OP #277 George Kennan and the : How America’s Conscience Became an Enemy of Tsarism by Helen Hundley

In 1885–1886, one of America’s the Atlantic Cable had alr eady failed most r espected r eporters, Geor ge twice. Perry McDonough Collins’ plan Kennan (1845–1924), changed his mind sought to solve the pr oblem through a about the basic natur e of the Imperial joint ef fort of the Russian Empir e and Russian government. 1 He would spend the United States. Thus, in 1865 and the subsequent four decades of his 1866, 3 the young George Kennan had a active life attempting to challenge U.S. fascinating adventur e, an adventur e policy and to mold U.S. public opin- which left him with a lifetime love— ion, a goal he was lar gely successful in . achieving. After his first trip to the Kennan’s book about his travels, Russian Empire in the 1860s, he had Tent Life in gradually gained worked hard to create a benign portrait him some notoriety as an “expert” on of Russia. Given its location in Eur ope, the Russian Empire in the United its monar chical system, and its alien States, but did not pr ovide him with nature, this was no small feat. After his wealth. 4 It took some years after experiences with critics of the Russian returning fr om his first trip to the government in 1885 and 1886, he Russian Empire to establish himself. In sought to expose the American public time, he found a car eer in r eporting, and government to the evils of the and became a premier r eporter for the Russian government while separating new . Over his car eer, its actions fr om the Russians as a he wr ote on American politics, the people. To a great extent Kennan owed Spanish-American War, Pr esident his change of opinion to the influence McKinley’s death, the Russo-Japanese of the Siberian patriot, Nicholas War, , and the Russian Mikhailovich Iadrintsev (1842–1894), Revolution. 5 He wr ote for a wide and his wide cir cle of friends and variety of journals including the “hot” acquaintances, both inside and outside magazines and of his of Siberia. 2 The meeting of these two times including Century Magazine , men, early in Kennan’s investigation of Atlantic Monthly , and The Outlook .6 In the exile system, played a seminal r ole fact, a series written by Kennan might in the people he would meet, and the actually significantly impr ove the type of information he could access. readership numbers of a magazine. 7 Kennan was certainly in a posi- In no small amount due to tion to play the r ole he was to play. He Kennan’s efforts, by the 1880s a num- had been preparing for it for over ber of the American public saw the twenty years. An ar dent supporter of Russian Empire as benign, if exotic, the Union fr om Ohio, Kennan worked and filled with inter esting people. 8 A as a telegrapher during the early years number of elements played into that of the Civil War and distinguished per ception. At times, the Russian himself in the critical Cincinnati center. Empire was per ceived as being He then joined an exciting adventure, America’s “only” friend in Eur ope. an expedition to plan the laying of Secondly, the sale of Russian America telegraph line acr oss Siberia in or der to to the United States, in addition to allow swift communication between being a “Seward’s Folly” joke, was also the United States and the European pr esented in some of the American powers. At that time, the attempt to lay pr ess as a transaction which cheated

1 the Russian government when the These words were r epeated in a United States failed to see that the series of lectur es initiated in the early Russian government received all that 1880s by the pr ominent New York had been promised. minister, the abolitionist, Henry Ward Finally and tellingly, the Russian Beecher. In closing his lectur e, Empire faced “evil r evolutionaries” in Armstrong used equally unequivocal the 1880s. Americans, for their part, language, “...Russia is among States certainly wer e incr easingly fearful of the monster criminal of the nineteenth “Eastern European bomb-throwing century. Ther e ar e no evidences in anarchists” as they viewed some of the Siberia or elsewher e that can be legiti- immigrants to their own country who mately, or even decently, adduced to had opposed the Tsar or other Eur opean vindicate befor e Americans either the governments in Europe. The 1881 humanity or the justice of that em- assassination of Tsar Ale ks andr II only pire.”10 Even though serfdom had served to justify the Russian exile str uc- ended, to Armstrong and others, the tur e. Ther efor e, even to some Americans, Russian Empire continued to deserve despite its monar chist government, all the approbation of civilized people those who criticized the Russian govern- because of its policy of imprisoning ment must be wrong. and abusing lar ge numbers of its Kennan was not the person who people in Siberia, for actions which initially challenged the very views on would not be illegal in democratic Russia that he had helped to cr eate, societies. but he certainly pr ovided the most Armstrong sought to spark a influential opposition to the Tsarist battle specifically with Kennan, as the government after he changed his dean of knowledgeable American mind. Another man initiated that specialists on Russia, and one who public battle. William Jackson her etofor e had pr esented a positive Armstrong served as an inspector of view of Russia. If Kennan could “see U.S. Consulates in Pr esident Grant’s the light” his change of heart would be second term. After his experience in taken seriously by important people. Russia he came to believe that: The succeeding battle of words with You have been used to hearing Kennan in print and on the lectur e that this Tsar [Aleksandr II] is a cir cuit stirr ed up public inter est in the liberal-despot and a kind-hearted exact “natur e” of the Russian Empir e, man. You have associated his as could be clearly displayed in the figur e in a sublime act with that Siberian exile system. towering executive Chief of this At first, Armstrong’s attacks republic—Abraham Lincoln. I seemed anti-Russian to Kennan, which mean the emancipation of the caused him to strike back in defense serfs. But in thinking of their against those who criticized Russians. deaths, keep always this clear At this time, Kennan generally de- distinction in mind. Abraham fended all things Russian. For ex- Lincoln was assassinated for a ample, in 1882 Kennan lambasted cause which liberated 3 million those who sought to attack the Sibe- slaves. Aleksandr II was killed for rian exile system in a scholarly article the enslavement of ninety mil- in the Bulletin of the American Geo- lions of people—the one the graphical Society in which he pr esented martyr of Liberty, the other the an outline of the criticism dir ected at martyr of Despotism. 9 the Russian system. 