AntarcticaAntarctica ScientificScientific DivingDiving ManualManual
NationalNational ScienceScience FoundationFoundation OfficeOffice ofof PolarPolar ProgramsPrograms ContentsContents
1.1. IntroductionIntroduction toto scientificscientific divingdiving 2.2. USAPUSAP scientificscientific divingdiving authorizationauthorization 3.3. OverviewOverview ofof AntarcticAntarctic divedive sitessites 4.4. TheThe AntarcticAntarctic divingdiving environmentenvironment 5.5. DiveDive operationsoperations andand proceduresprocedures 6.6. DiveDive equipmentequipment 7.7. DivingDiving emergenciesemergencies 8.8. AccidentAccident managementmanagement 1.1. IntroductionIntroduction
1947: first dive by Americans in Antarctic waters, LCDR Thompson and Chief Dixon, as part of Operation Highjump, using Jack Brown masks and Desco oxygen rebreathers. 1951: first Antarctic open-circuit scuba dive. 1947-1967: research diving operations under USN Support Force, Antarctica. 1967: NSF-SIO agreement for polar research diving 1987: USAP Guidelines for conduct of research diving, based on AAUS standards. 1990: double-hose regulators phased out in favor of single-hose regulators. 1992: AAUS Polar Diving Workshop (Lang/Stewart) 2001: NSF-Smithsonian agreement for polar research diving. 2.2. ScientificScientific DivingDiving AuthorizationAuthorization
1.1. DiveDive planplan 2.2. DiverDiver certificationcertification (min.(min. qualifications)qualifications)
11--yearyear divingdiving certificationcertification
5050 openopen waterwater divesdives
1515 drydry suitssuits divesdives
1010 divesdives inin pastpast 66 monthsmonths 3.3. PrePre--divedive orientationorientation andand checkcheck--outout 3.3. AntarcticAntarctic DiveDive SitesSites
McMurdoMcMurdo StationStation •• RossRoss IslandIsland •• NewNew HarborHarbor •• MarbleMarble PointPoint
PalmerPalmer StationStation •• AnversAnvers IslandIsland
ResearchResearch VesselsVessels •• AntarcticAntarctic PeninsulaPeninsula 4.4. AntarcticAntarctic DivingDiving EnvironmentEnvironment
IceIce formationformation IceIce crystallizationcrystallization atat airair--seasea interfaceinterface wherewhere temperaturetemperature isis greatest.greatest. HeatHeat conductionconduction fromfrom waterwater toto airair (50C(50C colder)colder) promotespromotes iceice formation.formation. CongelationCongelation iceice formedformed underunder calmcalm conditionsconditions isis composedcomposed ofof needles,needles, smallsmall disks,disks, andand dendriticdendritic stars,stars, thatthat formsforms aa smoothsmooth sheetsheet overover thethe sea.sea. IceIce FormationFormation
FrazilFrazil iceice isis formedformed underunder windwind oror wavewave conditions.conditions. TheseThese crystalscrystals clumpclump togethertogether toto formform pancakepancake ice,ice, whichwhich cancan createcreate complex,complex, manymany--layeredlayered floesfloes ofof packpack ice.ice. TheThe iceice sheetsheet ((congelationcongelation oror frazil)frazil) becomingbecoming aa solidsolid surfacesurface joinedjoined toto thethe shorelineshoreline isis fastfast ice.ice. FastFast iceice growsgrows fromfrom beneath,beneath, throughthrough additionaddition ofof supercooledsupercooled plateletplatelet iceice crystalscrystals thatthat floatfloat upwardupward andand accumulateaccumulate inin aa porous,porous, looseloose layerlayer atat thethe bottombottom ofof thethe surfacesurface iceice sheetsheet (cm(cm-- toto mm--thickness).thickness). IceIce FormationFormation
AnAn overover--buoyantbuoyant diverdiver buriedburied inin aa thickthick plateletplatelet layerlayer maymay becomebecome disorienteddisoriented andand havehave troubletrouble extricatingextricating themselves.themselves.
AbundantAbundant plateletplatelet ice,ice, dislodgeddislodged byby diversdivers maymay floatfloat upup andand plugplug aa divedive hole.hole.
AnchorAnchor iceice formsforms atat <15m,<15m, attachesattaches toto rocks,rocks, debris,debris, andand invertebrates,invertebrates, whichwhich floatfloat upup andand areare incorporatedincorporated intointo thethe iceice sheet.sheet. UnderwaterUnderwater VisibilityVisibility
SeasonSeason (solar(solar radiationradiation impactimpact onon planktonplankton blooms;blooms; glacierglacier melt)melt) andand locationlocation dependentdependent
McMurdoMcMurdo:: AugustAugust--SeptemberSeptember 300m;300m; midmid--NovemberNovember 100100--200m;200m; midmid-- DecemberDecember 1m;1m; WestWest McMurdoMcMurdo 30m.30m.
