Review on Monolayer CBN Superabrasive Wheels for Grinding Metallic Materials, Chin J Aeronaut (2016)

Home , Grinding wheel, Surface grinding

CJA 694 No. of Pages 27 25 October 2016 Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, (2016), xxx(xx): xxx–xxx 1 Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics & Beihang University Chinese Journal of Aeronautics

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2 REVIEW ARTICLE

4 Review on monolayer CBN superabrasive wheels

5 for grinding metallic materials

a,* b a a a 6 Wenfeng Ding , Barbara Linke , Yejun Zhu , Zheng Li , Yucan Fu , a a 7 Honghua Su , Jiuhua Xu

a 8 College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China b 9 Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA

10 Received 7 April 2016; revised 23 May 2016; accepted 2 July 2016 11

13 KEYWORDS 14 Abstract A state-of-the-art review on monolayer electroplated and brazed cubic boron nitride 15 Brazed; (CBN) superabrasive wheels for grinding metallic materials has been provided in this article. The 16 Cubic boron nitride; fabrication techniques and mechanisms of the monolayer CBN wheels are discussed. Grain distri- 17 Electroplated; bution, wheel dressing, wear behavior, and wheel performance are analyzed in detail. Sample appli- 18 Grinding; cations of monolayer CBN wheel for grinding steels, titanium alloys, and nickel-based superalloys 19 Monolayer superabrasive are also provided. Finally, this article highlights opportunities for further investigation of mono- 20 wheels layer CBN grinding wheels. 21 Ó 2016 Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

22 1. Introduction advantages, some of which include good form retention over 31 long grinding times, capability of running at higher removal 32

23 Monolayer cubic boron nitride (CBN) wheels, including elec- rates (due to high grain protrusion and large chip-storage 33 6–11 24 troplated wheels and brazed wheels, are usually fabricated with spaces ), reduction of the complex pre-grinding wheel 34 25 a single layer of superabrasive grains that are bonded to a preparation work (i.e., periodically dressing and truing opera- 35 26 metallic wheel substrate by an electroplated nickel layer or a tions especially in rough grinding), and possible re-application 36 1,2 3 27 brazed filler layer, as schematically displayed in Fig. 1. In of the wheel hub after the grains wear out (such as stripping of 37 4,5 12,13 28 comparison to the multi-layered CBN wheel types, i.e., the abrasive layer). 38 29 resin-bonded wheels, vitrified-bonded wheels and metallic- In particular, the CBN wheels for high-speed grinding and 39 30 bonded wheels, monolayer CBN wheels have significant high-efficiency grinding are usually subject to special require- 40 ment regarding resistance to fracture and wear; at the same 41 * Corresponding author. time, good damping characteristics, high rigidity, and good 42 7 E-mail addresses: [email protected] (W. Ding), bslinke@ thermal conductivity are also desirable. Under such condi- 43 ucdavis.edu (B. Linke). tions, the grinding wheels are normally required to be com- 44 Peer review under responsibility of Editorial Committee of CJA. posed of a body with high mechanical strength and a 45 comparably thin coating of CBN superabrasives attached to 46 the body using a high-strength adhesive. The highest cutting 47 Production and hosting by Elsevier

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2016.07.003 1000-9361 Ó 2016 Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article in press as: Ding W et al. Review on monolayer CBN superabrasive wheels for grinding metallic materials, Chin J Aeronaut (2016), http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.cja.2016.07.003 CJA 694 No. of Pages 27 25 October 2016 2 W. Ding et al.

Fig. 1 Schematics of monolayer electroplated and brazed CBN wheels.3

48 speed is only achievable with monolayer CBN wheels, as CBN superabrasive grains must be taken into consideration 75 14 49 demonstrated in Fig. 2. when designing the particular concave and convex asperities 76 19 50 To utilize the advantages of high-speed grinding, in the past on the circumferential surface of the metallic wheel hub. 77 51 decades, the monolayer CBN wheels have been applied more The reason is due to the fact that the final profile dimension 78 52 and more in grinding of some important metallic structure of the monolayer CBN wheel is completely determined by both 79 53 materials (i.e., steels, titanium alloys and nickel-based superal- the wheel hub and the grain size, as schematically shown in 80 15–17 20 54 loys) in the automobile and aerospace industries. Fig. 4. If either wheel hub or grain size distribution exceeds 81 55 This article aims to provide a state-of-the-art review on the desired tolerances, the profile dimension accuracy of the 82 56 monolayer CBN wheels for grinding metallic materials, and ground components will not meet the desired level. For mono- 83 57 to offer the authors’ viewpoint about some further investiga- layer wheels, preparing the wheel hub with high strength and 84 58 tion. For an easy understanding of the relationship between high accuracy is not as decisive for the wheel performance as 85 59 fabrication techniques, grain distribution, dressing techniques, the proper bonding of the CBN grains to the wheel hub. For 86 60 tool wear, grinding simulation, and application techniques, a this reason, this section will focus on the bonding techniques 87 61 summarized diagram is firstly demonstrated in Fig. 3. rather than wheel hub preparation. 88 Usually, the metallic bonds of the monolayer CBN wheels 89 62 2. Fabrication of monolayer CBN superabrasive wheels are primarily produced by electroplating and brazing; mean- 90 while, the electroless plating process is also reported infre- 91 4 quently. Figs. 5 and 6 display the sample morphology and 92 63 The electroplated CBN wheels and brazed counterparts are grain protrusion of monolayer electroplated and brazed 93 64 both composed of metallic wheel hub, bonding layer and 3 CBN grinding wheels, respectively. 94 65 CBN superabrasive grains, as displayed in Fig. 1. The applied 66 metallic material of wheel hub mainly includes AISI 1020 steel, 2.1. Fabrication mechanism of monolayer electroplated CBN 95 67 AISI 1045 steel, alloyed steel, and hardened ball bearing steel 18 wheels 96 68 (100Cr6) ; surely, if the application does not allow for a mag- 69 netic material, aluminum or bronze/brass may be also uti- 4 97 70 lized. Furthermore, the structure design and mechanical 2.1.1. Bonding of CBN grains based on the traditional 98 71 machining of the wheel hub are always carried out according electroplating technique 72 to the comprehensive requirements of the machine tools and In most cases, nickel is utilized as the bond material between 99 73 component profiles. Particularly, for the profile grinding of CBN grains and metallic substrate of the monolayer electro- 100 74 some critical components (i.e., aero-engine blade), the size of plated wheels. The traditional electroplating technique is based 101 on the cathodic metal deposition behavior from a watery elec- 102 4 trolyte. Generally, fabrication of electroplated CBN wheels 103 23 may be described as follows : pretreatment of metallic wheel 104 hub and CBN grains before electroplating; preparation of elec- 105 troplating solution; spreading and plating the CBN grains on 106 the wheel working surface and then thickening the bond 107 material. 108 During electroplating, the anode consists of the bonding 109 material and the wheel hub acts as cathode. The wheel hub 110 is completely covered with CBN grains and placed into the 111 electrolytic bath. Particularly, the area to be coated is required 112 to be surrounded by a sufficient amount of grains. The elec- 113 trolytic bath consists of a watery solution of metal salts from 114 4 the deposited metal, such as Ag, Co, Cu, Ni, Au salts. The 115 direct current voltage leads to precipitation of Ni at the wheel 116 Fig. 2 Affordable grinding speeds and materials removal rates hub. After the initial bonding of the grains, the excessive grains 117 of different CBN wheels.14

Fig. 3 An overview of the current review work on monolayer CBN superabrasive wheels for grinding metallic materials.

15 Fig. 7. Particularly, the stripping of nickel bond from the 132 wheel hub also becomes a common phenomenon and major 133 deciding factor for shortening the tool service life. In order 134 to improve the bonding strength between the nickel bond 135 and the metallic wheel hub, and ﬁnally raise the service life 136 of the electroplated CBN wheels, measures such as heat- 137 diffusion treatment and coating have been applied. 138

2.1.2. Fe-rich electrodeposition and heat-diffusion treatment 139

As for the conventional electrodeposition, the Fe-content of 140 the electroplating solution must be reduced to the minimum 141 because it could affect the brittleness of the deposited layer. 142 On the contrary, in the research work carried out by 143 23 Liu et al. , Fe-atoms was creatively used by means of 144 FeSO 7H O in the electroplating solution. The main purpose 145 Fig. 4 Schematic of the proﬁle grinding with monolayer CBN 4 2 included a good leveling-up ability of the electroplating solu- 146 wheel.20 tion, a good softness capability in contrast to the traditional 147 hard-plating Ni, and cost reduction potential due to lower 148 118 are removed and the process is continued until the desired plat- costs of Fe instead of part Ni. After electrodeposition, the 149 119 ing depth has been arrived. Particularly, the ﬁrst bonding heat-diffusion treatment of the electrodeposition layer of 150 120 phase needs a motionless bath, while the second phase of layer CBN wheels was performed in a vacuum stove; as such, the 151 4 121 growth can work with higher power and bath circulation. The metal composition, especially the Fe atoms, diffused into the 152 122 plating depth leaves about 50% or above of the grain exposed. metallic wheel substrate. A wide composition-transition-zone 153 123 As an advantage of the electroplating method (also called was accordingly produced between the bond and wheel hub, 154 124 electrodeposition), no residual stress exists at the bond level and the binding strength was increased greatly. In the grinding 155 125 due to the low electroplating temperature (such as 60 °Cor process using the electroplated CBN wheels with heat- 156 6,15,24,25 126 even at room temperature). However, because of the diffusion treatment, both the machining precision and surface 157 26 127 weak mechanical anchorage between CBN grains and nickel roughness of hardened gear steel were improved effectively. 158 128 bond, performance of the electroplated CBN wheels can be 129 limited, for instance, by grain dislodgement and even grain 2.1.3. Coating of electroplated CBN wheels 159 27,28 130 pullout from the surrounding nickel bond during high- Chattopadhyay et al. deposited TiN layer on the electro- 160 131 performance grinding with heavy load, as displayed in plated CBN wheels with Ni-bonding (Fig. 8). TiN coating 161

Fig. 5 Topography of different monolayer CBN wheels.

