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n h 0 s a t i t o r c n . a 1 a i o l y - n r 3 g Middle Eastern Outlook - 2- Iran’s strategy, however, is broader than Western poli - ment and the African Union. Second, beyond the diplo - cymakers’ focus on its nuclear program and its activities matic quid pro quo, Iranian officials appear to be priori - in the Middle East or perhaps Latin America. American tizing outreach to those African countries that are strategists might describe Iran as a “regional power,” but mining or prospecting for uranium. Lastly, senior Iranian in recent years, Iranian officials have described the officials have sought to cement partnerships that they Islamic Republic as an “extra-regional power.” 3 They could leverage into gaining access to strategic bases. see Iran as a pivotal state able to exert its influence not only in the Middle East, but also in South Asia, and not The Quest for Diplomatic Support only in the Persian Gulf, but also in the Indian Ocean. Tehran’s diplomatic ambitions, however, may be consid - Both the UN Security Council and IAEA normally have erably broader: Iran increasingly appears to be looking African representation. Togo and Rwanda currently serve at Africa as fertile ground for expanding its influence. as nonpermanent members of the UN Security Council Iranian outreach takes many guises and is geared toward (between 2010 and 2011, Gabon and Nigeria served in specific purposes, some diplomatic and others military. this position). South Africa held a security council seat between 2007 and 2008 and again between 2010 and 2011, with Uganda serving in the interim. Nigeria, South In comparison to recent American presidents Africa, and Tanzania also currently serve on the IAEA who made three multicountry African visits Board of Governors, and in recent years, Niger and Kenya have also served there. The countries listed largely coin - between 2003 and 2012, the Iranian president cide with the emphasis of Iran’s Africa outreach. travels to Africa at least annually, while other Iranian diplomats have long sought to cultivate ties Iranian ministers visit even more frequently. with South Africa. The Islamic Republic’s opposition to Apartheid set the foundation for warm ties after the restoration of diplomatic relations in 1994. Iranian sup - With successive US administrations and European ply of oil to South Africa has heightened economic rela - governments effectively ignoring Africa, Tehran sees tions. For Tehran, however, trade is not the only factor many of Africa’s 54 countries as diplomatic easy picking in Iran’s desire to have good relations with South Africa. in a zero-sum game for influence. In comparison to “South Africa is a key member of the Non-Aligned recent American presidents who made three multicoun - Movement, a bloc of developing countries that has try African visits between 2003 and 2012, the Iranian resisted the efforts to force Tehran to halt uranium president travels to Africa at least annually, while other enrichment,” a commentary in the official Tehran Times Iranian ministers visit even more frequently. 4 explained. 7 In his latest tour of Africa in January 2013, Iranian Iran’s attempts to leverage its relationship with South Foreign Minister Ali Akbar Salehi visited Benin, Africa into support on the UN Security Council and the Ghana, and Burkina Faso before ending his tour in IAEA Board of Governors paid dividends. 8 Despite the Ethiopia, where he attended the annual African Union February 2008 IAEA report that found that the Islamic summit. Speaking in Ghana on January 7, 2013, he Republic continued to enrich uranium in violation of its declared Africa to be an Iranian priority. 