Proc Soc Antiq Scot, (1996)6 12 , 929-941

Archaeological evidenc r 18th-centurefo y medical Towd Ol practicf no e th n i e : excavationt a s 13 Infirmary Street and Surgeons' Square David Henderson*, Mark Collard Danie*& JohnstoA l nt

ABSTRACT Articulated human skeletons and disarticulated bones recovered in 1993 from excavations in the area of the former Lady Tester's Kirkyard showed clear evidence of post-mortem dissection. They identified 'unclaimed'are the as dead buriedRoyalthe by Infirmary secondthe in 18th the half of century. There was evidence for post-mortem tooth removal from all the dentitions recovered during the excavation, probably for the manufacture of sets of false teeth. A further assemblage of human bones, found in 1988 adjacent to 18th/19th-century anatomy schools formed part of a teaching collection from the schools.

INTRODUCTION This report describe investigationo tw s s (illus Archaeologe 1)th carriey b t dou y Servic Cite th yf o e of Edinburgh District Council in the south-east quarter of the Old Town of Edinburgh. Both produced human bone which, when examined, provided evidence of medical practice in later post-medieval Edinburgh. The full site archive and a detailed report on the skeletal remains has been deposited in Nationae th l Monuments Recor f Scotlando d (RCAHMS), Edinburgh.

13 INFIRMARY STREET In December 1992 contractors carrying out underpinning operations on behalf of the University of Edinburg Infirmar3 1 t ha y Street, Edinburg 260T h(N 8 7343), uncovered human skeletal remains beneat internan ha lbuildinge walth f o JohnstolA Archaeologe D . th f no y Servic Cite th f y o f eo Edinburgh District Council investigated and excavated the remains. Subsequently excavations for the installation of a lift-shaft in an adjacent room uncovered further human bone and the area affected was excavate CollarJohnstoA M y D d b d & Januar n ni y 1993 Septemben I . r 199 smal3a l amount of disarticulated human bonrecoveres Lawsowa eA J y db n from excavation northere th n i s n part of the building.

* Edinburgh City Council Archaeology Service Broughto0 1 , n Market Broughtond Ol , , EdinburgU 6N 3 hEH Swain4 2 t e Hill Crescent, Yeadon, Leeds LS19 THE 930 I SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF , 1996

e locatio excavatione Th ILLUth f no 1 S Infirmar3 1 t a s ySurgeonsd Streean ) (1 t ' Square (2). Ordnancee (Basedth n o Survey map © Crown Copyright)

SITE HISTORY (ILLU) 3 S& 12 , site eTh lies withi north-westere nth formene parth f o tr precinc medievae th f to l Blackfriars Monas- tery, on the west side of a transe (later High School Wynd) which gave access to the monastery from the Cowgate. The lands of Blackfriars passed to the Town Council of Edinburgh in 1563 (Cowan 1912, 68). In 1635 the Town Council of Edinburgh resolved to construct two new churches, only one of whic Tro e buils th nHig he wa t- Kirth hn kStreeto seconde Th . Castlehilln o , neves wa , r completed. Instead resula totaa s a f , o tl donatio f 16,00no 0 merk Margarety sb f Yester, o Lad y ychurcHa a , h was erectewese th tn do sid f Higeo h School Wynde cornee streeth th f n to o r , later knows a n Infirmary Street. The kirk was completed in 1647, and is visible on the view of Edinburgh drawn by Gordon of Rothiemay in the same year. The form of the church is not particularly clear on Gordon's t withise s i precinctna t i plan t bu , , surrounde walla Willian y db O . m Edgar's measured plaf no 1765 (illus 3) the church is clearly cruciform and is surrounded by a kirkyard wall, with two entrance gates on the east side. In 174 constructioe 8th Royae th f no l Infirmar f Edinburgyo hcompletes (illuwa e ) 3 sth n do ground immediately to the south of the kirk. In 1749 the managers of the hospital asked the Town Coun- 'tl oci allo smalta l portio Lade th yf n o Yester' s Churchyar Roya e buriadear e dth fo th f df o l l o Infirmary ' (Cowan 1912, 89). This was granted with the condition that the managers were, in their interments, 'to kee distanca t pa e fro wallse mth , because they were dispose privatr dfo e burying places'. kire kTh itsel18te th rese hf th derelic s o tcenturcontinue r wa fo t e 1803y ytb bu us n di , when condemnes iwa t Towe unsafs da th y nb e Council church,w ne A . also called Lady Yester's Kirk, was completed by 1805. This lay 30 m to the west of the original site, along Infirmary Street, and the secularized building still stands (illus 2). The old site was vacant until 1821 (only the churchyard HENDERSON, COLLARD & JOHNSTON: 18TH-CENTURY MEDICAL PRACTICE IN EDINBURGH I 931