Palmer:Palmer: AugustAugust--DecemberDecember 30m30m
BrackishBrackish waterwater lenseslenses HypothermiaHypothermia symptomssymptoms
ColdCold handshands oror feetfeet ShiveringShivering IncreasedIncreased airair consumptionconsumption FatigueFatigue oror reducedreduced strengthstrength ConfusionConfusion InabilityInability toto thinkthink clearlyclearly oror performperform simplesimple taskstasks oror lossloss ofof memorymemory CessationCessation ofof shiveringshivering whilewhile stillstill coldcold AridityAridity
AntarcticaAntarctica isis oneone ofof thethe driestdriest desertsdeserts inin thethe worldworld
DehydrationDehydration cancan bebe rapidrapid andand insidiousinsidious
HydrationHydration andand properproper fluidfluid balancebalance
ClearClear andand copiouscopious urineurine
AvoidAvoid diureticsdiuretics beforebefore aa divedive FastFast IceIce
Calm,Calm, surgesurge--freefree divingdiving environmentenvironment StableStable platformplatform (2(2--mm thick),thick), freefree ofof surfacesurface wavewave actionaction UnderUnder--iceice topography:topography: homogenoushomogenous fastfast ice,ice, crackscracks andand leads,leads, snowsnow covercover andand multimulti--yearyear iceice darkness,darkness, plateletplatelet iceice roughrough andand uneven,uneven, heterogenousheterogenous pressurepressure ridgesridges BrineBrine channelschannels oror iceice stalactites:stalactites: supercooledsupercooled brinebrine solutionsolution (increased(increased density)density) freezesfreezes surroundingsurrounding seawaterseawater AccessAccess ThroughThrough FastFast IceIce
NaturalNatural crackscracks andand leadsleads MobileMobile drilldrill (1.3(1.3--mm holehole << 55--mm thick)thick) HoleHole meltermelter withwith hothot glycolglycol (1m)(1m) ChainChain sawsaw (<60(<60--cmcm thick)thick) SawSaw andand breakerbreaker barbar (<25(<25--cmcm thick)thick) ExplosivesExplosives (>5(>5--mm thick)thick) dangerdanger SafetySafety holehole HoleHole sizesize andand shapeshape FastFast--IceIce DiveDive HoleHole MaintenanceMaintenance
HeatedHeated sheltersshelters
HoleHole coverscovers (foam(foam betweenbetween plywood)plywood)
IceIce removalremoval withwith breakerbreaker barbar
BrashBrash iceice ((congelationcongelation,, frazil,frazil, anchoranchor andand plateletplatelet ice)ice) cancan fillfill holehole FastFast--IceIce DivingDiving HazardsHazards
LowLow lightlight (sun(sun angle,angle, snowsnow cover,cover, iceice thickness,thickness, blooms)blooms) DiverDiver disorientation:disorientation: highhigh visibilityvisibility (objects(objects seemseem closercloser thanthan theythey are).are). LossLoss ofof divedive hole:hole: darknessdarkness oror coveredcovered withwith shelter,shelter, maintainmaintain positivepositive visualvisual contactcontact withwith downdown lineline EmergencyEmergency ascentsascents issueissue ActiveActive holesholes mustmust bebe markedmarked withwith downdown lineline (former(former holesholes maymay looklook likelike safetysafety holehole fromfrom below)below) ThinThin IceIce
ThinThin iceice << 1515--cmcm thickthick
EntryEntry holehole nearnear shore,shore, swimswim toto sitesite
TwoTwo independentindependent regulatorsregulators andand aa ponypony bottlebottle recommended.recommended.
““ThirdsThirds rulerule”” ofof gasgas management.management.
TetherTether lineline maymay bebe requiredrequired
OneOne safetysafety holehole PackPack IceIce
EasyEasy accessaccess toto surfacesurface (caution(caution withwith nearnear shoreshore shallowshallow waterwater access)access) EntryEntry fromfrom shoreshore oror inflatableinflatable Hazards:Hazards: •• inherentlyinherently unstableunstable ice;ice; windwind maymay blowblow packpack iceice offoff-- oror onshoreonshore •• wavewave actionaction oscillatesoscillates iceice upup andand downdown •• marinemarine life,life, toptop predatorspredators •• dimdim lightlight OtherOther EnvironmentsEnvironments
OpenOpen waterwater
BlueBlue waterwater
IceIce edgeedge
RemoteRemote sitesite preparednesspreparedness
ContaminatedContaminated waterwater ((E.E. colicoli oror hydrogenhydrogen sulfide)sulfide) DangerousDangerous MarineMarine LifeLife
SouthernSouthern ElephantElephant ((MiroungaMirounga leoninaleonina)) andand AntarcticAntarctic FurFur SealSeal ((ArctocephalusArctocephalus gazelligazelli)) breedingbreeding seasonseason CrabeaterCrabeater SealSeal ((LobodonLobodon carcinophaguscarcinophagus)) dentitiondentition LeopardLeopard SealSeal ((HydrurgaHydrurga leptonyxleptonyx)) applyapply sharkshark protectionprotection techniquestechniques WeddellWeddell SealSeal ((LeptonychotesLeptonychotes weddelliweddelli)) airair holesholes KillerKiller WhaleWhale ((OrcinusOrcinus orcaorca)) 5.5. DiveDive OperationsOperations andand ProceduresProcedures