11 Kennan saw two 2 special pr ongs of the attack, one fr o m support his wife, Emeline Kennan, partisan English papers, and the other while he was overseas. The Century from misguided Siberians. Kennan Company also held out the possibility criticized the inflammatory agenda of that it might publish any book arising the English “Tory papers” in their fr om this expedition. 15 To the company, attempt to isolate the Russian Empir e it did not matter what he discover ed, for international political r easons. at the very least, Kennan could be Secondly, to Kennan, if the English had expected to write another very popular a political agenda, Siberians practiced travel account. the economic NIMBY [Not in My Back Kennan attacked every issue he Yar d] of the nineteenth century. In w r ote on fr om a scholarly approach. Kennan’s analysis, after they became His work on Siberian exile was no prosperous, Siberians sought to rid differ ent. Planned articles and a book themselves of this institution which in on the Siberian exile system would be no way added to property values. Tw o resear ched fr om every point of view. Russians were specifically unmer ci- Kennan began his work with an fully pilloried by Kennan, S. Maximov, advantage few outsiders bothered to for his Siberia and the Hard Labour Exile , seek, he learned Russian. He was thus and N.M. Iadrintsev. To Kennan, able to hold conversations with every- Maximov and Iadrintsev’s works were, one he met, whether or not the inter - “...pr ejudiced and one-sided, but in pr eter was available or willing for him many cases untrue....”12 Kennan was to speak to certain people. Kennan genuinely incensed and disgusted by then sought to see as much of the exile their criticism of Russian governmen- system that he could, and meet as tal policy. Unknowingly, he attacked many people, both administrators and the very person who would soon help exiles, as possible. to change his mind for ever concerning To this end, for his trip to Siberia, not only Siberian exile, but the natur e both befor e and after his arrival in St. of the Russian government as well. Petersbur g, Kennan sought to obtain 1885 Trip to Siberia. all of the of ficial documents which Despite Kennan’s spirited and would open the Siberian prisons to a immediate defense of Russia, as for eigner. As he still had a very good Armstrong had planned, he had reputation with the Russian govern- piqued Kennan’s interest.13 The next ment, Kennan easily obtained letters to logical step would be a trip to examine the Governor-General of Eastern conditions in Siberia personally. How Siberia, General Ignatiev, and fr om the could an under-paid writer af ford such First Assistant Minister of For eign a trip? Kennan convinced one of Af fairs, while the Russian Minister to America’s most popular late nine- the United States, Bar on Str uve, and teenth century journals, The Century , to Aleksandr III himself, also helped to send him to Siberia. The entir e expedi- smooth Kennan’s travels. 16 While those tion, contracted articles, and possible documents would be absolutely de book, were painstakingly planned in rigeuer , Kennan r ealized that mor e conjunction with the pr esident of the heartfelt and personal letters fr om a Century Company, Roswell Smith, and variety of non-government people even with the United States Govern- would open up non-official sour ces. ment. 14 Kennan was to receive $6,000 Nicholas Mikhailovich Iadrintsev. for twelve articles with $100 per month Befor e Kennan arrived in St. advance for up to fifteen months, to Petersbur g in 1885, he had determined 3 to meet the very Siberian he attacked to cr eate a “United States of Siberia” vir ulently during the early 1880s battle led to arr est, exile, and the beginning with Armstrong, the Siberian author of of a journalistic car eer by the late Sibir’ kak koloniia , Nicholas 1860s. During his exile, Iadrintsev Mikhailovich Iadrintsev. Kennan wrote began to work for the Western Siberian Smith in May 1885 that, government which led to a lifetime of I think I wr ote you fr o m Washing- access to government data on Siberia. ton that among the Siberian After his r elease fr om exile he contin- experts whom I particularly ued to study government data, to desir ed to meet and consult in St. gather his own information fr o m Petersburg was Mr. Y adrintsef...I unofficial sour ces, and even to explor e knew, from Mr. Y adrintsefs [ sic] Siberia himself. In or der to publicize writings, that if I could make his this factual material as well as his and acquaintance in a pr oper manner, others’ suggestions for new policies and gain his confidence, I could towards Siberia, Iadrintsev began to not only get at the anti-govern- write the history of Siberia; in articles, ment side of the exile question, he published in some of the most but obtain a gr eat amount of influential journals in Russia, in books valuable advice and information such as his gr ound breaking, Russkaia with r egard to Siberia, wher e he obshchina v tiur ’mie i ssylkie in 1872, had spent nearly all his life... a Sibir’ kak koloniia in 1882, or finally by man of high scientific literary establishing his own paper, V ostochnoe attainments. 17 Obozrenie or The Eastern Review , From the beginning, Kennan was founded in 1882 in St. Petersbur g. To willing to look at the issue of exile accomplish this pr odigious work and fr om all sides, and as was his usual reach those in power, he moved to St. approach in all matters, he sought out Petersburg. the very best information to discover While many issues occupied his the “Siberian” side. While Iadrintsev inter est, Iadrintsev was particularly was not known in the United States, by critical of the system of prisons and the 1880s he was a well-known figure exile in Siberia. Siberians had r eason to in the Siberian oblastnichestvo or Re- be concerned. Although Siberia had gionalist/Nationalist movement in the been used as a place of exile by the Russian Empire, and served as a Russian government since the end of spokesman for Siberian issues. 