alhaji: 'We Sabi them. We to ostracize the young, who constitute the don use Allah keep them quiet. But make you sure majority, from the scheme of things is bizarre. On the money come. The land na for Allah. No be so, the contrary, their appearance is declared a ko-fe-so?' (125). It is obvious that the majority of flagrant violation of the custom. So, Oro has the people in Nigeria have been brainwashed to assumed a status of a cult for the old generation be submissive to God in all conditions, even in to advance its domineering practice over the man-made hardships. Against all sorts of young generation. Obafemi subtly portrays the adversities, they resort to God as the sole saviour. idea thus: However, Obafemi conceives of the social Alade: What worm of the stomach routs maladies as man's handiwork which ought to be you up before the break of the dawn? changed by man. So, the inability of the less How can it be said that sneaker-snake privileged to reason and take decisive actions disrupts the big market…(Taken fully against their undoing is considered to be a aback) So, that's why today the final rite of weakness. This is clearly projected by MAMA Oro is despised. Culture is vandalized? who warns her children against enquiry about the Unripe cobs of maize fill the boiling pot. cause of their (the family's) poverty. She rather (Grips them all in turn, one by one, in a magical considers it as blasphemy: '... My children. It is evil motion as he tries to fell them with a combined to think like that. Evil. It is not good for children appeal to mesmerism, naked force but he fails in of God. It will make you hate humanity' (116). each (84-85). Social Factors in the Domination of the In the above the youths are likened to a tiny snake Young generation whose presence could hardly be noticed let alone In a Yoruba set-up, it is traditional that the youth disrupt the calmness of a place which is as big as a should accord maximum respect to the elderly market. This presupposes that they have no people. Any youth who dares confront the elderly impact whatsoever on the propitiation of the person is considered uncultured. As subtly unseen forces. To further describe the sacrilege presented by Obafemi, the elderly ones take committed by the youth, Alade, a representative undue advantage of the custom not only to of the old, compares the youth to unripe maize perpetuate themselves in power and institutions cobs in the boiling water. This explains that their but also to shore up their corrupt practices. So, presence is calamitous to them. However, the they claim that the custom does not permit the author does not fail negating this assumption as youth to challenge elderly persons even when the magical spell cast on the youths has no impact they are bad eggs in the society. This is evidently at all. The ineffectiveness of the spell goes a long glaring in Tayo's confrontation with his old boss, way to show the spirits take side with the radical Dele. youths as is based on truth, awareness and daring spirit to save the community from total collapse.

218 Power Structure and Inter-generational Struggle in Olu Obafemi's The New Dawn and Suicide Syndrome Abdullahi S. Abubakar and Ibrahim Olayiwola Ajao

Dele: … Wetin this world de turn to sef? scarcity, laundering of public funds and property, So you are talking to me exploitation, extravagance and abuse of power as like that, hen? (Clapping his hand to show a exposed in The New Dawn (89). The ill-acquired mixture of disgust wealth is squandered in ceremonies; a culture of and astonishment.). So you don forget your waste in which the rich compete. This is clearly traditions? You don projected in Alhaji's celebration of three billion sel respect for elders for chocolate in anniversary and the extravagant display of wealth University for England en? (64). by him; he gives his concubine a sum of one million naira for shopping in Europe. (124) While Another part of tradition unduly exploited by the the rich among the old take to the culture of old generation to marginalize the youth is waste, the poor ones take to the culture of experience. It is believed that the older concession and endless hope. This is clearly generations are custodians of knowledge and unveiled by MAMA who, while stitching her rag bureaucracy and so should be at the helm of clothes, concedes to poverty and therefore resorts affairs, while the young generation should take to a song of hope. time to learn the ropes. The adducible reasons are I'll be rich in my life (2ce) that the youths are too naïve to be given If not in youth at old age administrative responsibilities as a result of their Poverty in youth is not a age and that the involvement of the youth in result of laziness. administration constitutes transgression and We came to the world to insubordination. According to a common saying, meet riches (113). the youth must wait for their turn. Hence, the elderly people, as portrayed in The New Dawn, Four groups are depicted by Obafemi: the typical believe that the youth should wait till the rich men, who often illicitly amass wealth to the expiration of the tenure of the sit-tight elders, if detriment of the masses; their stooges, who they intend to change the current system, no benefit from the crumbs; the fatalistic masses matter the anomalies bedeviling it. By making no efforts to fight back and, of immense implication, the youth can only take charge of the significance, the youths who, at any rate, remain affairs of the community when the elderly ones averse to the exploitation and suppression meted have ceased to have interest. So the tenacity of out by the haves among the old generation and administration in offices and community decry the unfruitful position taken by the have- becomes longer than necessary. Obafemi unveils nots. this belief in the statement of Tayo's boss. In conclusion, the paper has examined the Dele: …Well, I think I've stayed for too long in this existing social order in Nigeria based on the world. obtainable power structure in the country from New Historicist precept and revealed the “Oluwagbami!” What? I used to think each bird anomalies in the social system as portrayed by Olu knows when to fly. The migrating cattle egret flies Obafemi in The New Dawn and Suicide Syndrome. in the afternoon when children can wave it out The assessment of the plays' cultural context in and claim white marks on their little fingers. The history as it affects intergeneration struggle has owl hoots at night when all farmers are home and further revealed the existence of multiple classes all hunters are back… (64). and they impinge on each other, especially how the old generation has successfully orchestrated a Peculiar habits that characterize the old social order suitable to its interests at the expense generation of the twenty-first century in Nigeria of the young. However, the youths' readiness to is corruption, popularly known as 'ten-percent'. transform the society from her precarious state is This is perpetuated via the regime of artificial ascertained through the de-mystification of the

219 Power Structure and Inter-generational Struggle in Olu Obafemi's The New Dawn and Suicide Syndrome Abdullahi S. Abubakar and Ibrahim Olayiwola Ajao antics of the old. Several efforts put in place by Bressler, Charles. Literary Criticism: An Introduction the youths give inklings to the realization of a to Theory and Practice. New Jersey: Pearson better polity for the future. Education, 2003. Henderich, Ted. Violence for Equality: Inquiries in Works Cited Political Philosophy. London: Routledge, 1976. Abubakar, Abdullah S. “A Critical Study of Martin, Bernice. A Sociology of Contemporary Revolutionary Dialectics and Context in Cultural Change. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981. Osofisan's Drama.” Diss. University of Ilorin, Obafemi, Olu. “Drama: its Nature and Purpose.” 2005. Criticism, Theory and Ideology in African Literature. Apter, David E., ed. Political Change: Collected Eds. Obafemi, Olu, Bodunde Charles. Ilorin: Essays. London: Frank Cass, 1973. Haytee Press, 2003. pp 86-99. Bettelheim, Bruno. “The Problem of Obafemi Olu. Collected Plays of Olu Obafemi: Nights Generations”. The young Adults: Identity and of a Mystical Beast, The New Dawn, Suicide Syndrome, Awareness. Eds. Winter, Gerald D, Nuss, Eugene Benin: Adena Press, 2005. M. USA: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1969 pp 1-21.

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Social Disparity and the Plight of the Common Man: A Marxist Reading of Ezenwa- Ohaeto's I Wan Bi President

Chukwueloka, Christian C. Ph.D Department of English Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University

Abstract Ezenwa-Ohaeto was one of the contemporary Nigerian poets and belonged to the alternative tradition of poets in his life time. The poets of Alternative Tradition, the likes of Odia Ofeimun, Tanure Ojaide, Peter Onwudinjo, Ezenwa-Ohaeto, etc, are those poets that believe that poetry should have a reduced syntax so that everyone can read and understand it. Ezenwa-Ohaeto was a poet and a social critic who frowned at the ills exhibited by the political leaders of Nigeria, especially the military. This work examined the Marxist inclination of Ezenwa-Ohaeto's collection of poems entiled I Wan Bi President. The conditions of the common man were examined via the Marxist ideological stance. Five poems were selected and through a detailed analysis of the poems, it was concluded that the rich exploits the poor in all its ramifications. It was equally revealed that the common man, though subjugated, still lives happier than the rich. The work also revealed that Ezenwa-Ohaeto supported equal treatment to all, as Marxist ideology portrays. Lastly, in the collection, the poet exploited the positive effects of pidgin English to write a committed literature. Key words: Marxism, Social Disparity, Common Man.