e locatio InfirmarTh 3 ILLU1 f no S2 ySecone Streeth d dan t Lady Tester's Kirk (LYKsecularisea w no : d building)

is marke Kirkwood'n do f 1817o buildingp o n , sma showne sar ) churcwhew buils a ne na y hwa b t congregation of Seceders. The feu grant reserved a right of access to the 'Burying Vault at the north end of the ground' where tombstones survived at the time of Cowan's writing. Since then, the building has had a wide variety of owners but the only substantial structural alteration has been the addition of a single-storey extension against the original fa$ade (Gifford, Me William & Walker 1984 229).

EXCAVATION RESULTS: ARE) 6 A(ILLU A & 5 , S4 aree Th a excavated measure l materiam4 Al .3. y m6 b d 3. l within removes thiswa d dow depta o nt h belom 5 wo1. f ground level withi buildinge nth situn i x skeletonSi . s were excavated varyinn i , g degrees of survival. In addition a group of foot bones at the west end of the trench probably indicates 932 SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 1996

firse Th tILLU Lad S3 y Yester's Kirk, Surgeons Royae ' th Hal d l an lInfirmary , base plaa f 176n ndo o Williay 5b m Edgar, The Kirk is no longer extant.

the existence of a further burial; a line of preserved wood to the south of these was interpreted as the foot-end of a coffin. Neither of these features were removed as they lay close to the section edge, and lefe werb t o eundisturbet subsequene th y db t building works. Discrete group f redepositeso d disarticulated human bone were found through the excavated deposits.

Stratigraphy (illus5) The natural subsoil of a reddish-brown glacial till and an outcrop of sandstone bedrock were exposed in the southern part of Area A and the burials in this area were just cut into its upper surface. North of this the natural ground level sloped away toward Cowgate sth e buriale valleyth d thin si an ,s area wer t intecu o anthropogenic deposits. All the inhumations were found at approximately the same level below modern ground surface, c 1.50 m. Owin contractorse th o gt ' working method usuae th d l problesan f discerninmo g grave cuts wher file elth of the grave is of the same material as the deposits through which it is cut, the only observable stratigraphy was seen in section in the initial underpinning trenches but this was sufficient to demonstrate the sequence of activity buriale Th . s beneat wale 019& hth l1 ) footinwer00 K e g(S bot h within grave cuts, 0.6 deep5m t cu , through accumulated deposits of dark loams with oyster shell and rubble; these were visible as stratified deposits HENDERSON, COLLARD & JOHNSTON: 18TH-CENTURY MEDICAL PRACTICE IN EDINBURGH I 933

approximate line of frontage of Lady Yester's Kirk

10m

e excavate t Th ILLU1a 3 ) Infirmar B S4 dd areaan yA s( Street 934 I SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 1996