Fig. 6 Grain protrusion on the working surface of different monolayer CBN wheels.22

Fig. 7 Grains pullout from the electroplated wheel after grinding AISI 52100 steel.15

15 29 162 was expected to provide twofold benefits : (a) to render some improved during grinding. At the same time, the enhanced 174 163 anti-frictional and anti-wear characteristics in grinding ductile adhesion between nickel and steel substrate avoided grain pull- 175 164 and adhesive metallic material like C-20 low carbon steel and out of the coated CBN wheels in the grinding operations of 176 15 165 (b) to prevent grain pullout from the nickel bond of the elec- AISI 52100 hardened bearing steel ; the retention of TiN on 177 166 troplated wheels. The reason for the latter was mainly attribu- the edge and surface of CBN grains also enabled grain fracture 178 167 ted to the high energy ion impingement of TiN within the during grinding. 179 168 electroplated nickel layer coupled with the strong affinity of Furthermore, Bhaduri et al. [22] investigated the tribologi- 180 169 nickel towards titanium. Under such conditions, a cross- cal behavior of MoS2-Ti composite coating with TiN under- 181 170 diffusion occurred with the formation of nickel-titanium inter- layer on electroplated CBN wheels. Compared with TiN 182 171 metallic phases up to a certain depth (i.e., 1–1.5 lm) between coated and uncoated counterparts, the MoS2-Ti composite 183 27 172 TiN and nickel. Because the Ni–Ti intermetallic phase was coating was found to be best performing on nickel in terms 184 173 hard, the scratch resistance of the nickel-bond could be of coefficient of friction and depth of the wear track. In the 185

Fig. 8 Morphology of a TiN coated electroplated CBN wheel.27

186 grinding experiments, a minimum variation in normal grinding more chemically stable than diamond grains. For example, 229 187 force and remarkably steady behavior of the tangential grind- Ni–Cr alloy, known for effective diamond brazing, failed to 230 188 ing force were obtained with the MoS2-Ti coated CBN show satisfactory wetting and bonding characteristics towards 231 22 189 wheels. It should be noted that, there is a potential cost ben- CBN under identical brazing conditions to those of diamond 232 190 efit of coating the electroplated CBN wheels for industrial brazing. Meanwhile, wetting and bonding could not be 233 191 applications; however, this has not yet been discussed or improved either by increasing the Cr content, brazing temper- 234 35 192 reported. ature, or dwell time. For this reason, direct brazing between 235 CBN grains and metallic wheel hub has been realized through 236 193 2.2. Fabrication mechanism of monolayer brazed CBN wheels filler alloy containing active transition elements (Ti or Zr). Par- 237 ticularly, Ag–Cu–Ti filler alloy has been utilized broadly owing 238 239 194 As just reviewed in Section 2.1, conventional electroplated to its high capillary effect when contacting boron nitride mate- 12,36 195 CBN wheels usually exhibit random grain distribution, low rials and excellent comprehensive mechanical properties 240 196 mechanical bond strength and small protrusion of the (i.e., Young’s modulus, thermal expansion coefficient and yield 241 30–33 197 grains. Particularly in some cases of grinding metallic strength). However, the cost of Ag–Cu–Ti alloy is usually high 242 198 materials, grain pullout can occur and result in early wheel due to high Ag content; as such, in the recent years, Cu–Sn–Ti 243 37,38 39 199 breakdown. Monolayer brazed CBN wheels have been alloy and Cu–Sn–Ni–Ti (or Cu–Ni–Sn–Ti) alloys were 244 9,12,33 200 reported to outperform their electroplated counterparts. also applied for brazing CBN grains. In order to further 245 201 A precisely controlled brazing technique can build a chemical improve the filler properties and adjust exposure height of 246 40–42 202 bridge between CBN grains and metallic wheel hub with the brazed grains, Ding et al. made attempts to add particles 247 3 203 help of an active braze alloy. Major advantages with the of TiN, TiB2, TiC, and graphite into the Ag–Cu–Ti filler pow- 248 204 brazed wheels include higher bonding strength to grains, sub- ers to prepare the composite filler to braze CBN grains. 249 205 stantially higher exposure of grains measured from the bond 206 level (up to 70–80% of the whole grain height) and flexibility 2.2.2. Heating method 250 207 in grain placement in any desired patterns. As such, a large There are generally four types of heating methods for brazing 251 208 inter-grain chip-accommodation space is created with a tai- CBN grains: vacuum resistance furnace heating, laser heating, 252 209 lored grain-distribution pattern, which is essential to avoid high-frequency induction heating, and electron beam activated 253 38,43 44 210 premature loading in the grinding operations with high heating. The vacuum resistance furnace heating and 254 45 211 MRR (material removal rate) and to enhance the effectiveness high-frequency induction heating are the most popular heat- 255 3,34 212 of grinding fluids. ing methods due to integrated advantages. For example, the 256 213 Obtaining reliable joints among CBN grains, brazing filler vacuum resistance furnace heating is advantageous for the 257 214 alloy and metallic wheel hub is an essential problem in the pro- mass production of monolayer brazed CBN wheels; however, 258 215 duction of monolayer brazed CBN wheels. The interfacial it is difficult to control the deformation of the metallic wheel 259 216 microstructure and chemical resultants at the joining interface hub for large sizes (for instance, 400 mm in diameter). In com- 260 217 are the primary concerns when investigating the brazing tech- parison to the vacuum resistance furnace heating, the high- 261 218 niques of CBN grains. Microstructure and chemical resultants frequency induction heating method has different advan- 262 45 219 are significantly influenced by the brazing filler alloy, heating tages, such as rapid heating rate, locally heating and easy 263 220 method, and heating parameters (especially brazing tempera- control of wheel deformation. 264 221 ture and dwell time). 2.2.3. Heating parameters 265

222 2.2.1. Brazing filler alloy Based on the differential thermal analysis (DTA), it is known 266 223 Based on the thermodynamic analysis and physical observa- that the solidi and liquidi of both the above-mentioned 267 35 224 tions in experiments, Chattopadhyay and Hintermann dis- Ag–Cu–Ti and Cu–Sn–Ti filler alloys are usually about 268 225 covered that the transition elements of group IV B, such as 780 °C and 820 °C, respectively. Accordingly, the brazing tem- 269 37,46 226 Ti or Zr, were preferred over the transition elements of group perature is usually set to 880–940 °C for brazing CBN 270 227 VI B, such as Cr, as activators to promote wetting of the braz- grains. At the same time, the dwell time is chosen at 271 228 ing filler alloy towards CBN grains, which are generally far 5–20 min with the vacuum resistance furnace heating method, 272