5 Salehi’s safeguards agreement and two security council resolu - rhetoric is not empty; his tour tops off a concerted five- tions, the South African government used its position year Iranian push. 6 on the security council to oppose further sanctions Over this time, the Iranian diplomatic strategy against Iran. 9 toward Africa has been threefold. First, with additional Whether South African advocacy for Iran is sincere aid, Tehran has cultivated relationships with countries or cynical, the African state reaps benefits. While the voting in important international bodies, such as international community sought to constrain Iranian nonpermanent members of the United Nations (UN) sales and thereby the Islamic Republic’s income, South Security Council or term members serving on the Inter - Africa refused to cooperate. In 2010, Iranian crude oil national Atomic Energy Agency’s (IAEA) Board of accounted for 25 percent of South Africa’s petroleum, Governors. Additional targets for Iranian largesse have much of it at discounted prices. 10 Most recently, South been African states active in the Non-Aligned Move - Africa threw a last-minute wrench into an IAEA resolu - - 3- tion criticizing Iran’s failure to comply with security where he signed a host of agreements to expand and council resolutions. 11 South African authorities have facilitate business. 19 Early the next year, Gabonese been helpful to the Islamic Republic in other ways: the President Ali Ben Bongo Ondimba met Mottaki on the US Department of the Treasury has accused South sidelines of the African Union conference. Mottaki reit - Africa’s cell phone company MTN of helping Iran skirt erated Iran’s desire to expand political and economic ties prohibitions on imports of US technology. 12 with Gabon. 20 Two months later, Gabon used its seat on the security council to support Iran’s nuclear program. 21 Nigeria’s role in both the security council and at the In 2010, Iranian crude oil accounted for IAEA translated into sustained Iranian outreach. Nigeria 25 percent of South Africa’s petroleum, may be oil-rich, but with a dysfunctional economy leav - much of it at discounted prices. ing most Nigerians impoverished, the country welcomed any foreign investment to create jobs. Instead of supply - ing oil—Iran’s strategy of first resort to countries whose South Africa is not alone. After Togo announced its support Tehran wants—Tehran offered to manufacture intention to seek a UN Security Council seat, Tehran’s Iranian automobiles in Nigeria, providing poorer Nigeri - outreach to the tiny West African nation increased. ans with assembly-line jobs and perhaps giving Iranian In September 2010, Iranian President Mahmoud agents cover to operate in the region. 22 Iranian engi - Ahmadinejad met Togolese Foreign Minister Elliott neers also helped Nigeria bolster its own production, Ohin. “An extensive and profound cooperation between lending Iranian engineering expertise to Nigerian efforts Iran and Africa will go a long way to modify interna - to explore offshore gas fields. 23 During a subsequent visit tional relations and regional balance,” Ahmadinejad to Nigeria, Salehi sweetened the commercial pot further declared. 13 with promises of preferential tariff reductions and bol - Then-Iranian foreign minister Manouchehr Mottaki stered trade. 24 reciprocated the visit the following month. 14 Fourteen The Iranian government did not hesitate to leverage months later, in January 2012, Mottaki’s successor Ali its investment in Nigeria. 25 As with Togo and Gabon, Akbar Salehi met Ohin at the 18th African Union sum - however, there also appears to have been a more nefari - mit and promised that the Islamic Republic would help ous side to Iran’s presence. The seizure of crates of develop Togo. 15 Indeed, after successive visits by both weaponry at the Port of Lagos in 2010 exposed Iran’s then-US secretary of state Hillary Clinton and her Iran - strategy to leverage its African partners for strategic ian counterpart, the Togolese opposition was quite open objectives. 26 Summoned by the Nigerian foreign minis - about how the two powers sought to court countries ter after Nigerian customs seized the arms shipment, the often ignored by larger powers. It emphasized the appeal Iranian ambassador explained that the arms were des - of the Iranian approach, if for no other reason than that tined for Gambia as part of an earlier agreement. When it caused larger countries to no longer take Togo for the Nigerian government asked why, then, the Iranians granted. 