N

coffin nails

1m

ILLUS 5 13 Infirmary Street: section through deposits underlying wale th l footin norte th t hga sid f Areeo aA

nort e o013L nth hgrave& e ) soutsidth e whil2 f 010th L e01 o ( s ho et L , the y were very mixe 018)L d( e th , result of repeated excavation and redeposition within the area of burials. These deposits and the graves were seale deposia y db f rubblo t mortad ean 003L ( rwhicn o ) existine hth g internal walbuildine 002F th ( l f o ) g s constructedwa . This raise wa sstonn do e s builfooting f rubblwa o t d an se with some area f hand-mado s e bricks. It was the dividing wall between the original entrance area and the main body of the 19th-century chapel prior to the construction of the extension on the front of the building (illus 4). thus i t sI demonstrable thaburiale th t s predat constructioe eth existine th f no g buildin 1821n gi . The illustration of Lady Yester's Kirk on Edgar's map of 1742 shows clearly that the church was set well back from the line of Infirmary Street, and the burials excavated in 1993 can be securely identifie beins da g fro kirkyare mth d which surrounde t (illudi . s3)

The burials (illus 6) inhumationx si l Al s were supine, witwest e heae th h th conventionan o i d,t l Christian arrangement. They gener- ally respecte positione dth f otheso r graves werd an , e burie roughln di y parallel row5 s 02 Onl grave K yS th f eo cut throug beed hha n earlie 2 extensivel 02 026)K rS K inhumationS .& 2 y 02 disturbe K (S s d subsequeno t t interment. It is clear from the areas which contained no burials that there was no great density of burial during the use of the kirkyard. There was evidence for the use of coffins from several graves. In Burial 001 nails, fragments of wood ancoffie dth n stain survived voia d .d Buria ha abov 9 remaine 01 le th lined f snailan so s along eache sidth f eo HENDERSON, COLLAR JOHNSTOND& : 18TH-CENTURY MEDICAL PRACTIC EDINBURGN EI 5 93 I H

Infirmar3 1 ILLU S6 y Street: burial Aren i s aA

grave cut. Nails were recovered from within the grave fills of SK 022, SK 025 and SK 028, all closely associated with the bones. Nails associated with SK 026 had mineralized wood attached. Two badly corroded curved iron handles were recovered. One, approximately 40% complete, was associated with SK 028. The other, 95% complete, was found among a group of disarticulated bones. Both were most probably coffin handles. f shroudo e attestes presence us swa th e y dTh b f coppeeo r alloy pins 001 bonee closK K S th S ,f o eo st 025 (where they were attached to a small mat of hair) and SK 028. The finger bones of SK 028 were stacked verticall bodye side th f th e ,o y indicatinyb gtigha t bindin corpsee th f go . Pins were also found associated with SK 026. These are discussed below in 'Post-mortem dissection'.

EXCAVATION RESULTS: ARE A(ILLUB ) S3 m2 1. dee excavate s y m7 b p wa 5. plane y b th buildingtrence n tA dm i rea th rooe 3 f th h o 1. rmt a , which reveale sleepee dth modere r th wal r fo ln floor joists. Either sid f thisesecondaro d an , s it o yt construction dumpes wa , d rubble which contained disarticulated human l thiboneal ss materiaA . l 936 I SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 1996

derived from obviously secondary or redeposited contexts, this collection of bones is considered as a single assemblage with that from Area A.

SKELETAE TH L REMAINS David Henderson Statur s beeha e n calculated using Brothwell (1981, 101). Skeletons wer ee basisexeth f o sn o d pelvis and/or skull morphology, while certain of the unarticulated bones were sexed on the basis of measurements of articular ends (after Chamberlain 1994, 11). Broad age categories were determined on the basis of epiphyseal fusion and dental attrition (adapted from Brothwell 1981, 72). The min- imum numbe f individualo r s represente ovee on d rt withiapproximbu l assemblage nAl th . 14 - s ewa ately 17 years of age, the only exception being a child represented by a single distal diaphysis of a radius. Three were sub-adults (less tha youna year5 n2 s sgwa olde adulon , t (25-35) werx si ed an , of middl (35-55)e eag . Three were unattributablf adulo t bu t e age. Four were definitely female, four male (and one other was possibly male). situn i e inhumationth r Fo followine sth g informatio derives nwa d: SK001 female, 18-20 years, 1.68 m SK019 male, adult, 1.74m SK022 male, middle-aged, 1.71m SK025 female, 20-22 years of age, 1.55 m SK026 female, young adult, 1.62m SK028 female, middle-aged, 1.59 m