273 while it is chosen at only several seconds with the high- sion couples were mainly dominated by the relative amounts 316 45 47 274 frequency induction heating method. Miab and Hadian and distribution of the correlated Ti, B and N elements. 317 51,52 275 investigated the effects of dwell time on microstructure and Furthermore, Faran et al. pointed out that the chemical 318 276 mechanical properties of the brazed joints between CBN mate- resultants produced at the Ti/BN interface consisted of the 319 277 rials and medium carbon steel (CK45) hub, in which Cusil- inner layer of fine Ti borides (TiB2, TiB) and the outer layer 320 44,49 278 ABA (63 wt% Ag, 35 wt% Cu and 2 wt% Ti) was utilized as containing Ti and N. Ding et al. also discussed the forma- 321 279 an active filler alloy. The brazing temperature was kept at tion process and morphology of the brazing resultants between 322 280 920 °C. With increasing the dwell time from 5 min to 15 min, CBN grains and Ag–Cu–Ti alloy, which has been identified as 323 281 the interfacial reaction layers between CBN and filler become TiB2, TiB and TiN, respectively, as shown in Fig. 10. Specially, 324 53,54 282 thicker and more continuous, resulting in a higher joint based on the thermodynamic and kinetic analysis, TiN was 325 283 strength (such as the maximum shear strength of found to play a dominating role in controlling the growth of 326 47 37 284 129 MPa). Ding et al. also discussed the interfacial resultants layer during brazing. 327 285 microstructure and chemical resultants in brazing CBN grains Furthermore, the delamination microstructure across the 328 286 with different dwell time, and the brazing parameters were brazing interface of CBN grain and Ag–Cu–Ti alloy was 329 287 finally optimized based on the integrated consideration of characterized as CBN/TiB2/TiB/TiN/alloy containing Ti, as 330 49 288 the mechanical strength, wear resistance, and grinding displayed in Figs. 10 and 11. Under these conditions, the dif- 331 289 performance. ferent thermal expansion coefficients of the several brazing 332 resultants have to be considered. For example, the average 333 290 2.2.4. Formation mechanism of interfacial microstructure and coefficients of thermal expansion of CBN, TiB2, TiB, and 334 6 1 6 1 6 1 291 chemical resultants in brazed CBN grains TiN are 5.6 10 K , 7.8 10 K , 8.6 10 K , 335 6 1 55–61 292 In order to detect the formation mechanism of interfacial and 9.35 10 K , respectively. This gradual transition 336 293 microstructure and chemical resultants in brazed CBN grains, of thermal expansion coefficients reduces the residual thermal 337 294 experiments of joining CBN grains and a metallic wheel hub stresses at the brazing interface and minimizes potential 338 44 295 using different filler alloys have been carried out. Different thermal damage of brazed CBN grains, as verified by 339 49 296 heating parameters and heating methods with high vacuum experiments. 340 297 condition or under argon gas protection were investigated. 38 298 Pobol et al. studied the physical and chemical phenomena 2.2.5. Indirect brazing of coated CBN grains 341 299 which occurred at the CBN-filler interface during electron Besides the abovementioned direct brazing with the fillers con- 342 300 beam brazing. Wettability was investigated by the contact taining active Ti or Zr, indirect brazing of the metallic coated 343 301 angles of multicomponent adhesion-active Cu-based alloys CBN grains may be realized using the Ni–Cr filler alloy. Grain 344 302 on CBN and steel. In addition, the distribution of chemical ele- coating is applied by various techniques, such as chemical 345 303 ments at the CBN-filler interface was examined. At the same vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, electroless coat- 346 48 4 304 time, Elsener et al. investigated the role of Cu-based active ing, electrolytic wet chemical methods, or dry deposition. 347 305 brazing filler composition on its microstructure and properties Moreover, several layers can be applied sequentially, for 348 306 with the purpose of brazing CBN grains. Furthermore, Ding instance, the grain was coated with Ti layer by electroplating, 349 44,49 307 et al. discussed the effects of the Ti content of Ag–Cu–Ti then a Ni-coating was applied by electroplating. Under such 350 308 alloy on the interface microstructure in brazed CBN grains. conditions, dependent on the reaction of CBN-Ti and 351 309 It was reported that Ti in the filler concentrated preferentially Ti-filler (such as Ni–Cr alloy), the CBN grains could be also 352 310 on the grain surface (Fig. 9), which generated the needlelike bonded chemically to the wheel hubs. However, indirect 353 311 Ti–N and Ti–B compounds layer by means of chemical inter- brazing of CBN grains is not commonly utilized in the present 354 312 action between Ti, N and B at elevated temperatures. days. In general, grain coating is applied for various reasons, 355 313 Based on an investigation into the solid diffusion reaction such as grain retention in the bonding, grain protection, grain 356 50 314 of pure Ti and BN materials, Ma et al. discovered that the alignment, or heat transfer during the manufacturing/applica- 357 4 315 formation sequence of different resultants in the Ti/BN diffu- tion process of the grinding wheels. 358

Fig. 9 Microstructure and elemental diffusion across the brazing interface between CBN grain and Ag–Cu–Ti ﬁller.49

Fig. 10 Delamination layer and morphology of brazing resultants around a CBN grain.49

Table 1 Grain properties and affected tool life stages.63 Grain properties Influence Influence Influence on on chip on tool single-layer tool formation wear manufacture Size X X X Shape/morphology X X Hardness X X Toughness, X friability Thermal XXX properties, Fig. 11 Schematics of elemental distribution and delamination chemical reactivity Electric properties X behavior across the brazing interface between CBN grain and Ag– 49 and magnetic Cu–Ti alloy. Packing density X Uniformity X X X

359 3. Grain distribution on the working surface of monolayer CBN 360 wheels

361 During the grinding process, numerous grains interact with the tion in the grinding process; however, a single grain with very 374 362 workpiece material producing mechanical and thermal loads high uncut chip thickness is stressed by high grinding forces, 375 62 63 363 on the machined surface. Linke has summarized the most which potentially leads to grain breakout. Therefore, it is 376 364 important grain properties and their main impacts on the important to prepare the monolayer CBN wheels with a 377 365 wheel performance, as listed in Table 1. Particularly, the controllable and homogeneous grain distribution pattern, to 378 366 stochastic geometry, dimension and distribution of the grains control the tool grinding performance, force and power 379 33 367 on the working surface of monolayer CBN wheels, can cause requirement, loading, grain wear and grain pullout. 380 368 irregular grain protrusion, which limits the material removal 369 rates and workpiece surface quality generated during grind- 3.1. Grain geometry and dimension 381 64,65 370 ing. The main reason is the variation of the resulting uncut 371 chip thickness per single grain, which yields undesirable side Usually, a precise analysis of the material removal mechanisms 382 372 effects. For example, the friction behavior of a single grain in grinding is very complicated because the contact zone is 383 373 with very low uncut chip thickness increases the heat genera- inaccessible for measurements, the abrasive grains are 384

385 randomly distributed, and grain geometry and dimensions are verified by comparing simulation results with the experimental 430 66 386 stochastic. A comprehensive understanding of the single measurement data in terms of the static grain count and grain 431 387 grain interaction enables to synthesize the material removal protrusion height distribution. Furthermore, the intrinsic rela- 432 388 mechanism of a grinding wheel from the contribution of each tionship between the grain dimensional distribution and the 433 67 389 single grain. wheel surface topographical properties was also analyzed. 434 390 Morphology of CBN grain crystal can vary between cubic The ‘digital’ wheel bears sufficient resemblance with the real 435 391 and octahedral like diamond and between octahedral and products, and the through-the-process model of grinding 436 68 62 392 tetrahedral. Based on this understanding, Schumann et al. wheels is capable to predict the micro-topographical features 437 393 modeled the ideal shape of CBN grains as the intersection of of the electroplated CBN wheels, such as the static cutting edge 438 394 hexahedron, octahedron and tetrahedron based on the con- count and the protrusion height. 439 395 structive solid geometry technique. He also modeled diamond 396 grains which miss the tetrahedron shape. By scaling these 3.2. Structured CBN wheels 440 397 primitives appropriately, different geometries and dimensions 398 were generated. Several simulated grains, which were identified In grinding industry community, the surface functionalization 441 399 using a pair of index values, are shown in Fig. 12. Meanwhile, of grinding wheels by introducing pre-engineered textures or 442 66 400 Opoz and Chen recently investigated the removal mechanism structure is a recognized approach to reduce the grinding tem- 443 72 401 and scratch topography using CBN grains. Similar research perature or the grinding force, and help the chip removal. 444 69 73 402 work on grain shape was also carried out by Li et al. , who For example, Rabiey et al. developed a structured electro- 445 403 simulated the grinding wheel numerically with discontinuous plated CBN wheel for dry grinding of metallic materials, in 446 404 structure using discrete element method. which defined clusters or islands of grains were fabricated, as 447 67 405 Additionally, Transchel et al. conducted an experimental shown in Fig. 13. The new macro-topography of the wheel 448 406 study of single grain grinding operations using varying orien- reduced the actual contact area to only 22% of the conven- 449 407 tations of blunt, octahedral shaped diamonds, the results of tional contact area between wheel and workpiece. With this 450 408 which could be also transferred to CBN grains. It was found structured wheel, the average uncut chip thickness was 451 409 that, the position of the flank face defined by the correspond- increased, which decreased the specific grinding energy and 452 73,74 410 ing clearance angle towards the grinding direction, has a signif- tangential grinding forces. The total heat generated in 453 411 icant influence on the material removal mechanism and the contact zone was accordingly reduced greatly, which also 454 412 associated grinding force ratio. Positive clearance angles reduced the heat transferred to the workpiece and therefore 455 413 orthogonal to the grinding direction usually favor the material decreased the grinding temperature. In addition, enough space 456 414 removal towards a higher efficiency. was provided for the chips to be carried away in the empty 457 415 Furthermore, the grain dimension and its distribution on space on the surface structure, reducing wheel loading and 458 416 CBN wheels need to be controlled strictly. Generally, a small rubbing between chips and workpiece surface in comparison 459 417 grain size commonly achieves smaller surface roughness, but to the conventional wheels. 460 63 418 also causes higher grinding forces and shorter tool life. At Patterned surface structures on grinding wheels can also be 461 75 76 419 the same time, the unavoidable distribution of grain size in produced by dressing. Tawakoli et al. generated different 462 420 monolayer CBN grinding wheels is one reason for touch- wheel-structure patterns using the dressing tool, as displayed 463 421 dressing, which can equalize the highest cutting edges and in Fig. 14. The contact area between wheel and workpiece 464 70 422 maintain a predictable part surface quality. Under such con- was reduced by removing portions of the wheel surface with 465 423 ditions, understanding the correlation between grain dimen- the dressing roller; simultaneously, recesses were created on 466 424 sion deviation and wheel performance is critical, and the first the wheel surface which made canals for coolant or air flow 467 425 step to gain this knowledge is to correlate the relevant wheel on one side and created relatively bigger chip pockets on the 468 77–79 80 426 design parameters with the wheel topographical features. Rong other side. Mohamed et al. developed grooved grinding 469 71 427 et al. established the through-the-process model for single- wheels made by dressing, as displayed in Fig. 15. In creep-feed 470 428 layer electroplated CBN wheels by simulating each wheel fab- grinding experiments, the grooved wheels not only removed 471 429 rication procedure numerically. Capacity of this model was

