AntarcticaAntarctica ScientificScientific DivingDiving ManualManual NationalNational ScienceScience FoundationFoundation OfficeOffice ofof PolarPolar ProgramsPrograms ContentsContents 1.1. IntroductionIntroduction toto scientificscientific divingdiving 2.2. USAPUSAP scientificscientific divingdiving authorizationauthorization 3.3. OverviewOverview ofof AntarcticAntarctic divedive sitessites 4.4. TheThe AntarcticAntarctic divingdiving environmentenvironment 5.5. DiveDive operationsoperations andand proceduresprocedures 6.6. DiveDive equipmentequipment 7.7. DivingDiving emergenciesemergencies 8.8. AccidentAccident managementmanagement 1.1. IntroductionIntroduction 1947: first dive by Americans in Antarctic waters, LCDR Thompson and Chief Dixon, as part of Operation Highjump, using Jack Brown masks and Desco oxygen rebreathers. 1951: first Antarctic open-circuit scuba dive. 1947-1967: research diving operations under USN Support Force, Antarctica. 1967: NSF-SIO agreement for polar research diving 1987: USAP Guidelines for conduct of research diving, based on AAUS standards. 1990: double-hose regulators phased out in favor of single-hose regulators. 1992: AAUS Polar Diving Workshop (Lang/Stewart) 2001: NSF-Smithsonian agreement for polar research diving. 2.2. ScientificScientific DivingDiving AuthorizationAuthorization 1.1. DiveDive planplan 2.2. DiverDiver certificationcertification (min.(min. qualifications)qualifications) 11--yearyear divingdiving certificationcertification 5050 openopen waterwater divesdives 1515 drydry suitssuits divesdives 1010 divesdives inin pastpast 66 monthsmonths 3.3. PrePre--divedive orientationorientation andand checkcheck--outout 3.3. AntarcticAntarctic DiveDive SitesSites McMurdoMcMurdo StationStation •• RossRoss IslandIsland •• NewNew HarborHarbor •• MarbleMarble PointPoint PalmerPalmer StationStation •• AnversAnvers IslandIsland ResearchResearch VesselsVessels •• AntarcticAntarctic PeninsulaPeninsula 4.4. AntarcticAntarctic DivingDiving EnvironmentEnvironment IceIce formationformation IceIce crystallizationcrystallization atat airair--seasea interfaceinterface wherewhere temperaturetemperature isis greatest.greatest. HeatHeat conductionconduction fromfrom waterwater toto airair (50C(50C colder)colder) promotespromotes iceice formation.formation. CongelationCongelation iceice formedformed underunder calmcalm conditionsconditions isis composedcomposed ofof needles,needles, smallsmall disks,disks, andand dendriticdendritic stars,stars, thatthat formsforms aa smoothsmooth sheetsheet overover thethe sea.sea. IceIce FormationFormation FrazilFrazil iceice isis formedformed underunder windwind oror wavewave conditions.conditions. TheseThese crystalscrystals clumpclump togethertogether toto formform pancakepancake ice,ice, whichwhich cancan createcreate complex,complex, manymany--layeredlayered floesfloes ofof packpack ice.ice. TheThe iceice sheetsheet ((congelationcongelation oror frazil)frazil) becomingbecoming aa solidsolid surfacesurface joinedjoined toto thethe shorelineshoreline isis fastfast ice.ice. FastFast iceice growsgrows fromfrom beneath,beneath, throughthrough additionaddition ofof supercooledsupercooled plateletplatelet iceice crystalscrystals thatthat floatfloat upwardupward andand accumulateaccumulate inin aa porous,porous, looseloose layerlayer atat thethe bottombottom ofof thethe surfacesurface iceice sheetsheet (cm(cm-- toto mm--thickness).thickness). IceIce FormationFormation AnAn overover--buoyantbuoyant diverdiver buriedburied inin aa thickthick plateletplatelet layerlayer maymay becomebecome disorienteddisoriented andand havehave troubletrouble extricatingextricating themselves.themselves. AbundantAbundant plateletplatelet ice,ice, dislodgeddislodged byby diversdivers maymay floatfloat upup andand plugplug aa divedive hole.hole. AnchorAnchor iceice formsforms atat <15m,<15m, attachesattaches toto rocks,rocks, debris,debris, andand invertebrates,invertebrates, whichwhich floatfloat upup andand areare incorporatedincorporated intointo thethe iceice sheet.sheet. UnderwaterUnderwater VisibilityVisibility SeasonSeason (solar(solar radiationradiation impactimpact onon planktonplankton blooms;blooms; glacierglacier melt)melt) andand locationlocation dependentdependent McMurdoMcMurdo:: AugustAugust--SeptemberSeptember 300m;300m; midmid--NovemberNovember 100100--200m;200m; midmid-- DecemberDecember 1m;1m; WestWest McMurdoMcMurdo 30m.30m. Palmer:Palmer: AugustAugust--DecemberDecember 30m30m BrackishBrackish waterwater lenseslenses HypothermiaHypothermia symptomssymptoms ColdCold handshands oror feetfeet ShiveringShivering IncreasedIncreased airair consumptionconsumption FatigueFatigue oror reducedreduced strengthstrength ConfusionConfusion