Pathology non-metricaland data wer5 02 e K scaphocephalicS d an Bot 1 h00 sagitta e skullK th S e f i , so l sutur closed eha d prematurely. The absence of 'keeling' for both skulls despite the skeletal evidence that both were between 18 and year2 2 suggestd ol s s that this proces occurred sha d rapidly afte skul e reached th r ha l d adult size. Early closure of sutures is possibly a family trait, and the two individuals could be related (Molleson & Cox 1993, 129). They were buried adjacent to each other. displaye8 SK02 d clear sign f DISo s H (diffuse ideopathic skeletal hypertrophy)2 02 K S d an , had indicators suggesting the same condition. SK 028 also had considerable thinning of the centre of the blade of the left ilium, possibly due to osteoporosis (many of the articular surfaces were thin and slightly pitted). The neural arch of the fifth lumbar vertebra of SK 026 was detached (spondylolysis) othee th f r O .pathologica l traces mose th , t interestin disarticulatea s gwa d right fibula shaft where the proximal end had been sawn off (see post-mortem section below). Periostitis discern- ible in the lower part of the shaft was perhaps evidence of the reason for the amputation. If the flesh of the lower leg was infected, probably with gangrene, the underlying periosteum would become inflamed, laying dow smale nth l quantitie f bono s e characteristi f periostitisco . Seve boneg nle n i s total showed periostitis, mostly at the lower shin. This appears to be a very common site for periostitis in bones from medieval and later sites, probably reflecting overlying lesions. It is interesting that 'sores on the leg' was the third most common reason for admission to the Royal Infirmary in the 18th Century, after venereal disease and 'fever' (Risse 1986, 120). The low amputation rate and the very fact that so many cases were admitted would seem to indicate that Enlightenment medicine offered a high likelihood of effective treatment. HENDERSON, COLLARD & JOHNSTON: 18TH-CENTURY MEDICAL PRACTICE IN EDINBURGH I 937

Post-mortem dissection Several of the inhumations showed evidence of post-mortem dissection. The most striking was SK 026. The cranial vault of this young adult female had been opened to examine the brain and meninges. The skull had been sectioned horizontally by saw at about 10 mm above the superior border of the orbit and just clipping the squamous suture (illus 7). Hair and scalp fragments found adhering to a pin on the front of the skull shows that her skin, which would have been cut sagitally and reflected down ove r ear sectiorhe o s t skulle beenth d ha ,n replaced ove repositionee rth d calvaria (skull-cap). The presence of green copper alloy staining along the right side, as well as on the front of the skull-cap may indicate that the skin was simply pinned - rather than sewn - back into place prior to burial. There was also evidence that the tissues at the front of her legs had been opened.Her right femur showed possible paring anterioe markth n shafte so thirp th r to f surfac,do e whilth r f o eehe left tibia had a scalpel cut on its tuberosity. scalped ha e clavicle 8 Sende th lK 02 th f cut o adjacensd n o san s tmanubriu e partth f o s m sterni, probably evidenc examinatior efo thyroie th f no d glandaortie th r co , arch entire Th . e thorax does not seem to have been opened. In excavation it seemed that left clavicle was still attached to the sternum and the right was pulled away, while the ribs were uncut. Cuts and nicks at the margin of the popliteal fossa on the left femur of the same skeleton are more difficult to explain - the thigh holloe knee havy th th r ema f eo w o bee site f somnth eo e lesion diseasa r o , e process associated with the cause of death. Several of the disarticulated bones also displayed signs of post-mortem activity - one ulna had possibl einterosseus it cut n so s surface, anothe scrapd ha r e markorigie th f extensot nsa o r indicis mediae th t a norigid e edgth an f f flexoneo o r digitorum profundis othee Th . r dissected bones were a distal half of an infant's radius with cuts on the posterior surface, a clavicle with scalpel marks on posterioe th r surfacsternae th f eo l half tibia , a midshaft fragment, quite abraded t witbu , h signf so dissectio fibule th d a nan referre abovo dt e wit proximae hth extensivd sawd an f en l nof e scraping alon interosseue gth s borde separato t r t froei tibiae mth .