Fig. 12 Constructive solid geometry and shape of CBN grains.62 Fig. 13 Specially structured electroplated CBN wheel.73

0.2–1.0 mm and the interspace between them was about 0.5– 486 1.0 mm. Compared with the conventional electroplated CBN 487 wheels, the grinding forces of these new wheels were always 488 lower, and the wheel loading phenomenon was markedly 489 83 decreased. Walter et al. developed a picosecond pulsed laser 490 structuring method to produce various micro patterns on the 491 surface of CBN wheels. This method allowed for fabrication 492 of arbitrary surface structures, enabling a high degree of geo- 493 metrical and dimensional control of the produced features 494 84 and thus of the grinding performance of CBN wheels. More- 495 over, the thermal impact of picosecond laser processing on the 496 CBN abrasive grains can be neglected according to Walter 497 83,84 Fig. 14 Schematics of cylindrical plunge grinding with normal et al. . 498 and structured wheel.76 In recent years, theoretical analyses were also carried out 499 on the above-mentioned structured wheels. For example, 500 85 Aslan et al. developed a thermo-mechanical model to predict 501 forces in grinding with circumferentially grooved and regular 502 (non-grooved) wheels. Good agreement was obtained between 503 the theoretical results and the experimental data. As a disad- 504 vantage of the structured wheel from a quality point of view, 505 the decreased contact layer between wheel and workpiece usu- 506 ally produces a rough ground surface. At present, this problem 507 has been solved effectively by increasing the process time by 508 following the rough grinding pass with one ﬁne grinding 509 73,76,80,83 pass. 510

3.3. Deﬁned grain distribution 511

Besides the grain dimension and layer structures, grain distri- 512 Fig. 15 Wheel grooving patterns.80 bution is another important parameter to define the topogra- 513 73 phy of monolayer CBN wheels. Ghosh and 514 6 472 twice as much material as a non-grooved wheel before work- Chattopadhyay prepared brazed wheels with three types of 515 473 piece burn occurred, but also improved the grinding efficiency grain distribution patterns, i.e. regular distribution (RD), den- 516 81 474 by reducing the consumed power by up to 61%. Oliveira et al. sely packed distribution (DP), and helical distribution (HEL), 517 475 also presented a dressing technique that allowed the inscription as schematically shown in Fig. 17. The transverse finish pro- 518 476 of pre-configurable patterns, or textures, on the grinding wheel duced by the DP wheels before dressing is better than that pro- 519 477 surface, which increased the grinding performance in conven- duced by the other two types of wheels, because they have a 520 478 tional applications. Generally, the combination of the dressing higher density of active grains leading to increased 521 479 depth, dressing velocity and the dressing tool tip geometry overlapping-cuts of active grains during grinding. Further- 522 480 determined the wheel topography characteristic. By control- more, the performance of HEL wheels after touch-dressing 523 481 ling these parameters, the desirable wheel sharpness can be was found to be the best because they produced good finish 524 482 obtained to ensure the best grinding performance. comparable with that produced by DP wheels, and simultane- 525 82 6 483 Likewise, Gao et al. developed an electroplated CBN ously they also offered larger inter-grain chip space. 526 64 484 wheel with controlled abrasive clusters in specific patterns, as Likewise, Aurich et al. developed electroplated CBN 527 485 shown in Fig. 16. The maximum dimension of clusters was wheels with defined grain patterns to reach a homogeneous 528

Figure 16 Schematic of examples of cluster distribution patterns.82

Fig. 17 Different distribution patterns of grains placement on monolayer brazed CBN wheels.6

529 grain protrusion in conjunction with a huge chip space volume surface roughness, but also established a model of dynamic 559 530 so as to improve process stability. Different grain distribution cutting point density. Compared with the wheel with the con- 560 531 patterns were designed by means of kinematic simulation with ventional stochastic grain patterns, the wheel with the abrasive 561 86–88 532 special focus on the uncut chip thickness, as shown in phyllotactic pattern usually produced better surface roughness 562 96 533 Fig. 18. A ratio of 1.13 of the long- and short-grain axis and in the grinding experiments. 563 534 a ratio of 3:1 of cubic and tetrahedral basic grain geometry In theory, the topography of grinding wheels and the grind- 564 535 was modeled. A protrusion height of 35% of the grain size ing forces per active grain provide the basic understanding of 565 536 was taken; for instance, the average grain protrusion grinding edges and workpiece interaction, which is very 566 537 height was 107 lm for an average short grain axis length of important to the modeling, planning, and optimization of the 567 97 538 305 lm and a standard deviation of 30 lm. Based on the sim- grinding process as a whole. Hecker et al. presented a three- 568 539 ulation results, a prototype grinding wheel with an optimized dimensional (3D) analysis of the grinding wheel topography 569 540 defined grain structure was constructed, as shown in Figs. 19 to evaluate static parameters from the wheel surface, such as 570 86,89 541 and 20. The grinding performance of the prototype wheel the effective grain dimension and the static grain density as 571 542 was also validated in dry grinding experiments of hardened function of the radial distance from the wheel surface. The 572 543 heat-treated steel 42CrMo4V (DIN EN 10132-3) with a mate- dynamic grain density was deduced from the static grain 573 3 544 rial removal rate of 70 mm /mms. Generally, the prototype density while considering the kinematic effects (such as the 574 545 wheel showed better performance, such as lower grinding shadows generated by active grains) and the dynamic effects 575 546 forces and power and lower grinding temperature, than the (such as the local grain deflection). These effects were evaluated 576 90,91 547 traditional wheel with random grain distribution. Similar analytically using the grain depth of engagement and the nor- 577 548 work for the defined grain distribution of monolayer CBN mal force developed per grain. At the same time, a probabilistic 578 92 18 549 wheels was also reported by Burkhard et al. and Ding et al. . model that estimated the uncut chip thickness was also used to 579 97 550 Phyllotaxis is defined as a geometrical and dynamic system calculate the kinematic and dynamic effects. This model was 580 93 551 generated by biological organisms. Most of the arrangements calibrated and validated based on experimental data of total 581 552 of biological structures, such as leaves, seeds of fruit, and normal and tangential forces in surface grinding. Different 582 553 petals of plants, conform to the rule of phyllotaxis. Based on grain patterns, based on geometric models, were also investi- 583 94–96 64 554 the phyllotaxis theory of biology, Wang et al. developed gated by means of kinematic simulation to predict the work- 584 555 a grinding wheel with phyllotactic pattern, fabricated with piece surface generated during grinding with electroplated 585 87,98,99 556 lithography mask electroplating technology, as displayed in CBN and diamond wheels. 586 557 Fig. 21. Furthermore, Wang et al. analyzed not only the rela- 558 tionship model between the phyllotactic coefficient and ground 4. Dressing of monolayer CBN wheels 587

Usually, it is not necessary to periodically true or dress the 588 monolayer electroplated or brazed CBN wheels in rough 589 grinding. However, as for the precision grinding operation, 590 because the electroplated wheels as well as the brazed wheels 591 possess an inherent weakness of having unequal distance of 592 100 the grain tips from the wheel hub surface , certain percentage 593 of the grains always remains over-protruded, which does not 594 6,101 allow the lower grains to participate. For example, Ding 595 102 et al. established the normal distribution function of the 596 protrusion height of the CBN grains on the original brazed 597 wheel surface, P(x), which has been described as follows: 598 599 1 2 2 PðxÞ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi eðxlÞ =ð2r Þ ð1Þ r 2p 601 Fig. 18 Model of grain geometry and distribution.86