18 Born the sixteenth century, during the and raised in Siberia, he was a leader Napoleonic Wars and after the number of a generation of politically awar e of prisoners had incr eased exponen- Siberians who sought greater au- tially. Prisoners of war, political prison- tonomy, and an improved economy ers, and r eligious schismatics and their and cultural life for their r egion. The families, wer e joined by thieves and descendant of serfs who bought them- murderers. After time spent in prison, selves out of serfdom, Iadrintsev’s most of these people, often accompa- odyssey began as a lonely Siberian nied by their families, wer e then left to student in college in distant St. Peters- their own devices to feed themselves, bur g in the 1860s. Ther e, he and fellow in a economy where they could rar ely Siberians began to designate them- find full occupation. The r esulting theft selves and their “country” of ficially as and murders made small villages, differ ent and separate fr om Russia. His towns, and the countryside alike identification as a member of a pr oject dangerous. Iadrintsev criticized the 4 waste of lives to exile, as well as the Siberian life, Sibir’ kak koloniia , was the resulting economic and social damage best single sour ce on Siberia at that to all those involved. The r elative time. Iadrintsev’s use of data, access to cheapness of the Siberian system made government information, clear argu- it possible to imprison an incr easing ments, all combined with the corrobo- number of Russia’s population, with- rating information fr om other sources, out giving thought to the actual “guilt” convinced Kennan of Iadrintsev’s of those sent to Siberia. The callous value. According to George Kennan in manner in which the prisoners and his reply to William Jackson their families wer e treated exacerbated Armstrong in the Chr onicle , Kennan a bad system. To Iadrintsev, not only made refer ence to his sour ces of infor - w e r e the policies ill-advised and mation just prior to his trip to Russia to poorly administered, but the manner observe the prison systems, he was in which the government defended using N.M. Iadrintsev’s, Sibir’ kak them was proof of a seriously malfunc- koloniia .21 Iadrintsev’s book was new in tioning government. the early 1880s and Kennan owned an Despite the excellent quality and 1882 edition. Kennan mentioned that explosive natur e of his information, in his r ebuttal lectur es prior to leaving Iadrintsev was r eaching a limited for Russia, he was beginning to use number of people outside of the Iadrintsev and noted how impeccable Russian Empire in the mid-1880s. 19 His his cr edentials as a critic of tsarist meeting with Kennan gave policy were.22 Iadrintsev’s views an American outlet, The next year, after his arrival in and a wider European outlet. St. Petersbur g for the Siberian tour, Although Kennan knew a great Kennan spent a great deal of ef fort and deal about the Russian Empire prior to time to meet Iadrintsev, and expr essed the debate over exile, he felt the need awe upon finally meeting the Siberian to learn even more befor e leaving for explor er and his colleagues. Kennan Siberia. In the summer of 1884, a year noted in his journals that he was also befor e his planned expedition to touched by Iadrintsev’s knowledge of Siberia, Kennan visited St. Petersbur g Kennan’s own work on Siberia, and and in pursuit of books on the attention and grace with which he Siberia. He discover ed that few stor es was greeted. 23 had much of anything of any value on Iadrintsev turned out to be the Siberia. As a r esult of the dif ficulty of single most important contact Kennan his task, he spent mor e time in Russia would make as he started for Siberia. 24 than he planned. 20 At this point, As a dir ect r esult of Iadrintsev’s guid- Kennan discovered that Iadrintsev was ance, Kennan learned the tr uth about not only the author of numer ous works the Siberian exile system specifically, on curr ent Siberian conditions and and about the deeply troubled Russian history, but he was also the editor of a Empire, generally. Befor e Kennan left very influential paper on Siberia, St. Petersbur g, he r eceived yet another V ostochnoe Obozr enie, and a leader of a set of documents, albeit very unof ficial Siberian movement, the Siberian documents. Iadrintsev provided him Oblastnichestvo . Of a more immediate with a list of people and places, and use, Kennan learned of Iadrintsev’s letters of intr oduction to those in new book on the exile system. Siberia that the Russian government Nicholas Mikhailovich would certainly not have r ecom- Iadrintsev’s exhaustive study of mended that Kennan see, and he 5 would not have found, without spe- notorious Kara Mines in the cific directions and more importantly, Transbaikal. Following Iadrintsev’s introductions. In a seven page hand- suggestions, he r eturned to Eur opean written guide to Siberia, Iadrintsev Russia after visiting lar ge and small provided Kennan with such widely convict mines, city prisons, and after varied information as the population talking with an enormous variety of of towns Kennan would, or should people including government officials, visit, as well as lists of people to see pr ominent citizens, those involved and institutions to learn about. He with the papers Iadrintsev suggested suggested vigorously that Kennan he meet, exiles, former exiles, and meet the editors of Sibirskaia Gazeta in families of exiles. Tomsk, and Sibir’, in Irkutsk. 25 Not In the pr ocess of his travels only did Kennan learn a gr eat deal Kennan had indeed changed his mind through these suggestions, he met about the natur e of the Russian gov- Felix Volkhovsky,26 a futur e close friend ernment, and discovered the basic evil and colleague, at Sibirskaia Gazeta . of the exile system. He was frankly Armed with his letters fr o m overwhelmed by the “noble heroic Imperial Russian officials, as well as characters” of the exiles that he met. In Iadrintsev’s and his colleagues’ sug- a letter to Emeline, her husband admit- gestions and letters of intr oduction, ted that “Fr om every meeting with Kennan and his photographer, Geor ge them I come away all inspir ed and Fr ost, left for Siberia in the late spring stirr ed up.” 29 of 1885. Despite the support fr o m Kennan’s return to St. Petersbur g people in power, the trip he pr oposed occasioned some concern on his part remained a dangerous one. In or der to for his own safety, not only because of allay his family’s’ fears for his physical the explosive natur e of the notes he safety, as well as mitigate his sense of had taken, but also because of his own being cut of f, he punctiliously sent physical ill health, and the deteriorat- post car ds home to his wife, Emeline ing natur e of Geor ge Fr ost’s mind. 30 W eld Kennan, and other family mem- For these r easons, he moved quickly bers, especially his br other John. 27 through St. Petersbur g, traveled on to These letters could only pr ovide London, recuperated, and r eturned to psychological help, however, Kennan St. Petersbur g in the Spring of 1886. needed more concr ete pr oximate After Emeline had joined her husband support. In this, Iadrintsev even served in London, the Kennans socialized as a sour ce of security for Kennan’s with pr ominent Russian political trip. Fr om the first, Kennan evidenced exiles, especially Stepniak [S.M. faith in Iadrintsev’s honesty and Kravchinsky] and and tenacity. As Kennan set off for Siberia their wives. 