Post-mortem tooth removal Ther evidencs ewa post-morter efo m mutilatio formore a th f m r leso en o n(i s successful attempo t t remove the front teeth) of each of the eight complete or partial dentitions recovered from the in situ inhumation disarticulatee th d an s d remains .almosn Thera s tewa complete absenc f incisoreo d an s canines from the site, and in five cases first premolars had been removed. In every case the thin bone on the buccal side of the alveoli was broken, particularly noticeable in front of the deep roots of the canines somn I . e case mandibl e bone th s th f e o maxill d ean fronn ai f theso t naturallee b teet n hca y very thin and is often found broken in archaeological contexts. However, in many of the examples here what remain bone th ef o slook s relatively strong e completTh . e absenc f looseo e incisorr o s canines from any of the grave fills also suggests the pre-burial removal of the teeth. That the removal of these teeth was deliberate is shown by the presence of cut marks at the front of the canine alveoli disarticulatee th f o e oon f d mandibles recovered from Are ae alveola BTh . r bon s quitewa e strong and the second right incisor had snapped, leaving a fragment of root in situ. Consequently it would appear t canineawae thabone th cu facilitatth to s y t e b swa e extraction.Ther alss eowa evidencr efo variable level f technicaso l proficienc extractioe th uppen e yi th 1 nr righprocess00 K tS seconn I . d incisor and in SK 022 the lower right incisors and lower left canine were snapped off at the neck (in the case of SK 001 the adjacent canine was left in situ). Evidently a technique for dealing with unexpectedly strong roots was lacking. 938 SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 1996

ILLU 7 S Skeleton 026, showin e sectioneth g d skull, evulsed e forehea th a staiteeth n d no an ,d where some hair has been preserved aroun shrouda n dpi

Dental health A limited amount of information on dental health was derived, because of the removal of so many teeth carie d fro skeletonsha e mth s1 cavities00 K rotteS o . tw , n root largd san e apical abscessen si both upper second premolars and both upper third molars were 'pegs', a congenital trait. SK 022 displayed peridontal disease with gumline retreat, while SK 026 had caries and possible develop- mental hypoplasia. In SK 025 the right upper deciduous canine (or 'milktooth') had been retained (althoug removes wa t hi d post-mortem) whil permanens eit t canin uneruptes ewa twisted dan d within maxillae th . Consequentl uppee yth r premola thire rotates th dwa rd uppedan r molar impactedK S . thiro n d d gros d molarha ha 8 sd uppecariee 02 san th f rso first disarticulatemolare th f O . d remains, mandible on e showe dlarga e apical abscess (possibl tumourya double-rootea d )an d left canind ean a second mandible had a large healing apical abscess.

DISCUSSION Mark Collar David& d Henderson Normally such a small total sample of post-medieval human bone would not be of any great signific- ance, but in this case a number of interesting inferences may be drawn about the post-mortem fate HENDERSON, COLLARD & JOHNSTON: 18TH-CENTURY MEDICAL PRACTICE IN EDINBURGH I 939