Fig. 19 Electroplated CBN wheel with deﬁned grain distribution.89

Fig. 20 Electroplated CBN wheel with random grain distribution.89

Fig. 21 Phyllotactic patterns of plants and CBN grains.96

104 602 where x is the actual protrusion height of each grain, while l is Warhanek et al. presented a laser dressing process which 645 603 the average protrusion height, r is the standard deviation. enabled the generation of positive clearance angles on stochas- 646 604 For grains with 80/100 US mesh, the average grain size and tic grain surface of the monolayer electroplated diamond abra- 647 605 the standard deviation were 171.0 lm and 16.74 lm, respec- sive tools, as displayed in Fig. 24. As such, the problems 648 606 tively, while the protrusion height of the brazed CBN grains caused by near-zero or negative angles at the micro-cutting 649 607 and the corresponding standard deviation were 112.9 lm and edges could be solved. This method may be also utilized on 650 102 608 18.20 lm, respectively, as shown in Fig. 22. Under such con- monolayer CBN wheels. The generation of clearance on 651 609 ditions, the monolayer CBN wheels without dressing can result superabrasive wheels was a promising complement to existing 652 610 in few overlapping cuts of grains in precision grinding, which tool conditioning processes. The dressing time was more than 653 611 would lead to a surface roughness, measured in the transverse halved by the laser process in comparison to the conventional 654 612 direction, substantially higher than the acceptable value. Par- mechanical touch-dressing process. 655 613 ticularly, absence of any crossfeed during profile grinding 614 greatly worsens the situation. Additionally, the performance 5. Wear of monolayer CBN wheels 656 615 of monolayer wheels also varies due to wheel wear through 616 the wheel life, which degrades the workpiece quality 13,73 617 uncontrollably. As well known, because the CBN wheel performance would 657 13 618 In recent years, the problem of high workpiece surface change gradually due to wheel wear through the wheel life, 658 619 roughness associated with application of monolayer CBN wear of CBN grains is always one of the key issues influencing 659 620 wheels has been solved by mechanical touch-dressing, as the grinding process and the resulting workpiece qual- 660 6,103 17,89,105–110 621 demonstrated in Fig. 23. Although electroplated CBN ity. In recent years, much investigation has been 661 622 wheels are not considered to be dressed in the conventional carried out on wear of monolayer CBN wheels. 662 623 sense, the resultant workpiece surface roughness can neverthe- 624 less be influenced within narrow limits by means of the touch- 5.1. Wear behavior and mechanism of monolayer electroplated 663 625 dressing process. This involves removing the peripheral grain CBN wheels 664 626 tips by means of very small dressing infeed steps in the range 627 of dressing depths of cut between 2 and 4 lm, thereby reducing 7 5.1.1. Wear behavior of monolayer electroplated CBN wheels 665 628 the effective roughness of the grinding wheel. In general, a 629 rotary diamond dresser can be also used to touch-dress mono- Literature has discussed four general wheel wear behaviors 666 630 layer CBN wheels. and mechanisms: grain surface layer wear, grain splintering, 667 111 631 In one example application, the dressing tool was a block grain-bond-interface wear, and bond wear. Particularly, 668 3 632 with synthetic diamonds brazed on its top flat face, and tips Ghosh and Chattopadhyay proposed possible failure patterns 669 633 of the diamond particles (D91, 90/75 lm mesh width) were of CBN grains in electroplated wheels, as displayed schemati- 670 634 made intentionally dull. Gradual touch-dressing of CBN cally in Fig. 25. Because the process temperature in electroplat- 671 70 635 wheels can improve the roughness of the ground surface. It ing is very low, no residual stress exists at the bond level; as 672 636 was found that the required cumulative depth of dressing such, the grain failure occurs mainly due to lack of mechanical 673 637 was dependent on the size of CBN grains. The touch-dressed anchorage and crystallographic defects. In the case of low level 674 638 wheel not only reduced the ground surface roughness greatly of plating, grain pullout from the encapsulation of the 675 639 but also maintained an almost constant roughness value over Ni-bond easily happens (Fig. 25(a)). On the contrary, in the 676 640 a long span of grinding. In particular, after touch-dressing, a case of high level of plating, the grain failure is decided by 677 641 wheel with helical grain distribution produced a finish (about the defect structure of CBN grains. Any defect near the bond 678 level is the most detrimental factor because a sudden variation 679 642 Ra =1lm) close to the one produced with densely packed 643 grain distribution; whereas, the wheel with regular grain distri- of stress taking place at the bond level or within the bond layer 680 under the grinding load can lead to grain breakage at or from 681 644 bution finally produced a surface roughness of Ra = 1.5 lm. the bond level (Fig. 25(b)). Otherwise, mostly the damage 682 3 takes place much higher above the bond level. The additional 683 coating on the electroplated wheel surface also has a significant 684 influence on the grain fracture. For example, Bhaduri and 685 15 Chattopadhyay have found that the uncoated wheel 686 produced fracture wear during grinding low carbon steel (AISI 687 1020) and hardened bearing steel (AISI 52100), while the grain 688 fracture was remarkably absent in the TiN coated wheel. 689 The reason is mainly attributed to the resultant compressive 690 stresses in the CBN grains during coating and a better heat 691 transportation capacity in grinding. 692 In the actual grinding operation, besides the grain pullout 693 and grain fracture, attrition wear is also an important failure 694 pattern for CBN grains. Attrition wear causes an increase in 695 13,21 the active grain density and leads to wheel dulling. Dulling 696 of the grain tips by attrition and fine scale grain fracture 697 (fragmentation) resulted in an increase in the grinding power 698 Fig. 22 Sample of protrusion height distribution of CBN grains and grinding temperature, and even led to various types of 699 112 on brazed wheel surface.102 thermal damage to the workpiece of metallic materials. 700

Fig. 23 Schematics of the inﬂuence of mechanical touch-dressing of monolayer abrasive wheel.6

Fig. 24 Section of grain surface of a laser-dressed diamond tool with positive clearance angle.104

701 Self-sharpening by grain fracture is commonly important to visualized from experiments in Fig. 26: ① the attrition wear 705 702 moderate the forces in grinding. of the grain, where a wear ﬂat area is created on the grain 706 113 703 Rong et al. proposed four types of CBN-bond failure tip; ② the chipping of the grain cumulated by small breakage 707 704 patterns in electroplated wheels in the grinding process, as from the grain tip, ③ the grain dislodgement, referring to 708

Fig. 25 Possible grain failure patterns in electroplated CBN wheel.3

Fig. 26 Grain failure modes in electroplated CBN wheels proposed by Rong et al.113

709 CBN grains being totally removed from out of the bonding overall wheel wear depended more on grain exposure than 726 710 layer with potentially minor leftovers; and ﬁnally ④ the bond on active grain density; grain exposure facilitates chip removal 727 114 711 erosion behind CBN grain in the direction of the grinding pro- and grinding ﬂuid access. 728 712 cess. The removal of bonding material was expected to weaken Based on the grinding experiments of AISI 52100 hardened 729 713 the stability of CBN grain and may in consequence allow grain bearing steel (HRC 62) and B-1900 nickel-based superalloy, 730 13,21 714 displacements leading to reduced process accuracy and total Shi and Malkin made an investigation on how the wear 731 715 grain break outs. process affected the whole electroplated wheel topography, 732 112 716 Furthermore, in order to analyze the wear behavior taking as displayed in Fig. 27. The radial wheel wear was quantita- 733 717 into account the grain type and plating thickness, Upadhyaya tively characterized in each case by an initial transient at a pro- 734 2 718 and Fiecoat carried out creep-feed grinding experiments of gressively decreasing rate to a steady-state wear regime at a 735 719 440 stainless steel workpieces (54 HRC) using electroplated nearly constant rate until the end of wheel life, which occurred 736 720 CBN wheels (mesh size 60/70, FEPA B251). The wheels con- when the radial wear reached 70–80% of the grain dimension. 737 721 taining tougher CBN grains generally exhibited less wear and The wheel wear during the initial transient was mainly due to 738 2 722 a higher G-ratio, and also required less power ; in addition, pullout of the most protruding and weakly held grains 739 723 less wear and higher G-ratio were also obtained for wheels (accounting for 60–80% of the initial transient wear with the 740 724 with a thinner layer of nickel plating despite an increased ten- rest mainly due to grain fracture), and the radial wheel wear 741 725 dency for large-scale grain loss. This would indicate that the in the steady state regime was dominated by grain fracture. 742

without grain dislodgement. For example, the grain should 786 be as sharp as possible and moreover the sharp corner should 787 be located towards the cutting direction, thus allowing the 788 grain to remain in a stable position as long as possible even 789 though bond erosion weakens the stability and therewith 790 116 increases the likelihood of the grain to break out. Zhou et al. 791 also carried out similar simulation work to investigate grain 792 pullout under given mechanical loads and grain geometry. 793 For wear only by attrition behavior, Upadhyaya and 794 112 Malkin have found that the active grain density, C(w), can 795 be written in terms of the radial wear as 796 797

CðwÞ¼C0ð1 FðwÞÞ ð2Þ 799 Fig. 27 Radial wheel wear versus accumulated removal per unit width.112 where w was the radial wear depth; C0 was the aerial packing 800 density, which was measured from a scanning electron micro- 801 scope photography of the new wheel surface. F(w) was the nor- 802 112 743 Particularly, the wheel wear was accompanied by a progressive mal distribution function given by 803 Z 804 744 increase in the active grain density and a corresponding ðxmaxwÞ 1 ðnm Þ2=ð2s2Þ 745 decrease in surface roughness. The uncut chip thickness FðwÞ¼pffiffiffiffiffiffi e x dn ð3Þ 2ps 0 806 746 showed a direct and great effect on the wear rate in the