InabilityInability toto thinkthink clearlyclearly oror performperform simplesimple taskstasks oror lossloss ofof memorymemory CessationCessation ofof shiveringshivering whilewhile stillstill coldcold AridityAridity AntarcticaAntarctica isis oneone ofof thethe driestdriest desertsdeserts inin thethe worldworld DehydrationDehydration cancan bebe rapidrapid andand insidiousinsidious HydrationHydration andand properproper fluidfluid balancebalance ClearClear andand copiouscopious urineurine AvoidAvoid diureticsdiuretics beforebefore aa divedive FastFast IceIce Calm,Calm, surgesurge--freefree divingdiving environmentenvironment StableStable platformplatform (2(2--mm thick),thick), freefree ofof surfacesurface wavewave actionaction UnderUnder--iceice topography:topography: homogenoushomogenous fastfast ice,ice, crackscracks andand leads,leads, snowsnow covercover andand multimulti--yearyear iceice darkness,darkness, plateletplatelet iceice roughrough andand uneven,uneven, heterogenousheterogenous pressurepressure ridgesridges BrineBrine channelschannels oror iceice stalactites:stalactites: supercooledsupercooled brinebrine solutionsolution (increased(increased density)density) freezesfreezes surroundingsurrounding seawaterseawater AccessAccess ThroughThrough FastFast IceIce NaturalNatural crackscracks andand leadsleads MobileMobile drilldrill (1.3(1.3--mm holehole << 55--mm thick)thick) HoleHole meltermelter withwith hothot glycolglycol (1m)(1m) ChainChain sawsaw (<60(<60--cmcm thick)thick) SawSaw andand breakerbreaker barbar (<25(<25--cmcm thick)thick) ExplosivesExplosives (>5(>5--mm thick)thick) dangerdanger SafetySafety holehole HoleHole sizesize andand shapeshape FastFast--IceIce DiveDive HoleHole MaintenanceMaintenance HeatedHeated sheltersshelters HoleHole coverscovers (foam(foam betweenbetween plywood)plywood) IceIce removalremoval withwith breakerbreaker barbar BrashBrash iceice ((congelationcongelation,, frazil,frazil, anchoranchor andand plateletplatelet ice)ice) cancan fillfill holehole FastFast--IceIce DivingDiving HazardsHazards LowLow lightlight (sun(sun angle,angle, snowsnow cover,cover, iceice thickness,thickness, blooms)blooms) DiverDiver disorientation:disorientation: highhigh visibilityvisibility (objects(objects seemseem closercloser thanthan theythey are).are). LossLoss ofof divedive hole:hole: darknessdarkness oror coveredcovered withwith shelter,shelter, maintainmaintain positivepositive visualvisual contactcontact withwith downdown lineline EmergencyEmergency ascentsascents issueissue ActiveActive holesholes mustmust bebe markedmarked withwith downdown lineline (former(former holesholes maymay looklook likelike safetysafety holehole fromfrom below)below) ThinThin IceIce ThinThin iceice << 1515--cmcm thickthick EntryEntry holehole nearnear shore,shore, swimswim toto sitesite TwoTwo independentindependent regulatorsregulators andand aa ponypony bottlebottle recommended.recommended. ““ThirdsThirds rulerule”” ofof gasgas management.management. TetherTether lineline maymay bebe requiredrequired OneOne safetysafety holehole PackPack IceIce EasyEasy accessaccess toto surfacesurface (caution(caution withwith nearnear shoreshore shallowshallow waterwater access)access) EntryEntry fromfrom shoreshore oror inflatableinflatable Hazards:Hazards: •• inherentlyinherently unstableunstable ice;ice; windwind maymay blowblow packpack iceice offoff-- oror onshoreonshore •• wavewave actionaction oscillatesoscillates iceice upup andand downdown •• marinemarine life,life, toptop predatorspredators •• dimdim lightlight OtherOther EnvironmentsEnvironments OpenOpen waterwater BlueBlue waterwater IceIce edgeedge RemoteRemote sitesite preparednesspreparedness ContaminatedContaminated waterwater ((E.E. colicoli oror hydrogenhydrogen sulfide)sulfide) DangerousDangerous MarineMarine LifeLife SouthernSouthern ElephantElephant ((MiroungaMirounga leoninaleonina)) andand AntarcticAntarctic FurFur SealSeal ((ArctocephalusArctocephalus gazelligazelli)) breedingbreeding seasonseason CrabeaterCrabeater SealSeal ((LobodonLobodon carcinophaguscarcinophagus)) dentitiondentition LeopardLeopard SealSeal ((HydrurgaHydrurga leptonyxleptonyx)) applyapply sharkshark protectionprotection techniquestechniques WeddellWeddell SealSeal ((LeptonychotesLeptonychotes weddelliweddelli)) airair holesholes KillerKiller WhaleWhale ((OrcinusOrcinus orcaorca)) 5.5. DiveDive OperationsOperations andand ProceduresProcedures DownDown lineline:: requiredrequired forfor allall untethereduntethered divesdives withwith limitedlimited surfacesurface access;access; depthdepth 50%50% greatergreater thanthan proposedproposed workingworking depth;depth; nylonnylon construction;construction; 55--10kg10kg weight;weight; 22 strobes,strobes,