221 Social Disparity and the Plight of the Common Man: A Marxist Reading of Ezenwa- Ohaeto's I Wan Bi President Chukwueloka, Christian C. Ph.D

Introduction Marxist criticism disapproves and abhores. The Literature and language are closely related.... analysis of the precise relationship between the Literature is constituted by language and it different classes in the society, Marxism contends, represents one of the most recurrent uses of leads to the understanding of society's ideology, language (Koutsompou 74). Literature, as an “ally and to do this, one must know where those to language”, helps in the realization of the classes stand in relation to the mode of meaning and usage of language. Suffice it to state production. The ruling class who in Marxist that language is a component of literature. They terms, are the capitalists, are fortified by the are like the two arms of a scissors that are hardly feeling that they own the means of production separated. Literary pieces can either be in the and so control the society. As a result, they form of poetry, drama or prose and in each, subjugate the lower class (the common man). In language is exploited for the achievement of the discussing social disparity and the conditions of aim. Writers take one ideological stance or the the common man in Ezenwa-Ohaeto's I Wan Bi other in their works. While some may decide to go President, five poems are considered and these feminist, some moralistic, and some Marxist, include: “Catch Naira for Me”, “Typist' im others may go philosophical in their approach to Question”, “You No Fit Do Nothing”, “Fingers the subject-matter in their works. Ezenwa- No Equal”, and “Water No Get Enemy”. The Ohaeto in most of his collections of poetry, poems were discussed using Marxist theory of towed the Marxist line. class struggle. Marxist theory is not merely a sociology of literature but has its main aim as In “Catch Naira For Me”, the persona laments explaining the literary work fully and this over the ravaging effect of naira on the lower class means grasping those forms, styles and people in the society. Love for money has made meaning as the product of a particular girls become harlots and boys to become robbers society. The originality of Marx's own in our society. The common man has turned to a criticism lies not in its historical approach to liar because of the absence of the naira. The poet- literature but in its revolutionary persona complains the ever-numerous positions understanding of history itself (Eagleton 3). which the lack of naira, which is an attribute of the lower class, can push one to: To Marxist theory, “literary works are not Our children don forget dem papa mysteriously inspired, or inexplicable simply in Our children don curse dem mama terms of the author's philosophy; they are forms Our papa dem don lie too much of perceptions, particular ways of seeing the Our mama dem don do abomination world... (Eagleton 6). Marxist literature advocates Sake of say naira make dem so commitment- commitment to the plight of the (I Wan Bi President, 41) masses. Ezenwa-Ohaeto writes on the side of the oppressed, opposing the activities of the rich – According to J. J. Rousseau, man in the society is the rulers, in I Wan Bi President. This paper born free but is everywhere in chains – economic, therefore looks at the Marxist implications of social, political, and even religious. What happens Ezenwa-Ohaeto's I Wan Bi President. between the rich and the poor in a society full of capitalist tendencies is the domain of Marxism. Social Disparity and the Plight of the The theory of Marxism is itself based on the Common Man in Ezenwa-Ohaeto's opposites that are inherent in nature and that is Collection of Poetry – I Wan Bi President. the opposites of class where there is the rich, the Men in society are socially disproportionate and poor and even the wretched of the earth. The there is always the tendency that the highly-placed poet is here indirectly telling the society to be subjugate the common man in every society; all in conscious of what it does with money because so the name of class, and this dichotomy is what many go for it with uncontrolled enchantment

222 Social Disparity and the Plight of the Common Man: A Marxist Reading of Ezenwa- Ohaeto's I Wan Bi President Chukwueloka, Christian C. Ph.D

In “Typist 'im Question”, the poet invokes the come up. The persona intones, “Oga now you spirit of live and let live as well as the spirit of the don become/De only oga for we office/With gregarious nature of man. The rich need the poor plenty chair and money/I greet you well well” to live and vice versa and therefore no class (43). should intimidate or subjugate the other. The persona in the poem is a subordinate to someone Despite the speaker's state of mind and gentility, (his oga) who from all indications seems to be the Head of the office (the oga) still does not subjugating him as a lower class category, even to allow his typist's promotion to go through. The the point of denying him promotion. As a result persona in his reserved and resilent tone reminds of the 'oga's uncompromising attitude, the the 'oga' of the symbiotic nature of life by saying, typist cannot help telling him, “E get something I wan ask /Now na time for my own promote /You Oga as you get promotion talk say I no go conference”. The typist in the next As you don become oga kpata kpata stanza admits being an ordinary typist but I greet you well well reminds the 'oga'that the 'big' ought to stay, as Make you remember say well as the 'small'. This is why the typist asks him: Na right hand dey wash left hand (43). “De pen you take dey write /Na which place you get am” (43). The typist's question is simply The temerarious condition of the lower class in suggesting that co-existence in the society is any society is supposed to be under the tutelary inevitable and that one group must respect the hands of the high (the affluent) but capitalism other's integrity; “You talk say I no read book/ does not allow that to thrive, instead the rich deny You talk say na ordinary typing /Na him I dey do the poor even the least thing they are entitled to. for office” (43). The poet as the eye of the masses is educating the 'high' in the society of the need for harmless co- Eagleton contends that the seeds of existence of both classes. In fact, African writers revolutionary understanding are planted in Marx and poets in particular should write to teach the and Engels' book entitled The German ldeology society the importance of a classless society - a and that they (Marx and Engels) believe that society of social equality. This is the main thrust “consciousness does not determine life; life of Marxist criticism. determines consciousness” (4). This means that existence precedes essence, that the state of a The poem “You No Fit Do Nothing” also man's life determines his actions and reactions to preaches respect for one another's integrity. No issues. It presupposes as well that the mode of person should disregard the other as not being production of material life conditions - the anything. Again, the poem suggests the idea that social, political and intellectual life processes in people's identities are not written on their faces general. The point is that a hungry man is an and so one should not dismiss the other with a angry man. How the subordinate reacts to the wave of the hand saying “you no fit do master's orders must be dependent on the nothing”. The poet persona advises that the subordinate's state of mind at a time. However, person you refer to as nothing and is incapable of the state of mind of an individual must also doing anything may be someone greater than you depend on the person's life style. The bourgeois are in some ways. He says: class is always insatiable in its urge to own material You see poor man for road things and that is why it neglects the pitiable You take your car hit am conditions of the common man. This is purely You look am for face tell am the capitalist implication of life as shown by You no fit do nothing. Marxist criticism. Even when, according to the Come make I tell you persona in the poem, the addressee is the 'only Dat man wey you see so oga' in the office, yet he doesn't want others to Fit be big armed robber for night

223 Social Disparity and the Plight of the Common Man: A Marxist Reading of Ezenwa- Ohaeto's I Wan Bi President Chukwueloka, Christian C. Ph.D

Dat woman wey you see so How fingers go dey equal Fit bi one big officer him wife When water dey drown person for That poor man wey you see so desert Fit strong pass heavy weight boxer How fingers go dey equal (I Wan Bi President 47). When human beings don become god How fingers go dey equal The poet is suggesting that one who is poor When rat no go gree him pickin see road financially may not at the same time be physically Na bad belle make fingers no dey equal. weak. There is always a point at which one is ( I Wan Bi President 48). stronger or greater than the other. People should therefore take cognisance of that fact in their The poet's contention is that God created man dealings with their fellow human beings. Every equal but the bourgeoisie (the capitalists) who are person in one way or the other has his own power at the helm of affairs never allows the common and therefore should be respected. The common man to survive. The rich suppress the poor so man should not be scorned, pushed aside as much through exploitation and intimidation inconsequential and inexperienced. The poet because they alone want to control the society. notes that whosoever looks at the other as However, the Marxist stance adumbrates the rise nothing stands the risk of heaping innumerable of the working class one day when they will seize trouble on his head. He says, the means of production through a revolution. In “Water No Get Enemy”, the poet also looks at Na so you talk say the rift between the rich and the poor, the You no fit do nothing intimidation and insults which the common man Carry trouble wey una family gets from the rich but contends that the common No go fit solve finish man is like water which does not have enemy. The Put palava for your head (47). poet frowns at the rate of self aggrandizement by some Nigerians and advises that the rich should We should mind not just our businesses in the allow the common man to survive.. The poet talks public but also our utterances to avoid courting on the usefulness of the common man and yet the trouble; every person that lives has something in rich cast enormous aspersions and disregard on him. him: You buy motorcycle e no do Another poem in which Ezenwa Ohaeto looks at You buy small car e no do social disparity in life is “Fingers No Equal”. In You buy lorry sef e no do this, Ohaeto looks at man's wickedness and greed, Dis bicycle wey I dey ride a capitalist phenomenon which hampers growth You wan push me inside gutter in Africa. In a society where capitalism is the Remember say water no get enemy. dominant mode of production, there is always a ( I Wan Bi President 52) class struggle between the bourgeois and the working class (the proletariat) and the two classes The African man, it appears, is filled with some always engage in an ideological struggle between kind of bitterness against his brother, perhaps them. This is the struggle between the rich and because he alone wants to be respected forever the common man. The poet notes that because all and so he does not want the progress of the other fingers are not equal, “Na him make person rich / person. This ill-feeling against one another in Na him make person get house/ but him brother Africa should be purged by African writers live under bridge” (48). The same inequality in through their writings and at the same time build life, “make person get car / but him sister dey up a socialist attitude (togetherness) in Africans. waka with leg.” The poet sees social disparity as Just as Nnolim advises African writers to engage man made; he asks, in “ futuristic literature “ (5) as that will help in the