31 Kr opotkin, Stepniak, he made a note to himself in his note- Chaikovsky, and others, wer e im- book to “Threaten to telegraph to pressed with Kennan’s Russian and Editor of V ostochnoi Obozr enie [sic] if knowledge of their friends and genu- any tr ouble anywhere.”28 ine understanding of Russian condi- By 12 June, Kennan had arrived at tions as a r esult of his trip. These the gateway to Siberia, the Urals. He judgments of Kennan resulted in long, spent the summer in Western Siberia fr uitful r elationships partially made arriving in the capital of Eastern possible by Iadrintsev’s councils. 32 Siberia, Irkutsk, on 14 September. In After r esting up in London with the Fall of 1885, Kennan visited the Emeline Kennan, 33 the couple r eturned 6 to the Russian Empire for a tour south wer e Siberians, or themselves had been to the . The r eturn served in exile in Siberia or had family who three purposes, not only had Kennan had been. developed an intense inter est in the Unlike during his visit the year Caucasus in proceeding years, he had befor e, Kennan evidenced absolutely also expr essed a desir e for his wife to no skepticism toward Iadrintsev’s or meet his new friends. He not only other ’s views. His open-mindedness to wanted to share this new part of his Iadrintsev’s ideas is per haps r eflected life with her, but frankly, he wanted in the br oad range of facts and opin- her opinion of these people and to find ions of his that Kennan r ecor ded. They m o r e time to talk to them about what certainly discussed the serious defects he had learned. To these ends, they of the Siberian administration, the spent a very useful month in St. Peters- need for a Siberian University, as well burg obtaining more information fr o m as the silly, vicious, and arbitrary Iadrintsev and his friends. After the government treatment of its popula- Kennans returned to St. Petersbur g tion. Meanwhile, Kennan learned from London, in April of 1886, Kennan firsthand of the sever e r epr ession of repeatedly sought out N.M. Iadrintsev the entir e population in St. Petersbur g and his contacts for further conversa- following the assassination of tions, not only concerning the Siberian Aleksandr II. 35 exile system, but also on a variety of Thursday morning 15/27 May topics of the day. While Kennan obvi- 1886, the Kennans left for Tver and ously was inter ested in talking to a points south. They visited Moscow, variety of Russians, he did focus on Nizhni Novgorod, Kazan, and the Iadrintsev’s view on everything fr o m V olga. As he had done for the earlier the possibility of a r evolution to Leo trip, Iadrintsev once again supplied Tolstoy’s idea of a “Peasant Idyll.” The Kennan with the names of people to inter est was r ecipr ocated. It must be see.36 noted that Iadrintsev also thought Back to the United States. contact with Kennan was important. Upon his safe r eturn to the United While informing Kennan of Siberian States in 1886, Kennan felt he had a conditions, Iadrintsev sought out mission to inform Americans of the Kennan to learn about the United tr ue nature of the Russian Empir e. States. While doing so, he certainly wished to In the long evenings and after - remind the American public of his noon visits fr om the time of Emeline ever -growing admiration for the and George Kennan’s arrival 14/26 Russian people as distinct fr om the April 1886 to 14/26 May 1886, Russian government. Kennan’s initial Iadrintsev and his colleagues hosted and formidable hurdle was semantic. parties and teas and visits for the As he was well aware, as he himself Kennans practically daily. In May, had felt befor e his trip, to many Ameri- Iadrintsev gave a lar ge party, after cans, all Russians who opposed any which Kennan thought enough of the aspect of Russian policy wer e “Nihil- experience to put down as many ists” and bomb thr owers. While this names as he could remember.34 This homogeneity of opponents of the party was only one of many times Russian government did not exist, the Iadrintsev pr ovided access to people author knew it would be dif ficult to Kennan would not otherwise have overcome stereotypes. In fact, he had met. Most of these individuals either found that “These people are not 7 ‘Nihilists,’ they ar e not even r evolu- his heavy speaking schedule. His tionists, they ar e peaceable, law- earlier talks on Siberian “Camp Life” abiding citizens, who ar e striving by continued in their popularity, but wer e reasonable methods to secure a better joined by discussions on the convict form of government....” 37 mines in Siberia. Thr ough his talks, he Kennan sought to reach the continued to keep the “Russian Ques- widest range of people thr ough his tion” alive for Americans. His popular- writings and continuation of his public ity or notoriety, throughout the country talks. His r eports on conditions in is r eflected in his speaking schedule. Siberia wer e published serially by The By 1889, Kennan had already given six Century Magazine.38 After he r eturned sold out lectur es in Boston with thr ee to the United States, Kennan wr ote his to four hundred standing inside and candid articles concerning his change m o r e outside of the hall. He wr ote to of opinion. 39 The two volume Siberia his friend Volkhovsky that he planned and the Exile System appear ed in 1891, 40 to expand his speaking schedule in the filled with damning data, first-hand futur e.42 Fr om his rather pr edictable stories, and drawings pr ovided by appearance on the dais again in Bos- Kennan’s traveling companion, the ton, Massachusetts for their “Slavic artist, Geor ge Fr ost. This book would Course” on 14 November 1892, to his alter for ever American public opinion discussion on convict mines in San concerning the Russian Empire. Diego, California on 30 January 1895, American journals and papers his tales r eached both coasts. He was themselves were certainly appr eciative repeatedly asked to speak at Charles- of Kennans’ ef forts. The Century ton, South Carolina; Champaign, Company’s president, Roswell Smith, Illinois; and Ber ea, Kentucky. His knew of Kennan’s enormous impact speaking schedule even took him to personally as he wr ote Kennan in June the new cow towns of Wichita, Empo- of 1888, he was even r eceiving letters ria, and Wellington, Kansas in the fr om fellow journalists, such as the 1890s. 43 note fr om the editor and manager of Had Kennan Already Made up his the Gr een Bay [Wisconsin] Advocate , Mind? which attested to Kennan’s r each Kennan’s highly visible change of outside of the Atlantic coast. Smith heart was certain to draw some very effused that Kennan was “becoming a negative r eactions. Those uncomfort- recognized authority on these subjects, able with and incapable of changing and we are asked almost daily ‘What their own minds str uck out, as did does Mr. Kennan think of such and those who hinted that this change of such statements?’” 