individuale oth f s concerned. Lyin thes g a withi o yd buriae nth l groun dRoyae useth y dlb Infirmary from 1749, and bearing marks of post-mortem dissection, they are almost certainly derived from patients who died while undergoing treatment at the Royal Infirmary in the latter half of the 18th century. It was hoped that the relative wealth of documentary material for this period of the Royal Infirmary's history would possibly allo e identificatiowth f individuao n l cases. However, despite consultatio l bodie al holo f no dwh s archive e Royath f o sl Infirmary, this notha s , unfortunately, proved possible. Between 1760 and 1800 a total of 2809 patients were recorded as 'dead' in the Royal Infirmary General Register (Risse 1986, 46-9). This represent averagw lo a s e yearly mortality rat 4.6%f eo , although the mortality figures were deliberately managed to present the Royal Infirmary in the best possible light, for example by sending terminally ill patients home to die (ibid, 289-91). Of those patients who did die in the care of the Royal Infirmary the vast majority would have been reclaimed by relatives for burial, or, in the case of soldiers, returned to the Army for military burial. It is possible that the individuals buried in Lady Yester's Kirkyard were those without relatives or those at a great distance from home. In all cases where a patient died, it was possible for the attending physicia r surgeono requeso nt t permissio perforo nt autopsyn ma . Strict procedure fole b -o t d sha lowed before permission was granted. The signatures of three friends or relatives of the deceased had to be obtained, as well as those of three hospital managers, and the dissection had to take place in the third-floor teaching theatre of the Royal Infirmary (ibid, 261). The popular horror of 'corpse mutilation' necessitated these rules and, indeed, permissio s forthcominnwa r lesgfo s than hale th f requests. Low hospital mortality meant that during the late 18th century only 15-30 autopsies a year would have been performed (ibid, 264) vien I . f theswo e constraint t difficulno s i imagin o t t si t e that the 'unclaimed' dead of the Royal Infirmary, with no relatives to object, would be a welcome source of materia r surgicafo l l autopsies sucn I . h case signaturee sth f threso e hospital managers only were required. It seems that the autopsy itself may often have been a relatively perfunctory affair, the physi- cians seeking merely to confirm their preconceived diagnoses, and the surgeons to examine their handiwork (althoug lattee hth r see mhavo t e been more eage learo rt n from their failures (ibid, 262)). Teaching dissections for the benefit of students were not allowed at the Royal Infirmary. After dissection, the hospital insisted that the bodies be sewn up, dressed and returned, when appropriate, to the relatives for burial. Again, the good name of the Royal Infirmary depended on no charge of 'mutilation' being levelled. e evidencTh f autopseo y from these burials fits well within this framework. Limited areaf so bode th y have been opene appearance th examinedcase d 6 th f dSan corps e o Kn 02 i th f d eo e an , s repairedwa vien I . f thiss notablwi o t i , e that ther s evidencwa e r post-morteefo m mutilatiof no eighe eacth f th o complet partiar eo l dentitions recovered moss i t I . t likely tha teete tth h were removed persoe th shroudeo y nb wh bode dth preparatio n yi burialr nfo , afte dissectioe th r e repaid th n an y rb surgeon or surgical clerk. It seems likely that this functionary would have been the hospital porter, possibly in conjunction with one of the nurses or washerwomen, and the likeliest motive for the removal of the cadaver's teeth is profit. Both nurses and porters were poorly paid and open to corruption (ibid, 79). In the late 18th century there was a growing fashion for dentures, made of real human teeth and in some cases transplants were even attempted. Teeth secretly obtained from the corpses from the Royal Infirmary would have represented a good, if occasional, source of extra income - 19th-century resurrectionists could net £20-£30 for the teeth found in a single burial vault (Woodforde 1968, 62). relativele Th y high proportio f dissecteno d bones withi assemblagee nth , includin unequin ga - vocally amputated fibula, is notable, and it may indicate that a certain amount of what would now- I SOCIET 0 94 ANTIQUARIEF YO SCOTLANDF SO , 1996

aday termee sb d 'clinical waste', suc amputates ha d body parts interres graveyare wa , th n e di th s da opportunity arose.