16 had labeled the sealed containers as building material, Once again, however, strings appear to have been the Iranian ambassador shrugged off the question and attached to Iranian assistance. When Yemeni authorities instead blamed the private shipping company. 27 That accused Iran of supporting the Houthis (the Shiite same year the US Department of the Treasury issued an minority fighting an antigovernment insurgency in advisory regarding the tendency of the Islamic Republic northern Yemen), the Iranians denied responsibility. The of Iran Shipping Lines—already subject to sanctions—to ship intercepted with weaponry was actually Togolese, use fraudulent documents in its operations. 28 Iranian authorities explained. 17 The same pattern held true with Gabon. Shortly The Quest for Uranium before Gabon ascended to the security council, the country became the subject of intense Iranian courtship. Another factor behind Iran’s nuclear drive may be its In May 2009, the Gabonese culture minister visited developing nuclear program. The Iranian leadership has Tehran carrying a veritable wish list of projects for said it seeks up to 16 nuclear reactors for civilian energy Iran to subsidize or provide. 18 Later that month, then- purposes. 29 Should Iran build such a network, it will Gabonese foreign minister Paul Toungui visited Tehran, deplete its limited indigenous uranium supply within 10 - 4- years. 30 Regardless of Iran’s nuclear motivation, two President Yahya Jammeh announced the discovery of things are clear: Iran has at present no intention of uranium. 35 While Ahmadinejad had visited Banjul in abandoning its nuclear drive, and it will also never have 2006 for an African Union summit, he returned in the true energy security. Its quest to find alternative sources year following the announcement for further discussions of uranium may also bring Iran back to Africa. with Jammeh. 36 Uganda announced its uranium discovery in 2004. While commercial relations between Iran and Uganda remained dormant under the presidencies of Ali Akbar Recent Iranian outreach to Gambia, Malawi, Hashemi Rafsanjani (1989–97) and Mohammad Namibia, and Uganda coincides with the Khatami (1997–2005), this changed in subsequent years. discovery of uranium in those countries. Visiting Tehran in 2009, Uganda President Yoweri Museveni met not only with his counterpart, but also with Iran’s minister of mining. The Kampala-based Daily A number of African states mine uranium: Nambia Monitor reported “strong indication that the two leaders and Niger are major uranium exporters. Malawi and discussed prospects of exploiting Uganda’s uranium Gabon operate uranium mines. South Africa produces resources, which Mr. Museveni has often said would only some uranium as a byproduct of gold mining, and be used for the generation of energy.” 37 prospecting continues across the continent. Uranium deposits exist in Togo, Guinea, the Central African The Quest for a Base Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, and Zimbabwe. 31 Iran seeks to cultivate ties A third goal for Iranian outreach to Africa may be a with many of these states. quest to establish Iran’s own “string of pearls”—that is, if Hence, in April 2010, Centrafrique-Presse Online, a not de facto bases that could provide Iran logistical sup - Central African Republic website affiliated with Ange- port and allow it to extend its naval reach, then pivotal Félix Patassé, that country’s ousted president, suggested states upon which it could rely to advance strategic and that then-foreign minister Antoine Gambi had traveled ideological objectives (the role that Venezuela plays for to Tehran to negotiate the Iranian purchase of Central Iran in South America). African yellowcake. While Patassé has motivation to Initially, Iranian authorities cultivated a relationship cast suspicion on the man who ousted him in a coup, his with Senegal. There is no indication that the two states speculation that there could be “a Bangui-Caracas- ever openly discussed formal bases, but the Islamic Tehran-Pyongyang axis trafficking in uranium” in the Republic did develop closer relations with Senegal than making might raise anxiety. 