747 steady-state regime for various grinding conditions and grain where xmax was the maximum grain height; mx was the mean 807 21 112 748 sizes. Furthermore, Upadhyaya and Malkin also found value of the normal curve distribution of the grain height dis- 808 749 that water-based fluids caused much more rapid wear than tribution, and s was the corresponding standard deviation. 809 750 straight oils; additionally, the workpiece material also had a The theoretical active grain density during grinding can be 810 751 big effect on the wear rate, for example, nickel-based superal- calculated when taking all of the factors mentioned into 811 112 752 loy caused much more rapid wheel wear than ferrous accounts. An example was provided in Fig. 31. Here the 812 753 materials. grain size was 120 US mesh with a mean grain size of 64 lm 813 and standard deviation of 21.3 lm. 814 117 754 5.1.2. Wear mechanism of monolayer electroplated CBN wheels Yu et al. presented a life expectancy model for electro- 815 113 755 Rong et al. investigated the failure mechanism of bonding plated CBN wheels, based on non-uniform spatial distribution 816 756 layer of electroplated CBN wheels from the viewpoints of of grain wear and as a function of the grinding parameters, 817 757 bonding force. The experimental setup similar to an inclined grinding wheel geometry and topography, workpiece material 818 758 thread turning process was designed to observe and measure properties, etc. At the same time, this model was also based on 819 759 the failure and maximum bonding force of the electroplated grain pullout, wear mechanism, and the associated state of 820 113 760 layer, respectively, as displayed in Fig. 28. Particularly, grain damage. Single grain pullout experiments were con- 821 761 one single grain with an average diameter of 300 lm was ducted to assess the residual strength of the grain-wheel inter- 822 762 placed on a tool holder to eliminate the influences of various face and the associated state of damage percolation. 823 763 grains on each and focus on the bonding behavior. Four levels 764 of bonding layer thickness, i.e. 50, 100, 150 lm and 200 lm, 5.2. Wear behavior and mechanism of monolayer brazed CBN 824 765 were applied, respectively. It was found that the factors that wheels 825 766 contributed to the maximum bonding force of the electro- 767 plated CBN grain could be grouped into three categories: grain 5.2.1. Wear behavior of monolayer brazed CBN wheels 826 768 properties, bond properties, and the operation conditions, as As for the monolayer brazed CBN wheels (Fig. 32(a)), the pos- 827 115 3 769 indicated in Fig. 29. The bonding layer thickness with a sible failure patterns of grains are illustrated in Fig. 32(b). 828 770 maximum of 150 lm had a limited influence on the absolute Particularly, the grain pullout and shear of bond perhaps takes 829 771 value of the bonding force as a result of mechanical and ther- place due to poor wettability of improper brazing alloy (such 830 113 772 mal actors. A significant influence was determined for the as Ni–Cr alloy) on CBN grain surface, or lack in strength in 831 773 length of cut required for the grain to be broken off as well the alloy itself. Surely, when the appropriate brazing fillers 832 774 as for the grain morphology and orientation. Based on the cor- (such as Ag–Cu–Ti alloy and Cu–Sn–Ti alloy, both of which 833 775 relation of the bonding force and wear mechanism, a regime to have good wettability on the CBN grain surface) are applied, 834 18,102 776 discriminate grain pullout and sliding was established. grain pullout seldom occurs in the grinding practice. 835 115 777 Rong et al. also established a finite element model Additionally, partial breakage of grains (micro-fracture) may 836 778 (FEM) of single electroplated CBN grains for quantitative be confined at tips due to presence of undesirable crystallo- 837 779 analysis of the bonding force, as displayed in Fig. 30. A com- graphic defects inside the grain. Grain macro-fracture can also 838 3 780 prehensive correlation between the bonding force and the happen at the bond level due to the large brazing-induced 839 781 bonding layer thickness and grain orientation was established residual tensile stresses at the junction region, the formation 840 782 through response surface methodology. It was found that a reason of which is mainly attributed to the substantial differ- 841 783 maximum bonding force of up to 60 N was achieved at certain ence in the Young’s modulus and thermal expansion coeffi- 842 784 grain orientations. In addition, some suggestions were also cients of the brazing filler alloy, CBN grains and metallic 843 785 provided to develop monolayer electroplated CBN wheels wheel hub. Particularly, in grain fracture, cracks are initiated 844

Fig. 28 Grinding process with single grain designed by Rong et al.113

Fig. 29 The inﬂuencing factors on the bonding force.115

Fig. 30 Typical results of bonding force of single electroplated CBN grain obtained by Rong et al.115

to be the detrimental factor resulting in grain fracture during 873 grinding. 874 118–120 Based on finite element simulation, Ding et al. inves- 875 tigated the grain facture from the viewpoint of the resultant 876 stress evolution in the brazed CBN grain for six wear stages 877 during grinding, as listed in Table 2. Additionally, a discussion 878 was also carried out on the effects of grain embedding depth, 879 grain wear, bond wear, grain size, and grinding load on the 880 119 stress distribution. With advancing grain and bond wear, 881 the effect of grinding force-induced stresses was generally weak 882 in the grain bottom, while the corresponding effect of the 883 brazing-induced stresses was significant. Large magnitudes of 884 resultant compressive stresses ranging from 754 MPa to 885 Fig. 31 Active grain density versus radial wheel wear of an 1243 MPa were produced in the grain vertex region and were 886 electroplated CBN wheel.112 the primary factor for grain micro-fracture during grinding. In 887 general, grain wear should be minimized, but certain micro- 888 845 from any defect in the grain near the bond level and propagate fracture in the vertex region of a grain can enhance the sharp- 889 846 along the bond level through grain crystal-defects. ness of a grinding wheel. Large brazing-induced tensile stresses 890 102 847 Furthermore, Ding et al. provided the variation of pro- were obtained in the grain-bond junction region, which 891 848 trusion height of the brazed CBN grains with 80/100 US mesh resulted in macro-fracture of the brazed grains at the bond 892 849 in grinding experiments of K424 nickel-based superalloy, as level and reduced the wheel life significantly during grinding. 893 102 850 displayed in Fig. 33. The wear tendency of the brazed wheels Furthermore, Ding et al. found that, though the work- 894 851 was generally similar to that of electroplated wheels. The piece material temperature in the grinding zone was merely 895 ° 852 causes of three wear patterns, such as grain micro-fracture, about 180 C during creep-feed grinding of K424 nickel- 896 853 grain macro-fracture, and attrition wear, were also similar to based superalloy with a brazed CBN wheel, the grinding heat 897 854 that of electroplated wheels. A great difference was that grain still had an important effect on grain wear behavior owing to 898 ° 855 pullout did not happen in the tested conditions. the high temperature of the individual grain up to 500–600 C. 899

856 5.2.2. Wear mechanism of monolayer brazed CBN wheels 5.3. Detecting techniques and quantitative characterization of 900 wheel wear 901 857 Similar to electroplated wheels as reviewed before, brazed 858 CBN wheels benefit from strong metallic joining, in this case 859 by brazing and an additional Ag–Cu–Ti bonding, which The techniques of detecting the wheel wear can be generally 902 102 860 improves significantly the resistance to grain pullout. The divided into two groups: contact measurement and noncontact 903 17,110 861 brazed grains were generally prone to breakage at the bond measurement. One of the main problems in directly 904 862 level under high load conditions, leaving a part of the grain measuring wear of CBN grains is their small size, which makes 905 863 firmly integrated in the encapsulation of the bond (i.e. the this task rather difficult. The most representative contact mea- 906 3 864 brazing alloy). This kind of premature failure of the brazed surement technique is the stylus profilometer, which uses a nee- 907 865 CBN wheel seriously affects its grinding capability. Because dle in contact with the surface to be measured. Another 908 866 the active brazing of CBN grains requires high heating temper- contact-based measuring technique is the analysis of imprints 909 867 ature and a very protective environment or high vacuum, a generated by the grinding wheel surface after pushing it against 910 868 substantial imbalance in the thermal strain rates of the metallic carbon paper; however, this technique is generally used to cal- 911 869 wheel hub, brazing filler alloy, and CBN grains is unavoidable culate the number of grains but rarely measure the size of wear 912 3 870 during the cooling stage. As a consequence, residual thermal flats due to its low precision. As a general approach, the use of 913 871 stress is produced in the joint. Such brazing-induced residual replicas of the wheel (made with clay, plastic, or similar) is 914 872 stresses, coupled with the grinding-induced stresses, are found used a lot in research settings as it avoids wheel dismounting 915

Fig. 32 Possible grain failure patterns in brazed wheel.3

Fig. 33 Wear patterns of brazed CBN grains versus accumulated removal material.102

Table 2 Contour maps of resultant stresses in brazed CBN grains at different wear stages during grinding.118 Only grain wear Both grain wear and bond wear

Stage I Stage IV

Stage II Stage V

Stage III Stage VI

121 916 or breakage. However, it might introduce further uncer- microscopy technique could offer the best trade-off between 922 917 tainty on the measurement. The noncontact measurement time and accurate results and even allows a pseudo- 923 918 approaches applied include optical macroscopy, optical automatization of the measuring process for the CBN wheel. 924 919 microscopy, confocal proﬁlometry, and scanning electron Particularly, the complex changes in cutting edge shape can 925 920 microscopy (SEM), and structured-light 3D scanner. Accord- be evaluated quantitatively using the fractal dimension, which 926 17 122 123 921 ing to the research carried out by Puerto et al. , the optical has been applied by Ichida et al. and Ding et al. to 927