224 Social Disparity and the Plight of the Common Man: A Marxist Reading of Ezenwa- Ohaeto's I Wan Bi President Chukwueloka, Christian C. Ph.D fulfillment of Africa's dreams, so should the manipulate the poor, so do poets manifest same African writer try to disabuse the mind of in their poetry. Africans of envy, class consciousness, wickedness, malice, and man's inhumanity to The poet-persona laments about all manner of man. insults which the rich unleash on the poor – they 'box them with power', and 'kick them with When Africans forget the effects of the past and money' but still the poor man reminds them of forge ahead and aspire to, the freedom of the poor – (water no get enemy). project a truly independent Africa, He says: politically stable, able to feed her starving You take money slap me peoples, standing side by side with Europe I turn make I open mouth and the West, possessing enough coercive You take power box me force to earn her respect in the I fall for ground begin get up international arena, and become the last You take money kick me for head refugee for the oppressed all over the I begin dey cry small small world (Nnolim 5), You take power hit me for eye her local inward fight and hatred of one another De only question wey I begin ask would end. This is because there will be no more Na to know wetin I do you time for frivolities. The poet in yet another stanza You sabi say water no get enemy (53). in the poem further stresses the importance of self contentment as he draws the difference The poet talks about the political leaders who between the rich and the poor. The poor are abuse their positions in the society. He satirizes always content with what they have while the rich the political leaders who go to extremes in what appear insatiable, ever demanding for the best. they do because they have the power and the The stanza reads: finance and this is why the persona says – 'you If you buy coat for London take money kick me for head/you take money hit If you get de trouser for Paris me for eye”(53).The common man, from all If you make your hair for New York ramifications, is in trouble because he stands the If you buy shoe for Italy risk of losing what he has to the whims and caprices But my dress na papa dash me of the rich (the leaders in this context) as they are Wetin be your trouble despotic, greedy, avaricious and materialistic. The You no say water no get enemy (53). poet's message is that of live-and-let-live. The common man is like water, needed by everybody The rich go for exotic materials to promote or and so should be loved by all. show affluence; that notwithstanding, they still subjugate the common man and this leads to his One of the social evils in Nigeria today is the lamentations. The Man in Armah's The Beautyful process of dispensation of justice. In the country, Ones Are Not Yet Born and Idemudia in Iyayi's “money na im dey talk…” (Onuekwusi, 215), that Violence are clear instances where the poor is why the rich flaunts it to dislocate the common demonstrate a show of contentment. Despite man. The Nigerian society, by its capitalist nature, their levels of poverty in the novels, the Man and favours the rich more, to the detriment of the Idemudia never succumbed to bribery. They keep common man and this is why even money- to their types till the end of the novels. The two launderers, the drug peddlers, are given novelists perhaps indicate a kind of spirit needed chieftaincy titles without minding how they in Africa to rid it of its corruption and forge acquire their wealth and so the persona in this ahead for development. Just as most novelists in poem reminds the affluent that whatever title they their works show their grudges against this are given because of money, he (the common monstrous bourgeois class who intimidate and man) is still the controller of his farm:

225 Social Disparity and the Plight of the Common Man: A Marxist Reading of Ezenwa- Ohaeto's I Wan Bi President Chukwueloka, Christian C. Ph.D

Dem make you big chief intimidations, subjugation and the maltreatment of Dem make you big Alhaji the common man by the bourgeois class will end. You become Obong of money You become Emir of wayo Conclusion You become Oba of deceit There is great evidence of the use of Marxism You become Obi of dishonesty and inter-textuality in Ezenwa-Ohaeto's poetry. Me I bi ruler of my farm Ideas in If to Say I Bi Soja reflect greatly in I Wan Na him make water no get enemy (54). Bi President. His lampoon or satire of the military leadership finds expression more in his two What the poet is indirectly stating here is that pidgin collections. Just as the two collections are more than half of the rich in the society today are gibes and lampoons on the military and their swindlers, who can do anything to make their insurgencies in the country's body-politic, so are money. This is why he satirizes them through his the poems “If To Say I Bi Soja” and I Wan Bi poetry. As a result of the poet's complete President” in the collections talking about the rejection of the rich and their attitudes to the unruly behaviour of the military in power. They masses, he reminds them that one day, “monkey become too officious, ignore their roles as leaders fit go market/ E no go fit return back” (54). and become autocratic and most importantly use Ezenwa-Ohaeto is advocating in his poetry decrees and edicts to cover their excesses. Their equality for all in the society. We should see our activities then become very doubtful and they also brothers as equal and not divided by class where the engage in embezzlement of public funds. rich subjugate the poor, making them look very Through this criticism of the military, the poet inferior and sub-human. However, the poet is again indirectly fights for the freedom of the masses indirectly telling the society how the poor are freer who are crippled by the grip of these political than the rich, and this is why he (the common man) vampires whose nefarious activities hamper the has no enemy, just the way water has no enemy too. development of the Nigerian society. The rich have everything they want and yet are not As an adherent of the Marxist ideology, a believer satisfied, but the common man is at peace or in the equality of all irrespective of class, Ohaeto content with what he has. pungently defies the machinations of the bourgeoisies against the common man. Ezenwa- Power intoxicates and Nigerian leaders, especially Ohaeto in his life time believed in and wrote the military, see power and money as all in all, and so committed literature – literature that advocates use these to intimidate their subordinates. Ezenwa- the freedom of the oppressed, as supported by Ohacto in his poetry follows the development of the Marxist ideology. Nigeria through his poetic works, reporting the good and the bad at the same time. Works Cited Eagleton, Terry. Marxism and Literary Criticism. A good deal of Marxist criticism has, as a matter of Berkeley University of California Press, fact, paid no attention to the questions of artistic 1976. form, shelving the issue in its dogged pursuit of Koutsompou, Violetta-Irene. “The Use of political content. This is a differentiating point Literature in Language Classroom: between Marxism and some other approaches to Methods and literary criticism. , The thrust of Marxist view of Aims”. Integrated Journal of Information and literature is more prominent in the idea of the Technology. January 2015; vol. 5, no 1. writer and commitment. Marxist criticism calls on Nnolim, Charles. “African Lietrature in the 21st the writer to commit his art to the cause of the Centurry: Challenges for Writers and proletariat. There is therefore a need to establish a Critics”. purely proletarian culture and wipe out bourgeois African Literature Today. Ed. Ernest influence in the society. In this way, the N.Emenyonu; No 25 (2006), 1 – 9.

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Ohaeto-Ezenwa. I Wan Bi President. Enugu, Delta Onuekwusi, Jasper. “Social Criticism in the Publishers Limited, 1988. Fiction of Young Nigerian Writers: Iyayi —--- Contemporary Nigerian Poetry and and Ben the Politics of Orality. Germany; Bayreuth Okri”. Literature and Society: Selected Essays on African Studies Series 45. 199. African Literature. Ed. Ernest Emenyonu; Oguta: im Pan African Publishers, 1986. 212 – 226.

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Attitude of Teachers to the Use of Literature in Teaching the English Language Skills in the Nigerian Classrooms: A Study of Ihiala Local Government Area of Anambra State

Emodi, Livina N Department of English Chukwuemeka Odumegwu University, Igbariam Campus

Abstract The study of a second language aims at a good command of the language for the purpose of communication and does not therefore rule out a reading of the literature in the language. To achieve communicative competence, Nigerian educational planners have joined the two subjects to be one in the Nigerian junior secondary schools. But the problem is lack of effective implementation in the Nigerian schools. So the aim of this paper is to investigate the attitude of teachers towards the use of this method in Ihiala Local Government Area. Using a qualitativeinterview method, the researcher has tried to elicit the teachers' perceptions about the method. The results of the data collected show that the literary text is a good and useful tool for learning a second language because it leads the learner into developing the language skills, exposing the learner to real language and active participation in the class. Preference is given to reading and listening. Language level, students' needs and interests, and course objectives are some of the criteria to consider while choosing a literary text and all the teachers would like to receive training in the method especially in designing activities.It is also important to note that some findings are consistent while some contradict with previous studies.After a brief introduction, she reviewed some related literature, presented the analysis of the data collectedand the methodology she used in achieving her objectives. Then she presented some recommendations that would help in achieving greater impact in the use of literature in the language classroom.

228 Attitude of Teachers to the Use of Literature in Teaching the English Language: A Study of Ihiala LGA of Anambra State Emodi, Livina N

Introduction Popoola (http://www.medwelljournals.com/ Many linguists have stressed the need to focuson fulltext/?doi=sscience.2010.49.54) maintains content based knowledge while teaching language that the integration of the two subjects implies areas. In content based instruction, the focus is on that the English Language teachers in the JSS are making the language meaningfuland getting the now saddled with the responsibility of teaching students to communicate in the target language the new subject (English Studies), which consists (Rodmans and others: 464). What it means is that of English language and Literature in English. He learners are encouraged to discuss issues and says that the new arrangement is rocked with a express opinions on various topics of interest to number of problems. First and foremost, them in the target language.However, in the world because there is no specific period allocated to of language teaching, where what to know, is Literature in English on the school's general time- growing exponentially every day; teachers need to table, the teachers are faced with the problem of learn how to give their students opportunities to balancing the time allocation for the two aspects acquire information, and how to present it to their of the new subject at the junior secondary school students. Ina second language learning level. Secondly, deriving from the first problem, environment, using a literary material is an essential teachers at this level of education, do not teaching strategy. The usage of literature will normally give enough attention to the literature facilitate learning and instruction and as well aspect of the subject in the class as many of them provide confidence to language teachers and do not even know the rationale for merging the enhance the learners'learning of second languages. two subjects. Thetwo linguists quoted above have shown that although there is a policy on ground Because of the importance attached to the use of about the use of literature in the language literature in the language classroom, the Nigerian classroom, the policy has not yet been effectively educational planners in Nigeria have joined the two utilized in Nigerian schools. There is need to find subjects into one. A look at The National Policy on out what the perceptions of our secondary Education (2014 Edition) also shows that Literature teachers are about the practice and this is the in English is not among the subjects offered in the essence of the research. Junior Secondary School Examinations. And the Junior Secondary School Curriculum states it Objectives of the Study: boldly that English is offered together with The objectives of this study include: l i t e r a t u r e ( h t t p : / / w w w. e i s o . o r g / 1) To determine the attitudes of English junior_curriculum.php). Thus, in the National language teachers at theJunior Secondary Curriculum for English Language in the Junior School towards using literary texts in their Secondary School, the two subjects have been language classes. fused into one named,'English Studies'. The 2) Tomake recommendations that would help in integrated English teaching approach is part of the achieving greater impact in the learning of movement towards communicative language these language skills, using literature. teaching (Lambo. https://www.unilorin.edu.ng/ journals/education/nijef/March_1992). Lambo, Statement of the Problem while commending the efforts behind the Learning English as a second language through integrative English curriculum at the Junior memorization is a very ineffective strategy. To Secondary School (JSS) level, stresses the need for achieve communicative competence in the effective implementation. She suggests the need students, Nigerian Educational Planners have for periodic orientation or re-training of both merged the two subjects-Literature and English- teachers and supervisors of in Junior Secondary as 'English studies' in the junior secondary schools, in view of the fact that integrative teaching classes. But one thing is to formulate a policy, of English at the JSS level is innovative. another is to implement it. Most teachers have not started implementing it because they may not