32 it did with other African states. Abdoulaye Wade, presi - In theory, while international controls prevent dent of Senegal between 2000 and 2012, met repeatedly African states from exporting uranium absent trans - not only with Ahmadinejad but also Supreme Leader parency, the reality is that poor infrastructure and cor - Ali Khamenei. 38 The Senegalese foreign and defense ruption can enable illicit trade. In 2007, for example, ministers also visited their Iranian counterparts. 39 Congolese authorities arrested Fortunat Lumu, director Senior Iranian officials have reciprocated the visits. 40 of the Atomic Energy Center, in an investigation The Senegalese leadership seemed interested in reap - involving missing uranium. 33 ing the benefits from its Iranian courtship. “Energy, Oil While visits by Iranian officials to the West African Prospecting, Industry: Senegal Benefits from Iranian country of Guinea were relatively scarce a decade ago, Solutions,” the official government newspaper declared Tehran has taken more interest in Conakry since the after Wade’s first visit to Tehran. 41 After the reciprocal discovery of commercially viable uranium deposits in Iranian visit, Wade announced that Iran would build an 2007. In 2010, Mottaki announced a 140 percent oil refinery, chemical plant, and an $80 million car- increase in Iran-Guinea trade, for which the mining assembly plant in the West Africa nation. 42 Within sector accounted for the greatest proportion. 34 Recent weeks, Samuel Sarr, Senegal’s energy minister, visited Iranian outreach to Gambia, Malawi, Namibia, and Tehran and returned with a pledge that Iran would sup - Uganda also coincides with the discovery of uranium in ply Senegal with oil for a year and purchase a 34 percent those countries. In January 2008, for example, Gambian stake in Senegal’s oil refinery. 43 Such aid may not have - 5- come without strings attached. On November 25, 2007, Indeed, as the Syrian regime—since 1979 Iran’s only during the third meeting of the Iran-Senegal joint eco - loyal ally—has teetered, Iranian authorities have nomic commission, Wade endorsed Iran’s nuclear pro - increased military cooperation with Sudan. Twice in late gram. 44 Wade’s visit to Iran the following year provided 2012, Iranian naval ships docked at Port Sudan on the a backdrop for Khamenei to declare that developing Red Sea. 57 While Sudanese officials have denied any unity between Islamic countries like Senegal and Iran military alliance between Tehran and Khartoum, there is can weaken “the great powers” like the United States. 45 widespread speculation that Israel might have conducted On January 27, 2008, a week after then-Senegalese an airstrike on Sudan, targeting Iranian arms. 58 foreign minister Cheikh Tidiane Gadio announced Iranian officials have denied rumors that the Islamic that he too would visit Tehran, then-defense minister Republic has also established bases in the littoral Red Bécaye Diop met with his Iranian counterpart to discuss Sea nation of Eritrea, a country that has both endorsed expanding bilateral defense ties between the two Iran’s nuclear program and also suffered increasingly states. 46 While Iranian Navy Chief Habibollah Sayyari strained ties with the West because of its increasingly is prone to hyperbole, Senegal could have brought to dismal human rights record. 59 (Eritrea is the only coun - reality—at least symbolically—his pledge to have Iran try to rank below North Korea in press freedom, accord - establish a presence in the Atlantic. 47 ing to Reporters Without Borders.) 60 Iran explains its Bilateral relations suffered a significant setback in presence in regional waters as part of its own antipiracy 2011, however, when Senegalese authorities accused operations, although Iranian officials tend to exaggerate Iran of smuggling arms to rebels in Senegal’s restive their own operations. 61 Casamance region. 48 If the Senegalese allegations were true—Iran hotly denied them and accused foreign intel - Conclusion ligence of fabricating evidence—then they might have reflected lack of coordination among various Iranian While supposition is not proof of Iranian aims, there security elements. 