928 quantitatively evaluate the micro fracture behavior of CBN large-scale adhesion and breakage of grains in white alumina 987 929 grains. First, a reconstruction model of grain topography wheel were observed under a cryogenic environment. A lubri- 988 930 was established through photographs taken with three- cating agent like neat oil appeared to be more suitable and 989 931 dimensional (3D) optical video microscope. Then the relation- resulted in better grinding performance than cryogenic cooling 990 125–129 932 ship between 3D fractal dimension and the complicated when grinding low-carbon steel. 991 933 topography change of the abrasive grains was investigated. 934 The fractal dimension of 3D surface profiles of cutting edges 5.4.2. Effects of wheel wear on grinding temperatures 992 112 935 formed by micro-fracture was usually higher than that of cut- Upadhyaya and Malkin reported the thermal aspects of 993 936 ting edges formed by attrition wear. Moreover, an increase in grinding with single-layer electroplated CBN wheels, which 994 937 the wear flat due to attrition on the grain cutting edge resulted were not periodically restored by dressing or truing as in the 995 938 in a decrease of its fractal dimension. In particular, in the common case. The effect of wheel wear and fluid flow on the 996 939 high-speed grinding experiments of Inconel718 nickel-based grinding temperatures and energy partition was determined 997 124 940 superalloy with the monolayer brazed wheel, Ding et al. through the grinding operation of AISI 52100 steel and 998 941 discovered that the wear process of the monocrystalline CBN Inconel 713C nickel-based superalloys. Low energy partition 999 ? 942 (MCBN) grain cutting edges was, in order, attrition wear into the workpiece materials, such as, 3–8% of the total grind- 1000 ? ? ? 943 large fracture micro fracture large fracture attrition ing heat, can be obtained at temperatures below the fluid boil- 1001 944 wear, while that of the polycrystalline CBN (PCBN) grain ing limit. Such low energy partition indicated that the shallow 1002 ? ? 945 cutting edges was micro fracture attrition wear micro porosity on the wheel surface provided sufficient fluid to cool 1003 946 fracture. Micro-fracture of PCBN grains occurred in locations the workpiece material at the grinding zone. Furthermore, the 1004 947 with large impact load from first contacts between the grain energy partition results were analyzed in terms of a topograph- 1005 948 cutting edges and the workpiece material. The fractal dimen- ical analysis of the wheel surface and a thermal model which 1006 949 sion of MCBN wheel was 2.040–2.047, while that of the PCBN accounted for the removal of heat at the grinding zone by 1007 112 950 wheel was 2.049–2.054, which indicated that the PCBN grain conduction to the abrasive grains and to the grinding fluid. 1008 124 951 cutting edge was finer than that of the MCBN counterparts. Progressive wheel wear tended to increase the total wear flat 1009 area mainly by increasing the active grain density at constant 1010 952 5.4. Effects of wheel wear on grinding process and results flat areas per grain. This tended to lower the grinding heat into 1011 the workpiece materials by enhancing heat conduction to the 1012 953 5.4.1. Effects of wheel wear on grinding forces abrasive grains and grinding wheels, to increase the grinding 1013 954 Depending on the grinding conditions, only a small number of forces, and to generate smoother and more uniformly ground 1014 955 abrasive grains on the grinding wheel surface come in contact surfaces. 1015 956 with the workpiece surface. Among this small number of active The electroplated CBN wheel with defined grain pattern 1016 957 grains, usually a small portion cut and form chips while the from Fig. 19 was used in dry grinding. The workpiece material 1017 958 other grains only plow or rub against the workpiece sur- was heat-treated steel AISI 4140H (42CrMo4V, DIN EN 1018 97,101 64 959 face. For this reason, Aurich et al. pointed out that 10132-3) of (60 ± 2) HRC. As a side effect of higher 1019 960 the grinding forces were usually distributed over a small range workpiece temperatures with high depth of cut, adhesion of 1020 961 of kinematic grains at the beginning of monolayer CBN wheel workpiece material occurred on this prototype wheel 1021 86 962 life. Afterwards, due to the fact that the wheel wear in rough (Fig. 34). Thus, the friction between grinding wheel and 1022 963 grinding would likely cause an increase in the number of kine- workpiece further increased and resulted in higher tempera- 1023 964 matic grains, and meanwhile a decrease in chip space volume, tures. However, the material adhesion did not damage the pro- 1024 965 the grinding forces were distributed over a large quantity of totype and even after many grinding operations without active 1025 966 abrasive grains at the end of wheel life. Generally, irregular cleaning of the grinding wheel surface the material adhesion 1026 967 engagement and wear conditions caused an unsteady did not accumulate. Instead, a stationary self-cleaning process 1027 968 running-in of the grinding wheel and limited the possibility occurred. Furthermore, material adhesions completely disap- 1028 64 969 to predict process behavior. peared after grinding operations with comparatively low depth 1029 970 Conventional composite-type alumina wheels are commer- of cut, such as ap = 1 mm or 2 mm. The wear in dry grinding 1030 971 cially utilized for grinding low-carbon steel, in which severe was dominated by attrition wear of the grains and only a few 1031 86 972 wheel loading can take place due to the formation of long chips grain breakouts occurred. 1032 130 973 and adhesion tendency of the workpiece material with the Chen et al. carried out dry grinding experiments of 1033 974 grains. However, the true nature of grain wear in a composite Ti–6Al–4V titanium alloy using monolayer brazed CBN 1034 975 wheel is affected by many factors and therefore hard to model. wheels with a coating of polymer-based graphite lubricant. A 1035 976 The truing and dressing conditions also affect the wear mecha- great reduction of grinding temperature, i.e., 42–47%, was 1036 111 977 nisms, in particular directly after dressing. In comparison, in obtained with the coated wheel in comparison to the uncoated 1037 978 monolayer wheels the factors on grain wear are reduced in counterpart. 1038 979 number. In summary, single-layer brazed or electroplated CBN 1039 125 980 Bhaduri et al. compared monolayer brazed CBN and wheels offer a solution for the high heat production in grind- 1040 981 composite white alumina wheels. The experiments were con- ing. As well known, chip formation in grinding usually 1041 982 ducted on AISI 1020 steel under dry conditions, with liquid involves high specific energy compared to other machining 1042 983 nitrogen, and neat oil as cooling lubricant. The CBN wheel processes (such as milling and turning) due to large negative 1043 131 984 was found to outperform the alumina wheels in terms of rake angles of the cutting edges of grains. Excessive friction 1044 985 grinding forces and grain wear. The wear of the CBN wheel between chip-grain and chip-bond interfaces occurs when the 1045 986 was remarkably low when neat oil was applied. In contrast, chips flow between grains and workpiece surface. Especially 1046

Fig. 34 Material adhesion on grinding wheel.86

1047 in dry grinding of metallic materials, this generates much heat, models (regression analysis, artificial neural net models), as 1093 1048 which has a harmful effect on workpiece surface integrity. In well as heuristic process models (rule based models). The mod- 1094 1049 contrast to the conventional grinding wheels, the single-layer els are mainly used to predict process parameters such as 1095 1050 counterparts produce favorable chips during grinding metallic grinding force, grinding temperature, as well as surface topog- 1096 135–140 1051 materials in ductile mode with fewer grinding forces and lower raphy and surface integrity. Particularly, Li and 1097 131 141,142 1052 specific energy. At the same time, Pal et al. found that large Rong established a grinding process model based on 1098 1053 volume chips could not be accommodated in the small inter- the time-dependent microscopic interactions, as displayed in 1099 1054 grain spaces of electroplated CBN wheels due to their dense Fig. 35, which provided a quantitative description of the ‘‘in- 1100 1055 grain distribution and low grain protrusion. However, even side story” within the grinding zone through separation and 1101 1056 with a large chip load, the brazed CBN wheels worked effec- quantification of the six microscopic interaction modes, which 1102 1057 tively due to wider and more uniform spacing and larger pro- included grain-workpiece interface (consisting of three modes, 1103 1058 trusion of the grains. such as cutting, plowing and sliding), bond-workpiece inter- 1104 143 face, chip-workpiece interface, and chip-bond interface. 1105 1059 5.4.3. Effects of wheel wear on ground surface quality Further development of this model could include different 1106

1060 The wheel wear and change of active cutting edges always have grinding process kinematics, such as slot grinding, profile 1107 144 1061 a great influence on the ground surface quality. Some early grinding, or more efficient computation algorithms. 1108 145 1062 investigations of the grinding process with electroplated As for the grinding mechanism, Ding et al. carried out a 1109 1063 CBN wheels were mainly concerned with characterization of finite element analysis to investigate the effects of grinding 1110 1064 the grinding performance, in terms of the grinding power speeds and uncut chip thickness on chip formation during sin- 1111 21 1065 and surface roughness. In subsequent studies, attention was gle grain grinding of Inconel 718 nickel-based superalloy. 1112 1066 directed to identifying the wheel wear mechanisms and the Three factors, such as strain hardening, strain-rate hardening, 1113 132,133 1067 influence of workpiece materials and grinding fluid. and thermal-softening, were taken into accounts. Accordingly, 1114 13 1068 For example, Shi and Malkin carried out internal cylin- a critical value of grinding speed was determined based on the 1115 1069 drical grinding of hardened AISI 52100 steel (hardness HRC variations of equivalent plastic strain, von Mises stress, and 1116 1070 62) with electroplated CBN wheels. They analyzed how the grinding forces. Similar experimental work was also conducted 1117 146–150 1071 wear of CBN grains affected the wheel topography and ground with single diamond or CBN grains, which led to a dee- 1118 1072 surface roughness. Starting with a new wheel, the power was per understanding of the grinding mechanism of metallic 1119 1073 generally found to increase with continued grinding, which materials. 1120 1074 was accompanied by a corresponding decrease in surface Additionally, an understanding of the grinding heat could 1121 1 1075 roughness to a steady-state value. The initial higher surface contribute to control effectively the thermal damage of the 1122 7 1076 roughness came from exposed grain tips. At the same time, ground metallic materials. In the thermal simulation of grind- 1123 1077 dulling of CBN grains by attrition wear was high for a new ing processes, a widely used approach is to substitute numerous 1124 1078 wheel; the degree of grain dulling was restricted mainly by cutting edges by a single moving distributed heat source of a 1125 151 1079 grain fracture and pullout. Grain fracture and pullout con- specific geometrical shape referring to the theory of Jaeger. 1126 1080 tributed only little to the progressive increase in active grain This heat source can be moved across the workpiece according 1127 1081 density, which caused a progressive decrease in surface rough- to the specific kinematics of the grinding process. Another 1128 1082 ness. Furthermore, an uneven grain protrusion distribution approach to determine the heat source distribution based on 1129 1083 increased the resultant workpiece surface roughness. For this a geometric-kinematic simulation for internal traverse grinding 1130 62 1084 reason, the average value and distribution of the grain count was presented by Schumann et al. , who identified the ideal 1131 1085 as well as the protrusion height needs to be known to properly geometrical interaction of workpiece and tool. The specific 1132 1086 select a wheel and dressing strategy for a particular material removal rate for each grain was calculated and 1133 71 1087 application. accumulated with respect to the contact zone resulting in a 1134 three-dimensional (3D) thermal load distribution. This heat 1135 source can be used in finite element simulations to determine 1136 1088 6. Modeling and simulation of grinding process and mechanism 62 the thermal loads on the workpiece. In comparison to the 1137 1089 with monolayer CBN wheels classical approach, the simulated temperature peaks happened 1138 1139 134 within the contact zone because of locally concentrated grain 1090 Brinksmeier et al. reviewed the advances on modeling and engagements, which have been confirmed true in high-speed 1140 1091 simulation of grinding processes, including physical process grinding experiments of 102Cr6 hardened steel (HRC 62–64) 1141 1092 models (analytical and numerical models), empirical process when using a monolayer electroplated CBN wheel. 1142

Fig. 35 Framework of the grinding model provided by Li and Rong141.