229 Attitude of Teachers to the Use of Literature in Teaching the English Language: A Study of Ihiala LGA of Anambra State Emodi, Livina N know how to go about it or the rationale behind teachers encourage learners to develop the merging. There is need to continue creating positive attitudes towards them. These values and awareness for its importance and then provide attitudes relate to the world outside the insights on some of the possible ways of classroom.Literature is motivating. It holds high achieving the academic planners' objectives. The status in many cultures and countries. For this researcher feels that using literary texts can reason, students can feel a real sense of improve ESL students' interest in learning a achievement at understanding a piece of highly second language. She also believes that if teachers respected literature.Nasr (http://www. use a variety of literary texts in the ESL scribd.com/doc/189200367/literature-in- classroom, it can help students to strengthen and ESL#scribd) reviews the related literature and reinforce what they have learned and trigger makes some additional points in favour of students' motivation in listening, speaking, literary exploration in ESL classes. It has the reading, and writing in the English language. potential to consolidate the four language skills: reading, writing, speaking and listening. It Significance of the Study requires learners to think out and put into This study is very important in so many ways. The practice special reading strategies to deal with the topic of this research is – Attitude of Teachers to idiosyncratic characteristics of verse and prose. It the Use of Literature in Teaching the English broadens intellectual perspectives and boasts Language Skills in the Nigerian Classrooms: A cognitive maturation. It helps learners to develop Study of Ihiala Local Government Area in feelings for the language they are learning. Collie Anambra State. The essence of the research is to and Slater (3) support the inclusion of literature find out the attitudes of English language in the language classroom as it provides valuable teachers at thejunior secondary school towards authentic material, develops personal the use of literary texts in their classes. The involvement and helps to contribute to the research will go a long way to guiding curriculum readers' cultural as well as language enrichment. designers to create a better and workable These advantages, they move on to assert, can be curriculum for English language learning as a achieved provided teachers use relevant and second language, a curriculum that bears in mind appealing materials to learners through the use of the participatory aspect of the learner. It will go a activities that promote involvement, reader long way to providing data for educational policy, response, and a solid integration between especially as it concerns teachers' recruitment, language and literature. Lazar (11) asserts that training, and teachers' motivational techniques. literature should be seen as an invaluable resource of motivating material and as a bridge to provide Literature Review on Some Advantages on the access to cultural background. Literature, she Use of Literature in Language Classroom moves on to say, encourages language acquisition, Van (http://www.scribd.com/doc/ expands students' language awareness and 189200367/literature-in-ESL#scribd) believes interpretation abilities, claims which might be that studying literature in the second language connected to the role of stylistics in the study of situation is advantageous in a number of ways. It literary text and it educates the whole person, provides meaningful context, and encourages which resembles the personal growth model as critical thinking. Lindsay Clandfield described below. Parkinson and Thomas (9-11) (http://www.onestopenglish.com/why) in his add that literature provides a good model for article 'Why Use Literature' says, there are many good writing; it is memorable, non-trivial and good reasons for using literature in the classroom challenging, and it also helps to assimilate the and she enumerates them thus: Literature is rhythms of a language, thereby facilitating authentic material, it encourages interaction, intelligence and sensibility training. Hall (47) expands language awareness, educates the whole claims that literature helps to enhance the person. By examining values in literary texts, psycholinguistic aspect of language learning as it

230 Attitude of Teachers to the Use of Literature in Teaching the English Language: A Study of Ihiala LGA of Anambra State Emodi, Livina N

focuses on form and discourse interview, the researcher made sure she had a processing skills and improves vocabulary suitable arrangement with the participants expansion and reading skills. Literature, in concerning the reviewing of the materials she addition, has experienced a revival with the had written down and thanked the participants advent of communicative approach in language for their valuable time. teaching as it provides learners with authentic, pleasurable and cultural materials. Methods of Data Analysis According to Brockopp and Hastings-Tolsma, Methodology there are several common steps suggested by Data Collection researchers for use in the process of data analysis The data for this study is collected by using in qualitative research. These include: qualitative approach. Qualitative research is identification of themes, verifying the selected about exploring issues, understanding themes through reflection on the data, and phenomena, and answering questions by discussion with other researchers and experts in analyzing and making sense of unstructured data the area, categorizing the themes and recording (http://www.qsrinternational.com/what-is- of support data for the categ ories qualitative-research.aspx). Creswell groups the (www.queensu.ca/samp/sampreresources/.doc data-collecting procedures of qualitative research uments/). Therefore, the researcher identified into four categories: observations, interviews, and categorized the themes, records and analyzing documents and audiovisual materials supported these themes and records with (Jerry Thomas & others http://www. evidence from the data collected. The researcher humankinetics.com/excerpts). Following summarized the outcome of the interview based Creswell's grouping, the researcher has used on the questions. As stated earlier, it sought to interviews as her method of data collection. determine English teachers' attitudes towards Interviewing is a valuable assessment tool using literary texts in the language classroom. To because it allows the participants to share their answer the questions of the study, structured experiences, attitudes, and beliefs in their own interview questions were used by the researcher words. The use of direct questions in the to elicit information from 10 teachers from assessment findings helps the researcher present different schools in Ihiala Local Government an accurate depiction of what is being evaluated. Area of Anambra State. These questions The researcher has chosen structured interviews, contained seven items aimed at determining a type of interview that is very controlled, with answers to the requirements of the study. fixed, pre-planned questions and she has done Responses to the questions were analyzed in this through note-taking devices. terms of answers to the questions and frequency of occurrence. These are converted into A qualitative research is therefore chosen to percentage to give the accurate attitude of obtain information from teachers about their teachers towards the use of literary texts in attitudes towards the use of literary text in the language classroom. teaching of the four language skills. To achieve the objective of the study, the researcher visited Area of the Study the selected schools to identify with the teachers This study was carried out in Ihiala Local of English. After due consultation with the Government Area of Anambra State. The secondary school teachers, she was permitted to researcher hadchosen this area because she lives interview them. The interview questions there and there are also several secondary schools contained seven items. Participants were asked to and many teachers the researcher could easily give as many answers according to their opinions. contact for information. In addition, they were allowed to add their own comments regarding any item. At the end of each

231 Attitude of Teachers to the Use of Literature in Teaching the English Language: A Study of Ihiala LGA of Anambra State Emodi, Livina N

Population of the Study Analysis of Data on the Interview Conducted to find out A population is the total group of subjects that the Attitude of Teachers over the Use of Literature in the meet a designated set of criteria. The population Language Classroom of this study include: the teachers of English in S/N Questions Answers Frequency Percentage Ihiala Local Government Area. 1 Would you prefer Yes 6 60 to use literary texts No 4 40 in your classes? Sample and Sampling Technique 2 Why won't you prefer Time consuming 6 60 Sampling is the process of selecting a portion of to use literary texts? Difficult for the students 6 60 the population to represent the entire population Do not know how to use it 8 80 Availability of easier teaching (Polit&Hungler: 714). Participants are drawn materials. 8 80 from teachers of English in some secondary 3 Why would you prefer Exposure to real language 9 90 schools in Ihiala Local Government Area. Five to use literary texts? Motivate the students 3 30 schools are selected from the local government to Improve the students' skills 10 100 Administration requirement 4 40 participate in the study. These schools include: Active participation of students 7 70 Abbot Boys, Ihiala, Abbot Girls, Ihiala, St Jude's 4 In which class(es) Listening 8 80 Secondary school, Ihiala ( mixed school), Azia would you use such Reading 10 100 Girls' School, Azia and Mbosi Community texts? Speaking 4 40 School, Mbosi (mixed school). All of them are Writing 2 20 government owned schools. Ten teachers are 5 What criteria of Language level 10 100 selection would you Length of the text 4 40 selected, two from each school to participate in follow? Students' needs and interests 10 100 the study. It is assumed that the five schools are Course objectives. 10 100 representative of the local government since 6 Do you think you need Yes 10 100 both urban and local schools are chosen. training in dealing with such materials? Instrument for Data Collection 7 What type of training Selecting the literary texts 5 50 Structured interview questions are used to elicit would you need? Designing the activities 10 100 responses from the participants in the first phase. The interview questions comprise seven items As shown in the Table above, the analysis of the designed to obtain information from the teachers data indicated a greater number of teachers of English to determine their attitude towards supporting the beneficial effects literary texts the method of using literary texts in language have in teaching English as a second language. In classroom. These questions include: their answers to the first item 60% of the teachers 1) Would you prefer to use literary texts in your indicated that they prefer to use literary materials classes? in their language classes. The other 40% did not 2) Why won't you prefer to use literary texts? prefer the use because they don't know the 3) Why would you prefer to use literary texts? rationale behind the use and they felt it is time 4) In which classes would you use such consuming, and difficult for the students. So they materials? resort to the use of English textbooks which is 5) What criteria of selection would you follow? easier as shown in item 2. These textbooks are 6) Do you think you need training in dealing recommended by the ministry of education. In with such materials? the third item, all the participants indicated that 7) What type of training will you need?