49 The Iranian ministry of intelligence, does appear to be determined Iranian outreach to Africa. Quds Force, and the foreign ministry have, on occasion, At best, Tehran appears to be leveraging aid and soft run foreign operations at odds with each other and power in exchange for diplomatic favors; at worst, some broader Iranian policy. 50 Regardless, the break in rela - individuals in the Islamic Republic appear to be using tions was only temporary. On February 7, 2013, Tehran Africa as cover for other military or nuclear objectives. and Dakar restored bilateral ties, although whether Either way, the Iranian government has shown that its Senegal will pursue as effusive an embrace of Iran under self-description as an “extra-regional” power is no longer Wade’s successor Macky Sall is far from clear. 51 rhetorical exaggeration, but will instead increasingly While its relations with Senegal were in stasis, Iran’s challenge US aims across Africa. courtship of Sudan reached new levels. The Islamic Republic is willing to embrace any African state Notes estranged from the West. In the past, this was the basis for ties between Iran and Robert Mugabe’s Zimbabwe 1. Hisham Melhem, “Obama Speaks to the Muslim World,” (which in recent years has also become a uranium pro - Washington Post , January 28, 2009. ducer). 52 Iranian officials apparently have also found 2. Adrian Croft and Myra MacDonald, “Biden Raises Possibility Sudan ripe for picking. 53 of Direct U.S.-Iran Talks,” Reuters, February 3, 2013. European governments and the United States have 3. See, for example, “Tahdid, Tahrim, va Teror, Khalali dar sought to isolate Sudan because of its role in Darfur ‘Dafa’e Muqadas Hastehha-ye’ Ijad Namikonad” [Threats, Sanc - Genocide; on March 4, 2009, the International Criminal tions, and Assassinations Won’t Interfere in ‘Core Sacred Court issued an indictment of Sudanese President Omar Defense’], Fars News.com (Tehran), January 11, 2012, al-Bashir. 54 As the international community tightened www.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=13901021001600. sanctions on Khartoum, Ahmadinejad moved to 4. Office of the Historian, US Department of State, “Travels embrace Bashir, visiting the country before and after of President Barack Obama,” http://history.state.gov/department Bashir’s indictment. 55 Iran’s defense minister visited history/travels/president/obama-barack; and Office of the Histo - Khartoum and called the African state “the cornerstone” rian, US Department of State, “Travels of President George W. of the Islamic Republic’s Africa policies. 56 Bush,” http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/travels/ - 6- president/bush-george-w. Former secretaries of state Colin Powell, www.republicoftogo.com/Toutes-les-rubriques/Diplomatie Condoleezza Rice, and Hillary Clinton each made four trips to /Manouchehr-Mottaki-a-Lome. Africa during their respective four-year tenures. See Office of the 15. “Tawse’ah va Gosteresh-e Ravabat Do Keshvar Mavarad Historian, US Department of State, “Travels of the Secretary,” Takid Qarar Gereft” [Development of Bilateral Relations http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/travels/secretary. Emphasized], Islamic Republic News Agency (Tehran), Janu- 5. “FM: Iran Resolved to Expand Ties with Africa,” Fars News ary 30, 2012. Agency (Tehran), January 7, 2013, http://english.farsnews.com 16. “Visite Éclaire de la Secrétaire d’Etat Hillary Clinton au /newstext.php?nn=9107133637. Togo: Après les Questions de Trafic de Drogue, de Blanchiment 6. “FM: 2008 a Milestone in Iran-Africa Ties,” Fars News d’Argent et de Terrorisme International, le Cœur de Faure Gnass - Agency (Tehran), January 30, 2008, http://english.farsnews.com ingbé Balance Entre l’Iran et les Usa pour les Armes Nucléaires et /newstext.php?nn=8611100422; “Beh Zudi Ijlas Iran va Afriqa la Piraterie Maritime,” [The Visit of Secretary of State Hillary dar Tehran Bargazar Mishavad” [Tehran Will Soon Host Iran- Clinton to Togo Clarifies: After Question of Drug Trafficking, Africa Summit], Mehr News (Tehran), February 1, 2008, Money Laundering, and International Terrorism, the Heart of www.mehrnews.com/fa/newsdetail.aspx?NewsID=631047. Faure Gnassingbe is the Balance between Iran and the US over 7. “Pretoria’s Pro-Iran Stance Can Boost Progress in Global Nuclear Arms and Maritime Piracy], Le Triangle des Enjeux South,” Tehran Times , February 7, 2008. (Lomé), January 18, 2012. 