1143 7. Application of monolayer CBN wheels in grinding of metallic ened 100Cr6 steel, IS 103Cr1 bearing steel (62 HRC), and high 1177 1144 materials speed steel (65 HRC). Improved performance of brazed wheels 1178 over electroplated wheels was evident for high material 1179 1145 7.1. Grinding of steel materials removal rates and large stock removal. 1180

7.2. Grinding of titanium alloys 1181 1146 Grinding of steel materials is complicated when the material 1147 adheres to the grains leading to wheel loading and subse- 1148 quently high grinding temperatures, harmful residual stresses, Titanium alloys are broadly applied as the most common 1182 152–157 1149 severe tool wear, and bad surface quality. Monolayer structural metallic material in the aerospace and defense 1183 1150 CBN wheels can be useful in this regard as they possess industry and other fields owing to their favorable mechanical 1184 1151 relatively high grain protrusion (compared to conventional properties and resistance to surface corrosion, even under 1185 163 1152 composite wheels), which offers higher chip space and less high-temperature conditions. Unfortunately, the unique 1186 15 1153 chance of wheel loading. physical and chemical properties contribute also to difficulties 1187 158 164 1154 Marschalkowski et al. presented a study on internal peel in cutting and grinding titanium alloys. 1188 165,166 1155 grinding, using combined roughing and finishing in combina- Shi and Attia carried out experimental studies on 1189 1156 tion with the excellent cutting performance of electroplated grinding of titanium alloy with electroplated CBN wheels. 1190 1157 CBN wheels, to achieve the highest removal rates with high They demonstrated that enhanced removal rates are achievable 1191 159 1158 surface finish. Vashista et al. investigated the role of process by wheel cleaning with fluids at high pressures. The specific 1192 3 1159 parameters on grindability of AISI 1060 medium carbon steel material removal rates of 8 mm /mm s in shallow cut mode 1193 3 1160 with particular emphasis on surface integrity. Grinding with and 3 mm /mm s at a depth of cut as high as 3 mm in creep- 1194 1161 miniature monolayer electroplated CBN wheels provided com- feed mode were achieved without thermal damage and smear- 1195 166 1162 pressive residual stresses throughout the experimental domain ing of ground surfaces. 1196 167 1163 unlike conventional grinding, which can be attributed to a bet- Teicher et al. compared the grindability of Ti–6Al–4V 1197 1164 ter temperature control capacity as the electroplated CBN alloy with brazed CBN and diamond grinding wheels under 1198 1165 wheel took away substantial part of grinding heat through different environments. Cryogenic cooling did not improve 1199 1166 its better thermal conductivity. Meanwhile, an increase in the surface roughness for both CBN and diamond, but the 1200 1167 depth of cut resulted in more grain elongation in the steel application of oil or alkaline cooling lubricants gave the best 1201 168 1168 and higher surface microhardness due to higher mechanical results. Likewise, Yang et al. applied brazed CBN profile 1202 160 1169 loads during chip formation. Xu et al. developed a precise wheels to machine an aero-engine blade rabbet made of 1203 1170 electroplated CBN gear-honing cutter for hardened gears with Ti–6Al–4V. Good dimensional accuracy and favorable surface 1204 1171 narrow tooth faces. The quality of the tooth face was integrity was achieved. 1205 1172 enhanced, noise decreased effectively and radial error 1173 improved with this innovative cutting tool. Similar work on 7.3. Grinding of nickel-based superalloys 1206 161 1174 gear honing tools was also carried out by Lv et al. . 12,30,162 1175 Chattopadhyay et al. reported the application of With broader application of nickel-based superalloys in the 1207 1176 brazed CBN wheels in grinding steel materials, such as unhard- aerospace industry, milling and turning operations can hardly 1208

Important aspects regarding the fabrication mechanism, grain 1251 distribution, dressing techniques, tool wear, and application 1252 technology were highlighted. Although great progress has been 1253 made in recent years, there are still signiﬁcant challenges for 1254 monolayer CBN wheels as follows: 1255

(1) High-quality joining between CBN grains and wheel 1256 hub includes both, a strong bonding mechanism and 1257 low damage to the grains. However, the current 1258 electroplating and brazing techniques do not fully pro- 1259 vide these integrated advantages. For this reason, new 1260 joining technologies between CBN grains and wheel sub- 1261 strates need to be developed. 1262 Fig. 36 Thin-walled and honeycomb-structured components of (2) Grain distribution and working surface patterns have a 1263 nickel-based superalloys ground with an electroplated CBN great influence on the grinding performance of mono- 1264 wheel.19 layer CBN wheels. However, current approaches have 1265 not achieved the full potential. Grain distribution and 1266 1209 meet the quality requirements due to short tool life, cutting working surface patterns need to be optimized further, 1267 169–175 1210 vibrations, and high machining forces. As an alternative for example with the promising phyllotaxis theory 1268 10 1211 to defined cutting operations, Li et al. investigated high- gained from biology. 1269 1212 speed grinding of an integrated impeller made of GH4169 (3) The current investigation on grinding processes is based 1270 1213 nickel-based superalloy (which is similar to Inconel718) with on the average values of uncut chip thickness, which lim- 1271 1214 an electroplated CBN wheel. Compared with the milling its greatly the ability to accurately predict and control 1272 1215 process, the profile error of blades was reduced by about the grinding results. It is necessary to characterize the 1273 176 1216 50% and surface quality was improved. Zhao et al. carried actual surface topography of monolayer CBN wheels 1274 1217 out grinding experiments of DZ125 directional solidified and determine the actual distribution of uncut chip 1275 1218 nickel-based superalloy with an electroplated CBN profile thickness in grinding. 1276 1219 wheel. High shape accuracy and good surface integrity was (4) Traditional monocrystalline CBN grains used for mono- 1277 1220 obtained even at a high specific material removal rate of layer CBN wheels do rarely self-sharpen but become dull 1278 3 1221 50 mm /(mms). due to attrition in grinding, which decreases the grinding 1279 19 1222 Tian et al. developed an electroplated CBN wheel with performance. It is necessary to develop monolayer 1280 1223 miniature concave and convex asperities on its circumferential wheels with grain self-sharpening ability in order to 1281 1224 surface to manufacture thin-walled and honeycomb-structured make full use of the grinding potential of CBN 1282 1225 components made up of a nickel-based superalloy (Hastelloy superabrasive grains. 1283 1226 X), as displayed in Fig. 36. One of the principal challenges (5) The current grinding model and simulation work for 1284 1227 while manufacturing honeycombs was their extreme sensitivity monolayer wheel is still at the theoretical stage, and its 1285 177 1228 towards cell distortion and burr formation in grinding. Sim- application potential is rather limited. In order to con- 1286 1229 ilar to the advantages of intermittent grinding with slotted or trol the grinding quality and increase removal rates of 1287 1230 segmented wheels, grinding power and force were reduced materials, further development of grinding process mod- 1288 1231 due to the miniature concave and convex asperities on the els is necessary. 1289 19 1232 wheel circumferential working surface. Furthermore, burr 1290 1233 size was reduced owing to low grinding forces. 1234 Creep-feed grinding has been expected to improve material Acknowledgements 1291 1235 removal rates and surface quality of components with complex 20 1236 profiles. Ding et al. studied experimentally the effects of pro- The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support for 1292 1237 cess parameters (in particular wheel speed, workpiece speed, this work by the National Natural Science Foundation of 1293 1238 and depth of cut) on grindability and surface integrity of China (Nos. 51235004 and 51375235), the Fundamental 1294 1239 K424 cast nickel-based superalloys during creep-feed grinding Research Funds for the Central Universities (Nos. 1295 1240 with brazed CBN wheels. Low grinding temperatures of about NE2014103 and NZ2016107). 1296 1241 100 °C were obtained though the specific grinding energy was 3 1242 high with values up to 200–300 J/mm for nickel-based super- References 1297 1243 alloys. Compressive residual stresses were produced in the 20 1244 ground surface without thermal damage or cracks. Further- 1. Konig W, Schleich H, Yegenoglu K. 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Please cite this article in press as: Ding W et al. Review on monolayer CBN superabrasive wheels for grinding metallic materials, Chin J Aeronaut (2016), http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.cja.2016.07.003