41 heart was designed to sell magazines. Back in the United States and After Kennan returned fr om the England, Kennan personally persisted Russian Empire he was r epeatedly in his ef forts to raise the consciousness accused of having alr eady made up his of Americans to the nature of the mind about Siberia prior to his r eturn. conditions in Siberia, and the war the Kennan consistently and vehemently Imperial Russian government was denied any such suggestions both waging against anyone who dared to publicly and very privately. Despite his criticize the government. Despite his genuine protestations, it does appear heavy writing and reporting schedule that after his battles with Armstrong, that had to be maintained after his or certainly after he r ead Iadrintsev’s return fr om Russia, Kennan continued Sibir kak koloniia , his mind was open to 8 criticism of the Russian system. No Iadrintsev for backgr ound material on publishing “stunt” was ever intended, Siberian history, Russian government, however. The accusations continued and personal information on Siberian for years after Kennan’s r eturn fr o m writers is crystal clear in Kennan’s Siberia, which mer ely continued to fuel notes to himself. Scatter ed thr oughout the discussion of Russia. 44 his notebooks, Kennan reminded Why then, had Kennan changed himself to ask Iadrintsev specifically his mind? As a logical and basically for everything fr om materials for a decent man, he could not countenance biography of Shchapov, the Siberian a government which treated its popu- patriot, to a copy of a secr et govern- lation in the manner that the Russian ment report. While occasionally an- Imperial government treated the other name might be mentioned as a Russian people. While he had dis- sour ce of information, that name was counted the British “Tory papers” rarely r epeated. 46 attack on Russia, the vast pr eponder- W e know what became of ance of factual data fr om Iadrintsev Kennan’s “want” lists. Iadrintsev and his fellow Siberians, added to the fulfilled these wants. For example, a personal stories fr om exiles that hand-written copy of a secr et docu- Kennan met, and his judgment of these mentary analysis of the Siberian exile people’s basic nobility, r esulted in his system written by the Governor- turn ar ound. Some people might have General of Eastern Siberia, D.T. never been able to admit that they had Anuchin, filled one hundr ed pages of changed their mind, especially in such Kennans’ Notebook No. 21. 47 Kennan a public manner. Kennan, however, continued to seek help, as he noted in could only tell the tr uth, even if it his notebook during his trip to the meant a seeming change of direction. Ner chinsk Mines to “Get info. fr o m In fact, however, his basic pr emise Iadrintsev and Kononovitch on Alabin involving his r espect for the Russian and ‘other ’ Siberian matters.” 48 As we people never changed. know, that information played a major Iadrintsev and Kennan’s role in the pages of Siberia and the Exile Scholarship. System . It is impossible to over estimate Not only did Iadrintsev help with Iadrintsev’s impact on Kennan’s work written factual information, he also fr om 1886 until the American died. Not supplemented the very important only does Iadrintsev’s influence ex- visual elements of Kennan’s written hibit itself in Kennan’s private diaries, work and talks. As photographs, but the Siberian’s own works, as well pictur es, and sketches wer e very as those Iadrintsev led Kennan to, important to Kennan’s work, he and played seminal r oles in Siberia and the Fr ost pur chased as many as they could Exile System and his other publications wherever they went, but the pur chases and ideas. were never enough. Kennan relied on While Kennan was still in Russia Iadrintsev as a sour ce and conduit to and after he r eturned home, because of others who could provide further Iadrintsev’s scholarly appr oach to pictur es, not only on this trip but in the issues, he was an excellent sour ce for ensuing years. 49 names of historians and their findings, Iadrintsev’s publications also as well as a sour ce for basic data on the served as r esear ch sour ces for Kennan. government and economy of Siberia. 45 Even prior to Kennan’s arrival in The degree to which Kennan relied on Siberia, Iadrintsev’s Sibir’ kak koloniia 9 had alr eady informed Kennan’s ap- ship, corr uption in the prison system, pr oach to the subject of exile. Kennan’s abuse of the exiles, and colonization of own copy of the book, the 1882, four criminals. 53 hundred and fifty page edition, pr o- Long Term Relations. vides a key to his inter ests and the After his r eturn to the United impact of the oblastniki on his think- States, Kennan continued his contacts ing. 50 Kennan’s copy illuminates many with a number of Russians met of his sour ces for data on Siberian thr ough this trip, especially Stepniak, exile, the social and economic impact Prince Peter Kr opotkin, and N.M. of Siberian exile, basic information on Iadrintsev. Although these other men the Siberian economy, Siberian admin- were important, Kennan was person- istration, and native Siberians. ally most attached to Feliks Kennan’s notes and lines filled the Vadimovich Volkhovsky, an exile he sides of pages in chapters VI, VII, and met when he followed Iadrintsev’s IX. Kennan noted figures on exiles, dir ection to visit the of fices of Sibirskaia cattle br eeding and grain pr oduction, Gazeta during his visit to Tomsk. 54 and stories concerning the mortality of Upon Volkhovsky’s escape fr o m exiles. Finally, he noted Iadrintsev’s Siberian exile, he “went to Kennan.” focus on the abuses of power rampant From the Kennan’s he moved perma- among the local administration. nently to England. Iadrintsev had r epeated the Siberian Stepniak, Volkhovsky, and historian, V.I. Vagin’s, story about Kropotkin had a gr eat deal in common Governor General Treskin’s short- as they all fled the Russian Empir e and comings in Chapter IX “Siberian w e r e unable to r eturn. While Stepniak Government.” Kennan marked all of and Volkhovsky became very active in this tale.51 Kennan himself noted that the Society of Friends of Russian in his latest lectur es just prior to Freedom or “Free Russia,” headquar- leaving for St. Petersbur g, he had tered in London, Kropotkin wrote and utilized information fr om Sibir’ kak worked tirelessly for change in Russia. koloniia .Siberia and the Exile System Kennan remained a supporter, and fr eely utilizes Sibir’ kak koloniia and they continued to pass information on footnotes that information. In the body to Kennan. Unlike the others, of the work, Kennan expressly quoted Iadrintsev was able to r emain in Iadrintsev’s analysis of the negative Russia, and moved permanently fro m impact of exiles on Siberian peasants, St. Petersbur g to Irkutsk in 1888, and the comparative cheap cost of the providing invaluable connections to Siberian penal system. 