232 Attitude of Teachers to the Use of Literature in Teaching the English Language: A Study of Ihiala LGA of Anambra State Emodi, Livina N they want to use literary texts in their language studies that found that literary input increases class in order to develop students' language skills. students' motivation (Lazar, Gajdusek, etc). The implication is that even those who said they won't prefer to use literary texts actually know The analysis of participants' responses to item that the use of literature in language classroom is four (in which classes would they use such beneficial but their problem is the challenges in materials?) found that 100 % would use literary application. Only few indicated that they are materials in reading classes, whereas 80% would using it because it is required by the use them in listening classes, 40% in speaking administration. Thus, although the administrative classes, and 20% in writing skills. Looking at the policy requires teachers to include literary texts in percentage responses, the low response on the language class, they apply it in their classes speaking and writing skills could be due to the fact because of the benefits or effects it would have that teachers may lack the technical support on students. The majority (90%) stated that they needed to provide those skills using the literary would provide literary texts in order to expose skills. In fact, one of the teachers said: “Literature students to the real language as it is used by those can only be used to teach reading skill, there is no who have mastered it like the native speakers. way you can use it to teach speaking or writing or One of the teachers said: 'Of course, I am in other language areas.” support of the use of literary texts. Using this technique connects the students to the real world. Regarding the selection criteria participants It saves the student a possible shock when she would follow (item five), 100% indicated that the practises the language.' texts' language level, the objectives of the course, and students needs and interests would be the Moreover, the analysis indicates that only 30% primary guidelines for material selection. Further, cared about motivating the students in learning only 40% would think about the length of the the language by presenting such materials. One text. Some of them did not mention the length of of the teachers indicated “I would provide text because most texts recommended for the anything that will improve the students' language junior secondary students are normally brief but skills, whether they are motivated or not, it does quality books. These findings are consistent with not matter.” Berardo's and Lee's proposed criteria for selecting literary materials. But one important aspect that These results suggest that teachers have positive was not mentioned is culture. Is it that the Nigeria attitudes toward using literary text in English as a environment is comfortable with the second language classes. They believe that such indigenization of English in our environment? materials improve students' skills and expose This calls for further research on how to bring in them to the real language. It also helps in the the culture of the owner of English language into active participation of the learner. Ithas the Nigeria curriculum. demonstrated that the teachers do not consider the motivating power of literary texts in An analysis of the participants' responses to item determining whether to incorporate them into six (regarding training) revealed that 100% the classroom.These findings are consistent with indicated that they felt they needed training in previous studies that demonstrated the positive using such materials to some extent. The effects of literary text in improving students' researcher found that responses to this item were reading and listening skills (Kortner, Lindsay, not affected by the length of teaching experience. Nasr, Collie and slateretc). The current results One teacher with 20 years of teaching experience also demonstrate that teachers do not consider stated, “Any training that would help develop my the motivating power of literary texts in teaching skills, I would be more than glad.” determining whether to incorporate them into the classroom. This finding contradicts several To find out the type of training they needed, they were asked in item seven to specify the type of

233 Attitude of Teachers to the Use of Literature in Teaching the English Language: A Study of Ihiala LGA of Anambra State Emodi, Livina N training they need. Only 50% said that they literature in language classroom) be a criteria for needed training in selecting the materials while recruitment of future language teachers in the 100% said they want training in designing secondary schools. appropriate task. One possible explanation for 6) If Nigerian government wants to achieve this finding is that designing the appropriate tasks communicative competence by using literary is more challenging than selecting the appropriate texts in the language classroom, it should texts. minimize recommendation of English Conclusion and Recommendations textbooks for the junior secondary schools. To determine the teachers' attitude towards the What can one expect from a teacher who has use of literary texts in the language classroom, not been exposed to the use of literary texts in teachers believe in presenting students with rich language class to do, and who has so many and variety of literary materials to engage textbooks before her as recommended students in language proficiency. The use of textbooks for the subject; she would choose literary materials creates a lot of interest and the textbooks whichare easier to use. I suggest makes teaching- learning process more effective. that no English textbook be recommended No doubt, language skills can be refined with rather there should be course outline for the much practice and experience by using the language and the recommended literary texts materials while teaching. Therefore, the usage of should be able to take care of those exercises. these materials offers second language learners a 7) Trained ESL teachers should be sponsored to chance to improve their ability to understand or write literary texts which suit the objectives of comprehend inputs. It is evident that the use of the use of literary texts in language classroom. these materials increases the learners' chances for Some of the recommended texts are not improving and developing their language abilities written by experts and therefore do not serve and it allows teachers to ask both display and the purpose of the method. referential questions. Therefore, the use of literary materials is a positive learning strategy When all these are implemented, then we know which can be used to improve listening, speaking, that we are at the right direction for the reading, and writing capabilities of speakers of programme. This innovative pedagogy would English as a second language. enhance communicative competence which is the goal of language learning. Recommendations 1) The researcher suggests a different policy on Works Cited language. This language policy will contain a BagherkazemiMarzieh&Alemi.Minoo. lot, including specific methods and strategies to 'Literature in the EFL/ESL Classroom: apply in language teaching. The teacher can C o n s e n s u s a n d C o n t r ove r s y ' . start his training by reading the language policy. www.researchgate.net/Literature. 2010. 2) There is need to train teachers who are already BrockoppDorathy Young and Hastings-Tolsma in the teaching profession. Until they are Marie T. 'Fundamental of Nursing trained, they keep on claiming they practise the Research'.www.queensu.ca/samp/samp method while in the actual sense, the policy is reresources/.documents/)2003. not implemented. Clandfield Lindsay. 'Teaching Materials: Using 3) Nigerian College of Education programmes L i t e r a t u r e i n t h e E F L / E S L and curriculum on languages should be Classroom'. www.onestopenglish. upgraded to include a course on the com. relationship between literature and language. Collie, Joanne and Stephen Slater.Literature in the 4) There should be adequate supervision of this Language Classroom: A Resource Book of method in the junior secondary schools Ideas and Activities.Cambridge University 5) Let the knowledge of the system(using

234 Attitude of Teachers to the Use of Literature in Teaching the English Language: A Study of Ihiala LGA of Anambra State Emodi, Livina N

Press. 1988. LawalAdewale.'Values and Limitations of Using Fromkin, Victoria, Rodman, Robert, Hyams, Literary Texts for Teaching ESL'. Nina.An Introduction To Language. http://www.unilorin.edu.ng/journals/e Wadsworth: Cengage Learning, 2011. ducation/ije/dec1991. Hall, Stuart. 'Studies on Attitudes Towards Lazar G. James. Literature and Language Teaching: A Learning English'. http://www.ehow. Guide for Teachers and Trainers. Cambridge: com/way_5766640. 2009. Cambridge University Press. 1993. Labo-Popoola S.O. The Place of Literature in the Nasr N. Hussain. The Use of Poetry in TEFL: Teaching of English as a Second Literature in the New Lebanese Curriculum. Language. (http://www.medwell Revistade Filología y suDidáctica, 2001. journals.com/fulltext/?doi=sscience.20 Parkinson, B., and Thomas, H. Reid. Teaching 10.49.54) 2010. Literature in a Second Language. Edinburgh: Lambo E. O. “Historical Antecedents to the Edinburgh University Press. 2000. Integrated English Curriculum at the Polit, D.F.&Hungler, B.P. Nursing Research: Junior Secondary School Level in P r i n c i p l e s a n d M e t h o d s ( 6 t h Nigeria” https://www.unilorin.edu.ng/ journals/education/nijef/March, 1992.