8. “SA Commends Iran’s Stance on Nuclear Program,” 17. “Envoy: West's Deceptive Reports ‘Source of Yemen’s Islamic Republic News Agency (Tehran), September 14, 2007. Baseless Claims against Iran,’” Fars News Agency (Tehran), 9. International Atomic Energy Agency Board of Governors, January 7, 2013, http://english.farsnews.com/newstext.php? Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement and Relevant nn=9107133761. Provisions of Security Council Resolutions 1737 (2006) and 1747 18. “Gabon Minister: Iran Source of Honor for Africans,” Fars (2007) in the Islamic Republic of Iran: Report by the Director General News Agency (Tehran), May 4, 2009, http://english.farsnews.com (February 25, 2008), www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Board /newstext.php?nn=8802140871. /2011/gov2011-7.pdf; and “Security Council Edges Towards 19. “Minister Welcomes Presence of Iranian Private Sector Adoption of Iran Sanctions,” The Citizen (Johannesburg), in Gabon,” Fars News Agency (Tehran), May 26, 2009, February 29, 2008. http://english.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=8803051500. 10. “Tamim 25 dar sad Niaz Naft Afirqaye Jonubi Towsat 20. “Gabonese President Terms Relations with Iran Impor - Iran” [25 Percent of South Africa’s Oil Needs Supplied by tant,” Fars News Agency (Tehran), February 1, 2010, http:// Iran], Abrar (Tehran), January 27, 2010. www.abrarnews.com english.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=8811121230. /economic /1388/881107/html/energy.htm; and “Afzayesh 21. “Iran Renews Calls for N. Disarmament,” Fars News Cheshemgir Vardat Naft-e Kham Afriqaye Jonubi va Iran” [The Agency (Tehran), April 3, 2010, http://english.farsnews.com Dramatic Rise in South Africa’s Crude Oil Imports from Iran], /newstext.php?nn=8901140743. Fars News Agency (Tehran), April 2, 2012, www.farsnews.com 22. “Iran dar Nijeria Khodro Misazad” [Iran to Build Cars in /newstext.php?nn=13910114000938 . Nigeria], Alef (Tehran), October 31, 2010, http://alef.ir/vdceff8v 11. Fredrik Dahl, “South Africa Throws UN Nuclear Meeting .jh8nvi9bbj.html?85787. on Iran into Disarray,” Reuters, September 13, 2012. 23. “Hamkari Gazi 156 milliyon dollari Iran va Nijeria” 12. Steve Stecklow, “Special Report: Documents Detail [$156 Million Gas Cooperation between Iran and Nigeria], How MTN Funneled U.S. Technology to Iran,” Reuters, August Donya-ye Eghtesad (Tehran), August 14, 2008, www.donya-e- 30, 2012; and “MTN ‘Panicking’ over US Treasury Sanctions,” eqtesad.com/Default_view.asp?@=116779; and “Dar Ijlas Nijeria City Press (Johannesburg), November 10, 2012, www.citypress Ara’i Shod Pishnahadha-ye Ahmadinejad beh Dey 8” .co.za/business/mtn-panicking-over-us-treasury-sanctions- [Ahmadinejad Presents Offer to Developing Eight Countries in 20121110/. Nigeria Meeting], Donya-ye Eghtesad (Tehran), July 11, 2010, 13. “L’Iran, ‘Partenaire Stratégique’ de l’Afrique” [Iran www.donya-e-eqtesad.com/Default_view.asp?@=214445. ‘Strategic Partner’ of Africa], RepublicofTogo.com (Lomé), 24. “Iran, Nigeria Plan to Exchange Experience in Different September 14, 2010, www.republicoftogo.com/Toutes-les- Arenas,” Fars News Agency (Tehran), July 14, 2011, http:// rubriques/Diplomatie/L-Iran-partenaire-strategique-de-l- english.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=9004230335. Afrique. 25. “Salehi: D8 Seeking to Promote Trade among Muslim 14. “Manouchehr Mottaki à Lomé” [Manouchehr Mottaki to Nations,” Islamic Republic News Agency (Tehran), July 13, Lomé], RepublicofTogo.com (Lomé), October 30, 2010, 2011; and “Tehran and Abuja Emphasize Need For Upgrading - 7-