52 those still in Siberia and the unfolding Iadrintsev’s paper, V ostochnoe political situation ther e. Obozrenie [St. Petersbur g and Irkutsk], The r elationship between Kennan along with Sibir’ [Irkutsk], Sibirskaia and Iadrintsev was not one-sided. The Gazeta [Tomsk], all r ecommended to usefulness of the other was well Kennan by Iadrintsev, also pr ovided understood early on in the r elation- extr emely important fodder for Siberia ship. Not only was Kennan picking and the Exile System .Although much of Iadrintsev’s brain for his views on all Kennan’s information was not, and things Russian, Iadrintsev could turn could not be footnoted, he did pr ovide to Kennan for information on Ameri- refer ences when possible. Once again, can answers to society’s pr oblems and Iadrintsev’s or gan provided the plural- challenges. Kennan opened up Ameri- ity of sour ces fr om the issue of censor - can information to Iadrintsev. As early 10 as their first meeting, Kennan was the abuses of the exile system, and of making notes to himself to send its negative impact on Siberia, he Iadrintsev information and publica- would have to reform that system. It is tions including the New York Herald , inter esting to note that at least in the The Century , a Canadian paper, and 1880s, Kennan had absorbed the U.S. government publications. 55 Later Russian myth/belief in the basic Kennan reminded himself that innocence of the Tsar, and his willing- Iadrintsev wanted information on ness to corr ect wr ongs, only if he knew American Indian schools, and on about them. “benevolent associations for impr ov- Charles Marvin, a noted English ing the condition of minors in Western expert on Russia, pr ovided an insiders’ America.” 56 view of Kennan’s possible impact. In Once back in the United States, an article, “Tw o Writers on Siberia, the conduit of information continued George Kennan and Henry Lansdell,” as Kennan began to receive his weekly Marvin sought to explain how good copy of V ostochnoe Obozr enie. In turn, and r eliable Kennan’s work and Kennan was sending Iadrintsev the opinions were, and how useless were W eekly New York Tribune to r eplace those of Lansdell’s, who sought to the Daily New York Herald he had been support Tsarist exile policy.60 This sending Iadrintsev. Kennan sent a list stranger to both men, had Russian of papers he wished to r eceive and the court connections. Marvin made it money to pay for them. The connec- clear that Aleksandr II had at least r ead tions wer e not all business, as Kennan Kennan’s works as they were serial- spoke of the memories he and his wife ized in The Century .61 Not only Kennan had of their many good times at the believed that his works could influ- Iadrintsev’s. 57 ence Russian policy. This much better Often, when defending his degree placed Englishman pointed to the new of knowledge of Siberia to the Ameri- Tsar ’s anti-corr uption movements can r eading public, Kennan mentioned since his cor onation. Initially, Marvin that he took and “constantly” r ead four fully expected at least moderate r e- or five Russian periodicals, including forms. 62 V estnik Evr opa , Russia’s national paper, Aleksandr III did r ead Kennan’s and Iadrintsev’s V ostochnoe Obozr enie.58 articles, while a discussion of Iadrintsev’s r ole as a sour ce of infor - Aleksandr ’s attempts at r eform within mation ended only with his death in the system cannot be cover ed here, 1894. Only months before Iadrintsev’s Kennan had already been warned death, Kennan was still counting on about the issue of the r elative cheap- Iadrintsev to help him with his r e- ness of this system, r eason enough not sear ch. Kennan needed some photo- to change. Thus, not unexpectedly, graphs of the Caucasus and was notwithstanding the great expectations certain that Iadrintsev would get them for change, telling the tr uth had its for him. 59 cost, Kennan was banned from Russia Influence of Kennan’s Works. “as long as Dmitrii Tolstoi was Minis- While American attitudes towards ter of the Interior.”63 Siberia and Russian policy ther e wer e Despite of ficial tsarist appr oba- important, Kennan initially hoped to tion, the book and articles did indeed influence the policymaker in Russia, reach a wide audience outside of the the Tsar himself, Aleksandr III. Kennan United States. Siberia and the Exile thought that if Aleksandr III learned of System was almost immediately trans- 11 lated into German in 1890–1891, under her husband was arrested and impris- the title, Sibirien .64 By 1892, the entir e oned for merely possessing two of two volume work had also been Kennan’s articles fr om Century Maga- translated into Dutch, Leven en lijden zine . Two young female school teachers der Ballingen in Siberia .65 The r eal goal, lost their jobs just because they knew however, was to get the work into this couple. 71 Russian, and available in the Russian Conclusions. Empire. Extractions wer e made of his While Kennan’s Siberia and the works and published by the Russian Exile System and his other articles did expatriate community in Geneva. 66 not achieve his goal of r eform fr o m One hundred and sixty pages of Siberia above, the publication of this material and the Exile System wer e translated for vindicated critics of the system. Sibir’ i ssylka, which was published in Kennan never ceased in his criticism of Paris in 1890 by the Paris Social- the Russian government. In fact, his Revolutionary Literary Foundation. disillusionment with the system The book was published in the Russian deepened over the years. Moreover, Empire only after the 1905 Revolu- Kennan maintained friendships with tion. 67 Russians made during his 1885 trip After the articles first appear ed in until his death, including N.M. the United States, mer ely possessing Iadrintsev, Baron Korf, and Prince copies of Kennan’s work could be Kr opotkin. dangerous in Russia. Despite this, Iadrintsev’s death in 1894 cost exiles and others in Siberia sought Kennan a major source of information, copies. Iadrintsev pr ovided that con- and gave Kennan an occasion to reflect duit. Unsurprisingly, Iadrintsev’s on Iadrintsev’s r ole in Russia. In an paper, V ostochnoe Obozr enie, paid obituary Kennan wrote after hearing of attention to Kennan’s work. An associ- Iadrintsev’s death, Kennan stated that ate of Iadrintsev’s who worked with Iadrintsev was “... one of the best V ostochnoe Obozr enie, P. Golovachev, informed men in the world with translated fr om Kennan’s articles in regard to the history, archaeology, and The Century . Exiles throughout Siberia anthr opology of Asiatic Russia.” His sought permission to translate death would be a great loss as his life Kennan’s work. 68 This focus on his was “devoted to service of his native work had a price, and Iadrintsev knew country.”72 While the obituary focused that price well. on Iadrintsev’s anti-exile stand, For example, Mrs. Chudnovsky in Kennan also str essed the importance Irkutsk, with ties to V ostnochnoe and r ole of Iadrintsev’s , Obozrenie, asked to translate Kennan’s V ostochnoe Obozr enie.73 Century articles. Iadrintsev was to pass Death did not end Iadrintsev’s the articles on to her.69 Due to the influence. Kennan did not for get nor danger of possession of such incendi- cease to utilize Iadrintsev’s work. Until ary material, Kennan did not send W orld War I at least, Kennan continued copies dir ectly. The articles wer e to be to seek out Iadrintsev’s writings. 