SURGEONS' SQUARE, 1988 n 198I 8smala l assemblag item3 6 f bonf o s recovereeo ewa workmey db n durin removae gth l of accumulated deposits inside the Flodden Wall (illus 1 & 2) at (NGR: NT 2623 7352). Of these, 12 were faunal, including five bones from the skeleton of an immature brown bear (Ursus arctos) and one apparently from an immature seal. Of the 55 bones identified, 47 (85.4%) were human, representing a minimum of five individuals (from pairing of tibiae) includ- ing a child of six to eight years old. Thirteen bones articulate to form two feet, and these have been counteseparato tw s a de items e recovere than th O f .t o basis% d 37 bone, s show evidence of bones2 dissectio(1 % ) bones3 sho34 n(1 d wan ) pathological lesions,o fbones7 ( whic % )h58 had been dissected also. Of particular interest are a left tibia and two vertebrae (thoracic 12 and lumbar 3) with abscesses of tubercular origin, a left humerus with severe osteomyelitis,and a right femur mid- shaft section with Paget's Disease where the distal end seems to have suffered trauma, either a fracture (spontaneous fracture e commoar s n Paget'si n a surgica r o ) l amputation e lasth t n I . exampl s undergon ha bone d eth een e considerable healing, whic s obscurehha e nature dth th f eo initial trauma. The posterior edges of the break show some eburnation which may represent eithee bone th e end th f rs o s rubbing agains e anothe n un-uniteon a t n i r de th fracture e b r o , n ill-fittinresula f o t g prosthesis after surgical amputation lefA . t tibia distal end, wit a hunite d fibula had been sawn off and then sectioned coronally to demonstrate the ossified transverse and anterior tibiofibular ligaments. sectionee Th d bones hige th , h level f severso e pathological lesions presence th , iron a r no f eo stee inserten pi l d tuberculae intth side f oth eo r lumbar vertebrexotie th d c a an naturfauna e th f eo l remains l suggesal , t that these bone derivy sma e fro demonstratioe mth n specimen anatomn a f so y school e sit t whicea Th . h they were areth ae n i north-easfoun s wa d f Surgeonso t ' Hall, buily b t 1697, which subsequently formed the heart of a medical quarter. The Royal Infirmary lay to the west and, by the time of Kirkwood's map of 1817, the garden north of Surgeons' Hall had become Surgeons' Square. Building ease wesd th tan tn so side s were occupied unti mid-19te th l h century yb private surgica anatomicad an l l schools, includin infamousls gr Knoxwa D thao f o twh , y associated with the 'grave-robbers' Burke and Hare. The area excavated in 1988 lay immediately behind the east rang f theseo e building thed an sy woul likeliese dth seee b tm o t bonese sourc th r efo , perhaps discarded whe Universite nth f Edinburgyo h occupie 1850se aree th dth n a i .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Joho t e Thankn du Lawson e e Buildingar s th e staf f th , o f s e UniversitOfficth f o e f Edinburghyo , Kevin Wilbraham of the Edinburgh City Archives, Dr Mike Barfoot of the Medical Archive Section of Edinburgh University Library, Professor Kaufman of the Department of Anatomy of Edinburgh University, Professor Dugald Gardner and Dr Geissler of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeon f Edinburgho s , lan Milne, Libraria Royae th f no l Colleg f Physicianseo , Edinburghd an , Nicholas Holmes for information on the Surgeons' Square discovery. HENDERSON, COLLAR JOHNSTOND& : 18TH-CENTURY MEDICAL PRACTIC EDINBURGEIN 941 I H

REFERENCES Brothwell 198R D ,1 Digging Bonesp U (3rd edn). London/Oxford. Chamberlain, A 1994 Human Remains. London. Cowan, W 1912 "The site of the Black Friars monastery from the Reformation to the present day', Book of the Old Edinburgh Club V (1912), 67-93. Edgar, William 1765 : Plan of the City and Castle of Edinburgh. National Library of Scotland EMS.s.55c. Gifford, J, Me William, C & Walker, D 1984 The Buildings of Scotland : Edinburgh. Harmondsworth. Kirkwood, Robert 1817 : Plan of the City of Edinburgh and its Environs containing all the recent and intended improvements. National Library of Scotland EMS.s.264, Molleson T & Cox M 1993 The Spitalfields Project, Vol 2 : The middling sort (= CBA Res Rep. 86). Risse, G B 1986 Hospital Life in Enlightenment Scotland. Cambridge. Woodforde, J 1968 The Strange Story of False Teeth. London.