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Literature and Social Reality: The Relevance of Tewfik Al-Hakim's Fate of a Cockroach and Ahmed Yerima's Igatibi

Ifejirika, Echezona Ph.D Department of English, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University Igbariam Campus And Obumse, Amechi Chiedu Department of English, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University Igbariam Campus

Abstract This paper x-rays the concept of social reality in literature and the relevance of Tewfik Al-Hakim's Fate of a Cockroach and Ahmed Yerima's Igatibi. Tewfik Al-Hakim's Fate of a Cockroach is a symbolic representation of the political and social climate of Egypt during the Gamal Nasser regime. The play satirizes the regime of President Gamal Nasser as well as the feminist uprising in Egypt during the period. Ahmed Yerima's Igatibi is a product of the cultural and religious atmosphere of communities in Northern Edo. The play examines the disastrous effect of replacing ancestral worship with Islam. The reflection of the prevailing cultural and religious atmosphere of the playwright's immediate environment, in his work, suggests that literature is not a product that springs from a vacuum but a product that stems from prevailing social, economic, political and religious climate of a given society at a particular point in time. Both works are therefore relevant to the society since they are reflections of present social reality. Keywords: social reality, Art for Art sake

236 Literature and Social Reality: The Relevance of Al-Hakim's Fate of a Cockroach and erima's Igatibi Ifejirika, Echezona Ph.D and Obumse, Amechi Chiedu

Introduction critics believe a work of art has no social relevance Literature does not spring out from the thin air. It and as a result should only be appreciated for its is a child or product of certain environmental artistic beauty. According to Ifejirika Echezona: forces. In other words, social forces influence the The basic orientation and modes of thematic preoccupation of literary works. That is analysis in the New Criticism was adopted why it is usually defined as a mirror of life. It is, in the Contextual Criticism of Elise Vivas therefore, not out of place to assert that literature and Murray Kriegar who defined is shaped by situations or circumstances which contextualism as “the claim that the poem take place in a given society. This is also the view is tight, compelling, finally closed of Ngugi wa Thiongo. In his essay entitled context,” which prevents “our escape to “Homecoming” (1972) he contends that: the world of reference and action Literature does not develop in a vacuum. beyond,” and require that we , judge the It is given impetus, shape, direction and works efficacy as an aesthetic object.” (34) even area of concern by the social, political and economic forces in a Chinua Achebe and Ngugi wa Thiongo contend particular society. The relationship that art is not developed for its own sake but must between creative literature and other be based on certain situations or contexts. In other forces cannot be ignored especially in words, literary works are written as reactions to Africa where modern literature has grown sociological, economic, religious and cultural against the gory background of European factors which a writer perceives or observes in a imperialism…(xv) given society.

Ngugi wa Thiongo strongly believes that there is a The Negritude writers therefore wrote Negritude connection between literature and social political poetry as a protest against French colonial rule and and economic situations in the real society. In assimilation policy. Their poetry, is therefore, other words, he contends that literature is a based on the prevailing political climate in their product of social, political and economic forces. geographical enclaves. These forces, according to him, determine the shape or nature of a literary work. Based on this Writers of colonial literature wrote as a response premise, one can rightly affirm that literature or art to the negative effect of colonialism on is not created for its own sake: “Arts for Arts sake the colonized people. Chuma –Udeh which Achebe derogatorily called “deodeorized Ngozi contends that: shit.” Art must relate to and be valuable to society Colonialism was based on the premise that in which it is produced.” (Ifejirika Echezona 36) the colonizers were superior beings sent by providence to salvage the colonized. What is social reality? The colonized were the underdogs, cheated Social reality is the prevailing social, economic, by nature and providence and condemned political, cultural and religious situations prevalent to perpetual darkness of the body and the in a given geographical enclave. These prevailing soul. Achebe kicked against the supreme situations, to a great extent, determine the arrogance of the colonialists which made thematic preoccupations of literary works created them view the existence of the colonized as by writers in the place. That is why Chinua Achebe one long night of savagery from which the and Ngugi wa Thiongo are opposed to the opinion first Europeans acting on God's behalf of the New Critics such as Cleanth Brooks, John delivered them. (76) Crowe Ransome, I.A. Richards, Pen Warren and W.K. Wimsatt who view “the work of literature as Things Fall Apart (1958) thus became Chinua an aesthetic object independent of historical Achebe's response to the distorted perception of context.” (Ifejirika Echezona 36). These literary colonialists about Africa.

237 Literature and Social Reality: The Relevance of Al-Hakim's Fate of a Cockroach and erima's Igatibi Ifejirika, Echezona Ph.D and Obumse, Amechi Chiedu

The Post Independent African writers wrote their King Cockroach's kingdom is plagued by a lot of literary works as a reaction to the woeful collapse problems especially the threat posed to the nation of their hopes and aspiration which were “fanned by the more militant and organized ants. The up” by independence. These writers became cockroach king and members of his cabinet do disillusioned with the state of things in their not have a solution to this problem and are unable countries and so wrote literary works that x-rayed to mobilize other cockroaches to fight the ants. the economic, political and moral depravity The king lacks the ability to effectively control his inherent in the post independent African society. subjects who do not regard him as their king. This apparent weakness undermines his position as a Ideological writers use their literary works to king. Queen Cockroach, therefore, questions her highlight the ills that abound in society as well as husband's legitimacy as a true king since he is liberating the masses from the economic inept and does not even feed her. King dungeons where they have been confined by the Cockroach in a bid to escape the harsh realities bourgeois class. Ifejirika Echezona posits that: facing him abandons the pressing issues at hand the Marxist or ideological writer uses his works and decides to go on sight seeing instead. He falls “to expose the unequal and unhealthy into an empty mysterious lake which he had gone relationship between the dominant and the ruling to see and becomes trapped there. class and the oppressed and the working class in a real or hypothetical society.” (189) The second part of the play which is set in the human world centres on Adil and his wife. Both Literary works of feminist writers focus on the characters are embroiled in gender war. They are marginalization of women in the society. at loggerheads over the person that will use the According to Ifejirika Echezona, “the major aim bathroom first. King Cockroach is eventually of feminism, as envisaged and asserted by its discovered by Adil in the bathing tub in the founding mothers was to liberate women from couple's bathroom. The bathing tub turns out to men's neglect, dominion, oppression, be the supposedly empty mysterious lake. suppression and high handedness.” (67) The movement, therefore, is a reaction to a society- Adil becomes fascinated with King Cockroach's based issue. repeated and undaunted attempts to climb out of the slippery bathing tub. His obsession with the From the examples of the different literary cockroach and Semia's insistence on killing it writings examined above, it is evident that literature triggers a conflict between him and his wife who is based on certain situations and contexts. These believes he has become psychologically ill and situations, contexts or prevailing circumstances are thus summons a doctor to cure him of the the social realities which influence or determine the disease. Adil sees a similarity between the way the nature of literary works produced by creative cockroach in the bath tub struggles to escape writers in a given society from the bathtub where it is trapped and the way he continually struggles to free himself from the Synopsis of Tewfik Al -Hakim's Fate tyranny of his wife. The arrival of the doctor of a Cockroach throws the party into another round of argument. Fate of a Cockroach is an absurdist play that centres This serves as a distraction and so the party fails to on events on two different realms of existence. notice the cook, Umm Attiya, who enters the The first realm is the insect realm or insect bathroom to clean it and quite oblivious of the kingdom while the second realm is the human contentious nature of the cockroach, wipes it out world. In the first part of the play, which takes of existence. place in the insect realm, the playwright captures events in the cockroach kingdom which is ruled by King Cockroach and his cohorts.

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Fate of a Cockroach as a Product of himself Prime minister and launched a war to Societal Forces recover some of the territories lost to Israel. He Fate of a Cockroach is a symbolist play which is, died in 1970. without doubt, politically motivated. Most literary critics believe the play is a child of the The play, Fate of a Cockroach, is therefore viewed as political and social atmosphere of Egypt during a political satire against the ills of the Nasser the regime of Gamal Abdel Nasser. regime. The first act of the play takes place in the Gamal Abdel Nasser was the second president Cockroach kingdom in Adil and Samia's of Egypt. According to Wikipedia: bathroom. In this act, the self appointed ...he planned the 1952 overthrow of the administrator of the cockroach kingdom, King monarchy and was the deputy Prime Cockroach, is locked in a discussion with his wife Minister in the New government. In and also with members of his cabinet. The 1953, Nasser introduced far reaching government is not democratically elected. This land reforms. Following a 1954 Muslim indirectly alludes to Nasser who was not Brotherhood led attempt on his life, he legitimately elected and had to appoint himself a o r d e r e d a c r a ck d ow n o n t h e prime minister. Nasser's regime became so organization, put President Muhammad unpopular especially towards the end that Naguib under house arrest and assumed Egyptians lost confidence in him. executive office. A June 1956 public Tewfik portrays this in his play through the referendum approved both the new evident isolation of the Cockroach king from the constitution and Nasser's nomination for people he is ruling. Although the cockroach king presidency. Nasser's neutralist policies is king yet he does not have much control over his during the Cold War led to tense relations subjects. This weakness is revealed by the queen: with Western Powers which withdrew Your authority? Your authority funding for the planned Aswan Dam. Over whom? Not over me at any rate- you Nasser's retaliatory move to nationalize are in no way better than me. You don't the Suez Canal Company in 1956 was provide me with food or drink acclaimed within Egypt and the Arab Have you ever fed me? I feed myself just World. Consequently, the United as you feed yourself. Do you deny it? (3) Kingdom and France occupied the Suez Canal Zone, while Israel invaded the Sinai King Cockroach lacks control over his subjects Pennisula. The three allies withdrew amid because he does not provide for them. He seems international pressure boosting Nasser's to acknowledge this fact so he tells the queen: 'in political standing significantly. From then the whole of the cockroach kingdom, there is no on Nasser's popularity in the region grew one who feeds another. Every cockroach strives substantially and calls for pan-Arab unity for his own bread.'(3) This is an indirect criticism under his leadership increased of the failure of the Nasser regime to adequately culminating with the formation of the take care of Egyptians during his regime. It is this United Arab Republic with Syria, 1958- seeming weakness of King Cockroach that forces 1961. (1) the Savant to declare: 'If the king cannot order ten cockroaches to assemble together then what The United Arab Republic was a political union authority has the king got?'(11 ) between Egypt and Syria which did not last long. The union collapsed in 1961 when Syria pulling Tewfik al Hakim uses King Cockroach to show out of the union. Nasser began a 'series of the inherent weakness of the Nasser regime. 'socialist and modernization reforms' in Egypt. Apart from being weak and unable to control the He resigned from office after the Six-Day War people, Tewfik al Hakim also takes a swipe at the with Israel but was later brought back to office composition of Nasser's cabinet. This cabinet is after popular demonstrations. He then appointed just like King Cockroach's kitchen cabinet. The