Cooperation Level,” Islamic Republic News Agency (Tehran), Online (Paris), April 19, 2010, http://centrafrique-presse.over- July 13, 2011. blog.com/article-l-uranium-centrafricain-conduit-bozize-a-vouloir- 26. Detail about the Nigeria weapons seizure is available at jouer-dans-la-cour-des-grands-48866866.html. Maseh Zarif, “Qods Force Operation in Africa,” AEI Iran Tracker, 33. Walter Zinnen, “Waar gaat het Congolese Uranium March 7, 2011, www.irantracker.org/military-activities/qods Heen?” [Where Does the Congolese Uranium Go?], De Standaad -force-operation-africa. (Brussels), August 7, 2009, www.standaard.be/artikel/detail.aspx 27. “Safir Iran dar Nigeria: Gambia Moghasad Tasalihat ?artikelid=4A2DHA72. Zabet Shodeh Nijeria Bud” [Iranian Ambassador in Nigeria: 34. “Iran-Guinea Trade Exchanges Up By 140%,” Fars News Arms Seized in Nigeria were Destined for Gambia], Donya-ye Agency (Tehran), May 1, 2010, http://english.farsnews.com Eghtesad (Tehran), February 10, 2011, www.donya-e- /newstext.php?nn=8902111538. eqtesad.com/Default_view.asp?@=243016. 35. “President’s Ashura Surprise to the Nation,” Daily 28. “Nonproliferation and Weapons of Mass Destruction Observer (Banjul), January 21, 2008, http://observer.gm/africa Advisory: Presentation of Fraudulent Shipping Documents,” /gambia/banjul/article/2008/1/21/we-have-minerals. US Department of the Treasury, March 31, 2011, www.treasury 36. “President Ahmadinejad Visits Gambia Banjul-Tehran .gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/pages Ties Strengthened,” Daily Observer (Banjul), November 23, /20110331_33.aspx; and “Major Iranian Shipping Company 2009, http://observer.gm/africa/gambia/article/president- Designated for Proliferation Activity,” US Department of the ahmadinejad-visits-gambia-banjul-tehran-ties-strengthened. Treasury, September 10, 2008, www.treasury.gov/press-center 37. Emmanuel Gyezaho, “Museveni, Iran Leader Hold Talks,” /press-releases/Pages/hp1130.aspx. Daily Monitor (Kampala), May 18, 2009, http://web.archive.org 29. “Iran Planning to Build More N. Power Plants,” Fars /web/20090521131952/http://www.monitor.co.ug/artman News Agency (Tehran), November 14, 2011, http://english. /publish/news/Museveni_Iran_leader_hold_talks_85022 farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=9007160844; and “Qarardad .shtml. Makanyaye Nirugahha-ye Hastehaye Iran” [Agreement for the 38. “Communiqué Conjoint de la Visite Officielle de Son Placement of Iranian Nuclear Power Plants], Tabnak.ir (Tehran), Excellence Me Abdoulaye Wade, Président de la République du August 20, 2010, www.tabnak.ir/pages/?cid=15916; and “Iran Sénégal en République Islamique d’Iran : Du 26 au 28 Juin 2006 Finds New Uranium Reserves,” Kayhan International (Tehran), (du 5 au 7 Tir 1385 de l’Hégire Solaire),” Le Soleil (Dakar), June February 24, 2013, www.kayhanintl.com/feb24/index.htm. 29, 2006, http://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200606290749.html; and 30. Pacific Northwest Center for Global Security, “Alterna - “Leader Urges Muslim Unity Against Israel,” Press TV (Tehran), tive Energy Economics for Iran: Options, Definitions and Evalua - May 16, 2010, www.presstv.ir/detail/126703.html. tion,” in Uranium 2003 Resources, Production and Demand 39. “Senegalese DM Meets Iranian Counterpart,” Far News (Nuclear Energy Agency No. 5291, Organization for Economic Agency (Tehran), January 28, 2008; and “Senegal FM Describes Cooperation and Development, 2004). Iranian authorities have Iran as ‘Friend of Africa,’” Fars News Agency (Tehran), Decem - expanded their planned network of nuclear power plants along - ber 13, 2010, http://english.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn= side their claimed discovery of new uranium resources. The date 8909221177. at which Iranian nuclear plants will exhaust indigenous uranium 40. “Senegal Stresses Expansion of Ties with Iran,” Fars News will not change if Iran builds plants as it announces a tripling of Agency (Tehran), July 29, 2007. known uranium reserves. 