74 cut out of the journal and mailed fr o m Thirty years later in the 1920s, while England to Iadrintsev by a thir d party, making a list of his important friends thus as least of ficially absolving the at the end of his most eventful life, magazine and even Kennan from any only a few Russians were noted, complicity in the dissemination of including N.M. Iadrintsev. Why did radical ideas. 70 In one translators case, Kennan choose to focus on Iadrintsev, 12 and continue to pursue a relationship Iadrintsev’s timely r eturn to Siberia, with him? A number of elements were and finally Iadrintsev’s wife, Adelaide, involved, including the fact that who helped to ease communication in Iadrintsev’s early writings identified the early years after Kennan r eturned him to Kennan as a thoughtful and to the United States. In the final analy- informed person, Iadrintsev’s avail- sis, Iadrintsev and Kennan shar ed a ability in St. Petersbur g in 1885, his love of Siberia and its peoples, a personal willingness to work with scholarly appr oach to issues, and an Kennan at that time and later, intolerance for a waste of peoples’ Iadrintsev’s br oad range of Siberian lives or quality of their lives. connections, V ostochnoe Obozr enie,

13 Endnotes 1. I wish to thank the Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies of the International Center for Scholars for the research fellowship and the librarians and archivists in the Rare Book and Manuscript Room in the Belyi Dom of Irkutsk State University, the State Archives of Irkutsk Oblast, the New York Public Library Slavic Division and Rare Books and Manuscripts Divi- sion, and the Library of Congress Manuscript Division, who made the preparation of this paper possible. When necessary, both old style and new style dates are presented. 2. Frederich F. Travis’ George Kennan and the American-Russian Relationships 1865– 1924 (Athens, Ohio, 1990) filled a gap by providing a study of Kennan’s all- important impact. Of necessity, given its scope, limited space was expended on the Siberians, and Iadrintsev, who was only mentioned twice. Only recently did the Russians begin to study Kennan’s role in their history. Efim Iosifovich Melamed’s, Dzhordzh Kennan protiv tsarizma (Moscow, 1981), and his Russkie universitety Dzhordzha Kennana (Irkutsk, 1988), opened a new world of scholarship. See Melamed, “Sybir i zsylka Geogre’a Kennana-Drodlowe podstawy dziela,” Przeglad Wschodni 2 (1991): 423–8, and M.D. Karpachev and T.V. Logunova, “Amerikanskii publitsist Dzhordzh Kennan o revoliutsionnom dvizhenii v Rossii,” Istoriia SSSR 5 (1988): 189–199, for a recent discussion of the good quality of Kennan’s work and its importance both then and now. 3. His notebooks from that trip showcase the young Kennan’s acuity and talent. Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, George Kennan Papers 19. (Hereafter LCMD, GKP). 4. (New York and London, 1871). Due in no small part to his high profile follow- ing of the Russo-Japanese War, Kennan’s first book on Siberia was reprinted in a revised version in 1910. A new printing with an introduction by Larry McMurtry (Salt Lake City, Utah, 1986) proved very popular to a new reading public a cen- tury later. Translations of the entire book and excerpts were made throughout the nineteenth century and into the twentieth century. See Efim Iosifovich Melamed, “George Kennan (The Elder) in the Russian Press, 1871–1991. Annotated biblio- graphical index in the Russian Language” (Washington, D.C., Kennan Institute Occasional Papers, 1993), for periodical and book translations. 5. Other books include his Campaigning in Cuba (New York, 1899) and E.H. Harriman: A Biography , 2 vols. (Freeport, New York, 1922). 6. Publishers certainly understood his value. For example, he was much sought after by William R. Hearst to follow the Chinese political situation in the 1890s. LCMD, GKP 2, Folder 1891, Telegram from Hearst to Kennan. 7. According to the Advertising Department of The Outlook the announcement that Kennan would cover the Spanish American War in Cuba added 3,852 new subscribers—in one week. New York Public Library, Rare Book and Manuscript Room, George Kennan Papers 1, Folder 1881–1896, Letter 18 May 1898, p. 1. (Hereafter NYPL, RB&M, GKP). 8. See Norman E. Saul, Concord and Conflict. The United States and Russia, 1867– 1914 (Lawrence, Kansas, 1996), for the most thorough analysis of this complicated relationship. Also see, Norman E. Saul, Distant Friends. The United States and Russia, 1763–1867 (Lawrence, Kansas, 1991). 14 9. William Jackson Armstrong, Siberia and the Nihilists. Why Kennan Went to Siberia (Oakland, California, 1890), 16, 39–40. 10. ibid., p. 95. 11. “Siberia-the Exiles’ Abode,” No. 1 (New York, 1882): 13–68. 12. ibid., pp. 34–5, 59. It is still uncertain what Kennan had actually read of Iadrintsev’s at this point. Kennan clearly had not yet read Iadrintsev’s book on exile. 13. Others had already written on the Siberian exile system by 1885. James W. Buel of St. Louis published Russian Nihilism and Exile Life in Siberia in 1884. While it was the first book published outside of Russia to expose the treatment of Rus- sian prisoners, it would not have the impact that Kennan’s work would have, as the author did not command the respect that Kennan did. 14. LCMD, GKP 6, Folder 1885–86, Letters and documents. Kennan was offered the chance to travel with the American officer being sent to thank the Russians for their kind treatment of the survivors of the “Jeanette” expedition. He respectfully declined to avoid any designation as an American official. 15. LCMD, GKP 6, Folder 1885, Document, “The Century Company and George Kennan Agreement. 1 May 1885.” Signed by Roswell Smith, President, and George Kennan. 16. LCMD, GKP 6, Folder 1885, Onionskin copy of Letter from GK in St. Peters- burg to Roswell Smith, 18/30 May, 1885; copies of the documents themselves from the Ministry of the Interior and from the Tsar, Aleksandr III, are in NYPL, RB&M, GKP 1, Folder 4, #3252. 17. LCMD, GKP 6, Folder 1885, Letter from GK to Smith, St. Petersburg, 18/30 May 1885, 4–5. 