239 Literature and Social Reality: The Relevance of Al-Hakim's Fate of a Cockroach and erima's Igatibi Ifejirika, Echezona Ph.D and Obumse, Amechi Chiedu members do not have credentials to handle another dimension to the ant problem. In spite of delicate posts assigned to them. Just like King the small size of the group, they are still able to Cockroach that became king because of the length wreck a lot of havoc on the generality of of his whiskers, members of the cabinet are Egyptians who are depicted as cockroaches. The assigned different posts because of equally stupid helplessness of the state in tackling the scourge of reasons. Thus, the minister is assigned his the ants is further heightened when the savant portfolio because he always brings unpleasant brings the news that his son has been carried away news. The priest's credentials are the by the ants. incomprehensible things he says and the learned Savant credentials are the strange information he King Cockroach says cockroaches are not able to has about things that have no existence other than defend themselves against ants because they are in his own head. not united and disciplined. This is an allusion to the nature of the Egyptian State during the time King Cockroach makes them his closest allies of Nasser. Egypt was divided and thus became because he is in dire need of companions. Nassers vulnerable to enemy attacks. cabinet, to Tewfik , is not different from King Cockroach's cabinet. Apart from the fact that President Nasser was unable to solve the security these characters do not merit their positions, they problems of Egypt just the same way King are also unable to proffer solution to the ant Cockroach is unable to do anything about the problem which is a major problem faced by the problem of the ants. President Nasser is also state. The ant problem is the problem of security unable to solve the problem of food in the land. which plagued Nasser's government. There were Tewfik uses the 'matter of tomatoes' to portray security threats posed by the well-organized Israeli this. 'The matter of tomatoes' thus represents a army as well as the security threats posed by the number of failures in the agricultural sector. It more militant Moslem Brotherhood. The ants shows the failure of the Nasser regime to produce may be seen as the Israeli army. Although they are food adequately for Egyptians. In other words, relatively smaller in size compared to the Egyptian Tewfik criticizes the agricultural policy and army, they are able to oppress and decimate the reforms of the Nasser administration. larger Egyptian army without any stiff resistance. The lack of focus of the Nasser regime is also The representation of the Israeli army as the ant criticized by the playwright. Nasser's lack of focus and the Egyptian Royal Armed Forces as the is shown through the way King Cockroach cockroach captures vividly the grandiose size of abandons the important issue he has at hand the Egyptian army and their Arab allies and the which is the discussion on how to solve the ant modest size of the Israeli army at the outset of the problem and goes to see the mysterious lake which Arab-Israel War, especially, the six-day war with the Savant talks about. However, he slips and falls Egypt. The massive Egyptian army fell on its back into the lake and eventually dies there. The 'lake like the cockroach and was routed by the smaller- distraction', according to Portal journal.com, is sized Israeli army. Egypt lost part of its territory as ostensibly referring to the Nasser's large a result of this humiliating defeat. King scaled Aswan High Dam Project. The lake cockroach laments: 'We grew up, our fathers and itself in the play could well be a direct our grandfathers, and grandfathers' grandfathers analogy to the state- owned Lake Nasser grew up, with the problems of the ants there.'( 7) Reservoir into which the water surplus King Cockroach also wonders why he should be were redirected after the dam made to solve the problem of the ants which has construction. Seen in this light, Tewfik Al- been there for long. This shows the innate Hakim critique involves yet another failure weakness of Nasser and his inability to solve the of the post-1952 government in its security problems of his country. The security distracting itself with various projects at threat of the militant Moslem Brotherhood is the expense of more pressing issues.(1)

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Another event that gave birth to the play is the Samia goes further to warn Adil to carry out her gender war in Egypt during Tewfik AlHakim's orders. Adil becomes so much frustrated that he time. The wave of feminist movement sweeping begs Umm Attiya to fetch her bucket and rag and across the world had triggered in women a sense wipe him out of existence. Tewfik Al Hakim of equality with their men folk. The playwright seems to be critical of the feminist movement in captures this raging conflict through a parallel Egypt that has so much empowered the Egyptian presentation of the cockroach kingdom and the woman and turned her into a tyrant. The Egyptian human world. King Cockroach and his queen are man is no longer comfortable with his new role at loggerheads because of this gender crisis. The and prefers death to the inhuman treatment meted queen questions the authority of the king since she to him, at home, by the woman. Adil wants to be feeds herself. King Cockroach feels his position is wiped out of existence just like the cockroach being undermined by his wife and tries to assert king. It is interesting to note that it is a woman that his superiority. This results in a conflict. This is decides the fate of the cockroach king. Adil wants also the case in the human world. Adil and Samia his fate to be decided by the woman also since she are at loggerheads over the person who should use has assumed the role of a king that decides one's the bathroom first. This results in a gender fate. conflict. Adil begins to see himself as the struggling cockroach in the bathing tub. He begins Naturally, it is logical for a king to decide the fate to see the similarity between the way the of other people, but it is simply an irony of cockroach struggles to escape from the bathing situation that Umm Atiya decides the fate of the tub where it is trapped and the endless way he cockroach king. It is also an irony of situation that struggles to survive in his marital relationship and she is asked to decide the fate of her master who free himself from the tyranny of his wife. This seems just as helpless as the cockroach king. reflects the situation in Egypt where the feminist Feminism, which has brought about the reversal movement has whipped up gender conflict. Uk of roles in the family, to Tewfik Al-Hakim, is essay.com posits: nothing but an absurd ideology. This absurdity in In both instances in the play… the females the real society is what the playwright captures in have the upper hand. The discourse in the play. In other words, the conflict between King both cases alludes to the conflictive roles Cockroach and the Queen as well as Adil and between the sexes which could be taken as Samia is the conflict between men and women in a reflection on the case of the roles of Egypt during Tewfik's time. women and men in Egyptian society at that time.(1) Synopsis of Igatibi by Ahmed Yerima Ahmed Yerima's Igatibi centres on the adverse The Feminist movement seems to have effect of the neglect of the culture and tradition strengthened the Egyptian woman and made her of our ancestors. The playwright projects this more powerful than the man. The woman theme through the travails of Lemomu and his becomes the boss at home and challenges her family. Lemomu and his son, Kamal are devout husband. Adil is turned into a houseboy by his Moslems who have abandoned the ancestral wife. She orders him around like a houseboy: worship of an ancient deity, Igatibi, which has Listen Adil, you've got the day off today. been in the family for many generations. You should know that I want you to spend this day usefully. Do you hear? There are Because of the neglect and abandonment of this my clothes and dresses all crumpled up in spirit deity that manifests itself in the form of a the wardrobe- get down to sorting them masquerade, Lemomu and his household suffer out and hang them up at your leisure one untold hardship. Lemomu's son Kamal becomes by one so that when I come back from blind after being whipped in the dream by a work, I'll find everything nicely sorted and mysterious masquerade. The same masquerade organized. Understood?(75) harasses Lemomu and whips him for refusing to

241 Literature and Social Reality: The Relevance of Al-Hakim's Fate of a Cockroach and erima's Igatibi Ifejirika, Echezona Ph.D and Obumse, Amechi Chiedu dance with it. Kamal's children are struck with after the area was conquered by the Nupe small pox while his second wife fails to give birth Invaders, who were predominantly Moslems, after nine Islam began to spread. At first, the people of months. Afenmai were reluctant to embrace the new religion so most of them clung tenaciously to the Lemomu does not know the cause of the travails worship of their ancestors. The Nupe invaders of his family. It is Nga, Lemomu's mother who were more interested in slave trade than Islamizing reveals that Igatibi is the architect of the family's Afenmailand so they did not make any serious misfortunes. She, however, discloses that the attempt to convert inhabitants of the area. It was travails of the family will come to an end once the Royal House of Auchi that spearheaded the Lemomu decides to restore Igatibi to its rightful spread of Islam in Auchi and Afenmai as a whole. place as the guardian and protector of the family. Momodu, a member of the ruling house who later At first, Lemomu refuses to accept Igatibi as the became the Otaru of Auchi started the spread of spiritual head of the family. He ascribes the position Islam in Afenmailand. The Otaru destroyed the to Allah since he is a devout Moslem. His son, shrines and deities of his ancestors and imposed Kamal, also professes the same belief. However, Islam on his people. However, not everybody in after much persuasion by Nga, Lemomu decides to Auchi and Afenmai as a group embraced Islam. serve the guardian spirit deity of the family. He, Some negligible number continued to worship the therefore, becomes the new Ologbojo. gods and goddesses of their ancestors. They were regarded as idol worshippers and infidels by the Igatibi then requests Lemomu to dance with it and adherents of the Islamic religion. The incursion of carry his mask to the market square in the Islam into Afenmai created a religious conflict company of his family. between the minority animistic inhabitants of the land and the majority Moslems. This religious Lemomu is promised wealth and greatness by conflict in Auchi, no doubt, had significant Igatibi but he initially declines Igatibi's request. influence on the creation of the literary work Igatibi Kamal also objects to his father dancing in the square with the mask of Igatibi in the company of Igatibi as a Product of Societal Forces. his household. However, he finally opts to dance The play, Igatibi(2012), has an Afenmai setting. with Igatibi's mask in the company of some Inhabitants of area are predominantly Moslems. members of his household after much The incursion of Islam into Afenmailand consideration. The pestilence plaguing his family disrupted the traditional mode of worship which ceases miraculously and happiness returns to his had been in existence for many centuries. The family once again. play, therefore, focuses on the abandonment of the traditional religion and the adoption of Islam Background of Ahmed Yerima by most members of the community which is Ahmed Yerima was born in 1957 to Alhaji T. Musa considered a serious problem in Afemailand by Yerima and Hajiya Saidatu Yerima from Auchi in adherents of the ancestral religion. Edo State. Auchi is in Afenmai land in Edo North Senatorial Zone. The people of the area are Two characters in the play, Lemomu and Kamal predominantly Moslems. The influence of Islam represent members of the community who have in the senatorial zone is so overwhelming that it is abandoned the traditional religion for Islam. This discernible in all facets of the social and cultural group of people so much detests the religion of lives and institutions of the people. their ancestors that they do not associate with it; rather they condemn it. That is why Kamal is Before the advent of Islam in Afenmailand, the shocked when Nga reveals to him that Igatibi is inhabitants of the area worshipped the traditional the cause of the calamities plaguing the family. He gods and goddesses of their ancestors. However, is even more shocked when Nga reveals that