DownDown lineline:: requiredrequired forfor allall untethereduntethered divesdives withwith limitedlimited surfacesurface access;access; depthdepth 50%50% greatergreater thanthan proposedproposed workingworking depth;depth; nylonnylon construction;construction; 55--10kg10kg weight;weight; 22 strobes,strobes, checkeredcheckered flags;flags; reservereserve cylinderscylinders withwith regulatorregulator andand pressurepressure gauge.gauge. DiveDive OperationsOperations andand ProceduresProcedures
HoleHole markingmarking:: snowsnow removal;removal; radiatingradiating benthicbenthic lineslines SafetySafety holesholes:: oneone oror moremore requiredrequired PrePre--divedive safetysafety checkschecks:: regulatorsregulators andand inflatorinflator valvesvalves BuoyancyBuoyancy regulationregulation:: regulateregulate withwith drydry suit,suit, notnot BC;BC; nevernever useuse asas liftlift bagsbags DiveDive computerscomputers andand tablestables DiveDive OperationsOperations andand ProceduresProcedures
AirAir managementmanagement:: basedbased onon cavecave divingdiving rulerule--ofof--thirdsthirds
SafetySafety stopsstops:: 33--5mins5mins atat 1010--30ft30ft
TenderTender:: oneone perper divedive requiredrequired
TethersTethers:: securelysecurely attachedattached atat surface;surface; individual;individual; tt--shaped;shaped; LL-- shaped;shaped; blueblue--water;water; lineline--pullpull signals;signals; entanglemententanglement DiveDive OperationsOperations andand ProceduresProcedures
SurfaceSurface--suppliedsupplied divingdiving forfor thethe followingfollowing dives:dives: contaminatedcontaminated water;water; rapidrapid deployments;deployments; physicallyphysically demanding;demanding; communicationcommunication requirement;requirement; penetration;penetration; shallow,shallow, longlong excursion;excursion; lowlow visibility;visibility; longlong-- durationduration coldcold exposure;exposure; singlesingle diverdiver requiresrequires standby.standby. Superlite17Superlite17 helmets,helmets, HelioxHeliox 1818 bandmasksbandmasks DiveDive OperationsOperations andand ProceduresProcedures
SurfaceSurface coldcold exposure:exposure: diversdivers andand tenders;tenders; lossloss ofof huthut toto fire;fire; outboardoutboard failure;failure; emergencyemergency rationsrations
EnvironmentalEnvironmental protection:protection: specimenspecimen collection;collection; benthosbenthos disturbance;disturbance; waterwater layerlayer mixing;mixing; explosives;explosives; fuelfuel spills;spills; AntarcticAntarctic Treaty;Treaty; AntarcticAntarctic ConservationConservation Act;Act; marinemarine mammals.mammals. 6.6. DiveDive EquipmentEquipment
Regulators:Regulators: 22 fullyfully independentindependent systems;systems; prepre-- andand postdivepostdive carecare (warm(warm andand dry);dry); freefree--flowflow failurefailure causescauses
Inflators:Inflators: frequentfrequent shortshort burstsbursts toto preventprevent rapidrapid airair expansion,expansion, adiabaticadiabatic cooling,cooling, condensationcondensation andand freezingfreezing
BC:BC: compatiblecompatible withwith drydry suit;suit; carecare
WeightsWeights:: harnesses;harnesses; dualdual bucklebuckle belts;belts; overweighting;overweighting; DUIDUI weightweight systemsystem DiveDive EquipmentEquipment
Gauges/DC:Gauges/DC: LCDLCD issues;issues; batteriesbatteries
DryDry suits:suits: type;type; automaticautomatic exhaustexhaust valves;valves; polypropylenepolypropylene underunder layer,layer, fleece,fleece, thinsulatethinsulate;; drydry glovesgloves oror mitts;mitts; hoods;hoods; faceface protectionprotection
OO--ringsrings
CompressorsCompressors
PreventivePreventive maintenancemaintenance 7.7. DiveDive EmergenciesEmergencies
LossLoss ofof divedive holehole
LossLoss ofof tether:tether: verticalvertical positionposition withwith oneone handhand onon thethe ice;ice; inin lowlow visibility;visibility; inin current;current; inin shallowshallow water;water;
EntrapmentEntrapment inin underunder--iceice plateletplatelet layerlayer
DiveDive huthut firefire 8.8. AccidentAccident ManagementManagement
DiveDive teamteam responseresponse –– immediateimmediate
EmergencyEmergency transporttransport
RecompressionRecompression chamber/medicalchamber/medical treatmenttreatment
LongLong--termterm oxygenoxygen therapytherapy
FluidFluid resuscitationresuscitation
DiveDive accidentaccident policy:policy: delayeddelayed DCS;DCS; probabilisticprobabilistic event;event; nono penaltypenalty
DiveDive logslogs andand documentationdocumentation