18. The bulk of Iadrintsev’s papers can be found in Irkutsk, in the GAIO, F. 295, N.M. Iadritsev, F. 593 Vostochnoe Obozrenie , and in the archives of the Eastern Siberian Branch of the Russian Geographic Society, AVSoRGO. 19. His Sibir’ kak koloniia was first published in 1882, and was difficult to find in the bookstores in St. Petersburg in 1884 according to Kennan. It became partially available to western audiences when a version was translated by E.J. Petri as Sibirien. Geographische, ethnographische und historische Studien von N. Jadrinzew (Jena, 1886). 20. LCMD, GKP 15, Letter from GK to Emeline Kennan, 29 August 1884, p. 2. 21. Letter to the Editor, Chronicle , as reprinted in Armstrong, Siberia and the Nihilists , p. 98. 22. ibid., p. 98. 23. LCMD, GKP 19, Notebook No. 1 America to Volga River 1885–86, pp. 5–6. 24. ibid., p. 7. Kennan noted that while the other scientists and explorers he met made a number of suggestions, “Mr. Yadrintsef in particular took the most active interest in my plans.” 25. LCMD, GKP 1, seven unsigned sheets in Russian, in Iadrintsev’s distinctive handwriting. Tied in a bundle with other letters from Kennan’s first stay in St. Petersburg. 26. When Volkhovsky escaped from Siberia in 1889–90, he “went to Kennan” first 15 before settling in England. 27. LCMD, GKP 1, Postcards, 9 June–13 November 1885. 28. LCMD, GKP 19, Notebook No. 1, America to Volga River 1885–86, p. 14. 29. LCMD, GKP 15, Letter from GK to Emeline Kennan, Tomsk, 3/15 February 1886. 30. Kennan was very circumspect in his notebooks about Frost’s state of mind. He noted “Frost’s hallucination” and his “nervous tension” while traveling in the Transbaikal in the fall of 1885. LCMD, GKP 6, Notebook No. 14, Stretinsk to Nertchinsk Mines and Chita, p. 121, Box 20, No. 16/No. 17. On the back cover Kennan noted that Frost thought everyone was a spy. 31. LCMD, GKP 20, Notebook No. 21, p. 19. 32. Peter Kropotkin, Memoirs of a Revolutionist , ed. James Allen Rogers, (New York, 1962): 143–4. 33. LCMD, GKP 1, Folder 1885–86. Letters from family and Henry Smith of the Associated Press. Kennan had been quite ill upon his return from the exhausting Siberian trip. 34. LCMD, GKP 20, Notebook No. 23, p. 24–5. It must be noted here that Kennan carefully separated the list from any reference to Iadrintsev’s party. 35. LCMD, GKP 20, Notebook No. 21, pp. 19, 27–9. 36. LCMD, GKP 1, Letter, 10 May 1886. 37. “The Last Appeal of the Russian Liberals,” Century Magazine, xxxv, 7 (Novem- ber 1887), pp. 50–51. 38. See volumes 35 (1887) through 40 (1890) for articles on prison life, exile life, the head of the Buddhist church in Siberia, and Russian censorship. 39. Kennan self-censored his works in order to protect the identities of those who remained, or even those who had already left the Russian Empire and who might be in danger if their name or the full story of the circumstances of their escapes were public knowledge. Peter Kropotkin’s story of escape was only published some years later by Kennan, with Kropotkin’s full knowledge and support. 40. (New York). An abridged one volume version with an introduction by George Frost Kennan was published by the University of Chicago in 1958. 41. LCMD, GKP 1, Letter from Smith to GK, 30 June 1888. 42. LCMD, GKP 1, Letter from GK to F.V. Volkhovsky, 17 March 1889, p. 3–7. 43. NYPL, RB&M, GKP 5, “List of Talks,” D. 44. LCMD, GKP 6, Folder 1890–99, Letter 18 February 1892, p. 6. For example, George Kennan wrote a thirteen page defense of his actions to the editor of The Nation . The fact that he never sent the rebuttal was consistent with his anger and disgust at having to defend himself, and the desire not to get caught up in time consuming replies to every accusation. 45. LCMD, GKP 20, Notebook No. 21, p. 8 in the back of the journal. For fear of the Tsarist authorities, Kennan scattered information and notes to himself throughout oddly paginated journals, to seek information from Iadrintsev. 46. LCMD, GKP 20, Notebook No. 14, p. 131; Notebook No. 21, pp. 8 and 6; and Notebook No. 23, pp. 4–3. These are only examples. The odd numbering is correct.

16 Kennan wrote from the front and back of his notebooks in order to protect his sources if his books were viewed by Tsarist agents. 47. LCMD, GKP 20, pp. 95–192. 48. ibid., p. 131. 49. LCMD, GKP 6, Folder 1885, Letter from GK to Mr. Drake (Century Co.), Moscow, 2 June 1885, pp. 2–3. 50. New York Public Library, Slavic Division. This rare book had been “lost” for some decades. According to his notes to himself in the Spring of 1886 when he returned to Russia, he was having a copy of this book and Iadrintsev’s Literaturnyi Sbornik bound. LCMD, GKP 20, Notebook o. 23, pp. 17–16. 51. ibid., pp. Ch. I, II, III, V, VI, and VII passim, 326. 52. v. ii, pp. 465–7. 53. ibid. v. I, pp. 266 and 333, and v. ii, pp. 260, 461, 466–7. 54. LCMD, GKP. Letters to and from Volkhovsky scattered throughout the papers reflect the close friendship that lasted until Volkhovsky’s death. Not only did they discuss politics, but they also kept up with family matters. Kennan even provided money to help Volkhovsky’s daughter leave Siberia. See especially Box 1 and Box 2. 55. LCMD, GKP 19, Notebook No. 1, p. 100. 56. LCMD, GKP 20, Notebook No. 21, p. 354. 57. LCMD, GKP 10, Letter from GK to Mrs. Yadrintsev, 12 March 1887. 58. “The Latest Siberian Tragedy,” Century Magazine, (April 1890): 889. 59. LCMD, GKP 6, Folder 1890–99, Typed copy of Kennan letter, 26 August 1893 to Mr. Hourwich. 60. Henry Lansdell, Through Siberia , 2 vols. second ed. (London, 1882). The En- glishman, Lansdell, whom Iadrintsev described as a tourist, did not have much knowledge of Russia, nor did he take a scholar’s approach to the study of Russian culture and politics. 61. NYPL, RB&M, GKP 5, Marvin Folder, p. 2. 62. ibid., pp. 25–26. 63. LCMD, GKP 1, Letter GK to Volkhovsky, 17 March 1889, p. 2. 64. 2 vols. (Otto Hendel). See also, Siberien (Berlin, 1890), 218 pages. 65. (Haarlem). 66. See “Les Prisoners d’etat. Russkie Gosudarstvennye prestupniki” (Geneva: M.K. Elpidin, 1891), 40 pages; or “Golos za russkii narod: otviet na Golos za Rosiiu” (Geneva: M.K. Elpidin, 1896), 35 pgs. 67. Sibir’ i ssylka, (St. Petersburg, 1906). 68. For example, Nikolai Baronoff in Vladivostok wrote Kennan on 6 October 1889, to say that a number of exiles in town wished to translate his work in order to disseminate it throughout Siberia. NYPL, RB&M, GKP 1, Folder 3, p. 1. 69. NYPL, RB&M, GKP 1, Letter from Irkutsk. L. Choondovsky [ sic] to GK in England, 3/15 March 1889, p. 1 ob. 70. LCMD, GKP 1, Letter from Roswell Smith to GK, 28 May 1888.

17 71. NYPL, RB&M, GKP 1, Folder 3, 3 December [1889]. Letter to GK in English, pp. 5 and 9. 72. LCMD, GKP 11, “Obituary. Nikolia M. Yadrintsef.” p. 1. 73. ibid., p. 2 74. LCMD, GKP 95, 112, “Books to get—Siberia” 15 December 1900, “Notes” 6 December 1912.

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