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Igatibi is the head of their house. He quickly Lemomu and Kamal find it extremely difficult to rejects it: “Auzubillahi! May Allah forbid. Allah is acknowledge the existence of Igatibi. They equally head over all things.” (34) find it hard to believe that Igatibi is the head of the family. Kamal therefore asks: “ Igatibi, if he is our Lemomu, his father, equally expresses disgust at father, then why does he blind me or whip my the assertion. He thus declares: “May Allah forbid father in sleep.”(34) Nga replies that “Igatibi is a indeed. Only Allah is the Father of this house. jealous god.” (34) Kamal's cynical conception Astaghafimilaha!”(34) about traditional deities is vividly expressed in his next question to his grandmother: “was that why Lemomu and Kamal insist that Allah is the head he sent pestilence to haunt little children or refuse of their family because they are adherents of the unborn babies the right to see the light of the day? Islamic religion. They believe in the greatness of Why? What kind of father is that?” (34) Allah and his superiority over traditional deities. Kamal visualizes Igatibi as a malevolent spirit Nga, Lemomu's mother, expresses a contrary which is the exact opposite of the loving and view. She insists that Igatibi is the head of her caring Allah of the Islamic religion. Kamal family and, therefore, considers her children therefore becomes a condensed manifestation of foolish since they fail to acknowledge the the collective mind of the adherents of the Islamic supremacy of the traditional deity that has been religion in Northern Edo communities. protecting the family long before the incursion of Islam into Afenmailand. Therefore, she declares: Nga is, however, shocked that Igatibi that ought to “Childish fools. A time, long ago, before the be treated like a king is shut in a box for over a coming of Islam, Igatibi and his likes ruled our century. She indirectly criticizes her children for houses and our hearts. We worshipped them and, promoting an alien religion by building they, in turn, protected us.” (34) magnificent and grandiose mosques for Allah and subjecting their own god to ridicule by Nga represents the few faithful adherents of the imprisoning it in a box like a slave or a prisoner. traditional religion in Afenmailand who have Kamal's further rejection of the god of his refused to be enticed by the seeming glamour of ancestors elicits a pathetic response from his the Islamic religion. Nga links the affliction of the grandmother who is forced to declare pathetically: family to Igatibi. The affliction experienced by the You doubt me then? You doubt the family thus becomes the numerous problems beginning of life? So how can you accept experienced by communities in Northern Edo. the strange future you care for yourself? These communities obviously are suffering See how that remains empty and because of the way they neglected the traditional unclaimed without the tale of the past religion of their ancestors. Nga's view point is which places your feet firmly on the mud similar to that of the poet persona in Birago sands by the bank of the two great rivers. Diop's poem: “ Vanity”. The poet persona Oh children, to deny your own is to crown believes Africans are suffering because they have yourselves in emptiness, foolishness, laced stupidly abandoned the way of life of their with profound stupidity…(36) ancestors and have become a laughing stock. Yerima, just like the persona in “Vanity”, seems to Yerima, through Nga, questions the rationale in be of the opinion that the problem of the rejecting the traditional religion of one's ancestors Blackman may be traced to his neglect and and promoting a foreign religion which is a abandonment of the traditional religion of his common practice in Northern Edo communities. forefathers. Nga, therefore, becomes the character He, therefore, satirizes the foolishness of die-hard that projects Ahmed Yerima's ideology. adherents of the Islamic religion in Northern Edo communities represented by Kamal and Lemomu.

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Lemomu's decision to serve Igatibi and become Igatibi seems to be a god that understands the the new Ologbojo depicts the way adherents of present reality of polytheism. It does not bother the Islamic faith are turning from Islam to the much about Lemomu worshipping it secretly. The traditional religion of their forefathers. Igatibi's god appears less concerned about the popularity request that Lemomu dances publicly with its of Allah and so does not seek to dethrone the new mask in the company of his family at the market God. What it seeks is just recognition from its place is rejected by Lemomu who declares: “Haa prodigal children. It seems contended with the Igatibi… you tempt me.' (44) recognition accorded it by Lemomu. As a matter of fact, the god is happy with Lemomu for Obviously, Lemomu is not comfortable dancing according it the recognition it deserves. Igatibi is publicly with Igatibi's mask in the market place not disturbed that Lemomu also worships Allah. It because of the negative way people will see his is only interested in receiving its own share of action. They are likely to see him as someone who libations and sacrifices. Ahmed Yerima subtly is fetish and diabolic. In the real society, a stigma is draws an analogy between the jealous God of the usually attached to worshippers of traditional Islamic religion and the accommodating deity of deities. Lemomu is aware of this. He becomes torn the people of Afemailand. The readers are, between two contrasting religions. Lemomu's therefore, left to decide the deity that deserves to situation captures vividly the scenario in most be worshipped by the people. Northern Edo communities where most people are torn between Islam and the traditional religion. By accepting to serve Igatibi, Lemomu reverses These people thus have identity crisis. They are the calamity that has dogged his family. A new era like the natives in Chidi Amuta's critical work of blessing is finally ushered into the family. quoted in Trends and Issues in Nigerian Literature who, “having swallowed the bitter pill of alien Conclusion values suffer cultural indigestion'' (107) From the examination of the two plays: Fate of a Cockroach and Igatibi, it is evident that “literature Lemomu is torn between Islam and the traditional does not develop in a vacuum”, but is shaped by religion. Eventually he overcomes his cultural certain societal forces. These forces are the indigestion and opts to dance with the mask of prevailing social, economic and religious Igatibi together with his mother, Nga, and a situations in a particular geographical enclave at a drummer within the confines of his compound. given point in time. This captures vividly the scenario in Northern Edo communities where people worship and Tewfik Al-Hakim's Fate of a Cockroach is a product serve traditional gods secretly in order to evade of the political climate of Egypt during the regime being stigmatized by the society made up largely of Gamal Nasser as well as a child of the feminist by adherents of the Islamic religion. movement that swept across the country, during the same period, and triggered gender conflict Lemomu wishes to retain his identity as a devout while Ahmed Yerima's Igatibi is a product of the Moslem and at the same time honour the ancestral prevailing cultural and religious atmosphere of deity of his forefathers. That is why he refuses to communities in Northern Edo. The play examines come out in the square and publicly declare his the theme of religious conflict. loyalty for Igatibi. He seems uncomfortable with the negative impression his action will arouse in Both plays reflect present social reality and are the minds of members of his community. His therefore relevant to the society. In other words decision to dance in his compound depicts the they are not “deodorized dog shit” produced by common practice in Northern Edo where people apostles of the new critical school of thought who are not comfortable to declare publicly for view literature as an aesthetic object that does not traditional deities, but rather choose to worship portray social reality. these deities in secret.

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Works Cited Tewfik, Al Hakim. Fate of a Cockroach. Chuma-Udeh, Ngozi. Trends and Issues in Nigeria Lagos:Heineman,1999. Literature. Nkpor: Base 5 Press,2007. Ukessay.com “Analysis of Fate of a Cockroach.” Echezona, Ifejirika. Introduction to Literary Theory www.ukessays.com>ukEssays>Essays> Criticism and Practice. Awka: Mabcom. 2014. English. Ngugi, wa Thiongo. Homecoming: Essays on African Wikipedia. “Gamal Abdel Nasser.” en. and Caribbean Literature, Culture Wikipedia.org/…/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser and Politics. London: Heinemann, 1972. Yerima, Ahmed. Igatibi. Ibadan: Kraft Books, 2012. Portalsjournal.com. “National Allegory and the Parallex view in Tewfiq al-Hakim's Play.” Portalsjournals.com/2013/national allegory.

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