41. Mamadou Sèye, “Énergie, Prospection Pétrolière, 31. Tshenyo Modibe, “Deployment of Natural Resources for Industrie: Le Sénégal Bénéficie des Solutions Iraniennes,” Development in Africa,” The Thinker (Midrand), December 2012, Le Soleil (Dakar), June 28, 2006, http://fr.allafrica.com/stories 24–28; Richard Johnson, “French Areva Harvests Bumper Ura - /200606280743.html. nium,” Eurasia Review , February 20, 2013, www.eurasiareview.com 42. “Iran to Build Oil Refinery and Chemical Plant in Sene - /20022013-french-areva-harvests-bumper-uranium/; “Ezulwini gal,” Gulf News (Dubai), August 3, 2007, http://gulfnews.com Uranium and Gold Mine, Gauteng, South Africa,” Mining- /business/oil-gas/iran-to-build-oil-refinery-and-chemical-plant- Technology.com (London), www.mining-technology.com in-senegal-1.19403.1 /projects/ezulwini/; and Dumbani Mzale, “Kayelekera Mine 43. “Iran to Supply Crude Oil to Senegal,” Fars News Agency Output Jumps 21%,” The Nation (Blantyre), January 19, 2013. (Tehran), August 28, 2007. 32. “L’Uranium Centrafricain Conduit Bozizé à Vouloir Jouer 44. “Senegalese President: Nuclear Technology is Iran’s dans la Cour des Grands” [Central African Uranium Leads [François] Legitimate Right,” Islamic Republic News Agency (Tehran), Bozizé to Want to Play in the Big Leagues], Centrafrique-Presse November 25, 2007. - 8-

45. “Maqam Mo’azzam-e Rahabari Zaban-e Amrika va Abar - Noqteh-ye Ateka-ye Ravabat-e Iran va Africa ast” [Sudan is the godrat-ha ra Zaban-e Tahdid va er’ab Danestand” [The Supreme Cornerstone of Iran’s Relations with Africa], Aftab-e Yazd Leader Says America Only Knows the Language of Intimidation], (Tehran), March 7, 2008, http://web.archive.org/web Islamic Republic News Agency (Tehran), February 28, 2008, /20080307111644/http://www.aftab-yazd.com/textdetalis.asp?at http://web.archive.org/web/20080301125445/http://www1.irna.ir =3/6/2008&aftab=8&TextID=37476. /fa/news/view/line-1/8612081304213458.htm. 54. International Criminal Court, “The Prosecutor v. Omar 46. “FM: 2008 a Milestone in Iran-Africa Ties,” Far News Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir,” February 5, 2009, www.icc-cpi.int Agency (Tehran), January 30, 2008, http://english.farsnews. /en_menus/icc/situations%20and%20cases/situations/situation com/newstext.php?nn=8611100422; and “Najjar Meets %20icc%200205/related%20cases/icc02050109/Pages Senegalese President, DM,” Fars News Agency (Tehran), /icc02050109.aspx May 2, 2009, http://english.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn= 55. “Ahmadinejad to Leave for Sudan,” Fars News Agency 8802121304. (Tehran), February 27, 2007; and “Ahmadinejad Arrives in 47. “Farmandeh-e Niruye-e Darya-ye Artesh az Barnameh Sudan,” Fars News Agency (Tehran), September 26, 2011, Navgan-e Darya-ye Artesh-e Iran dar Nazdiki Morzha-ye Abi http://english.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=9007040020. Amrika dar Aqiyanus Atlas Khabar Dad” [The Commander of 56. “Sudan, noqteh-ye ateka-ye rivabat-e Iran va Africa ast” the Navy Announces the Program of Deploying the Iranian [Sudan is the Cornerstone of Iran’s Relations with Africa], Aftab-e Navy in the Atlantic Ocean near the Waters of America], Yazd (Tehran), March 7, 2008, http://web.archive.org/web Nasim (Tehran), September 27, 2011, http://nasimonline.ir /20080307111644/http://www.aftab-yazd.com/textdetalis.asp?at /TextVersion/Detail/?Id=275914&Serv=9. =3/6/2008&aftab=8&TextID=37476. 48. “Biyanieh-e Vizarat-e Kharajeh dar Mavarad Qata’ye 57. “Iranian Fleet of Warships Dock in Sudanese Port,” Fars Kemal Ravabat-e Diplomatik Senegal ba Tehran” [Statement of News Agency (Tehran), October 29, 2012, http://english the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on the Severing of Diplomatic .farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=9107115704; and “Iranian Relations between Senegal and Tehran], Fararu.com (Tehran), Warships Dock in Sudan’s Port,” Fars News Agency (Tehran), February 21, 2011, http://fararu.com/vdciuraq.t1a3r2bcct.html. December 8, 2012, http://english.farsnews.com/newstext.php 49. “Tehran Gives Senegal Second Chance to Decide on Ties ?nn=9107125136. with Iran,” Fars News Agency (Tehran), February 26, 2011, 58. “Wazir al-Riyaseh al-Sudani: Nachnu Kharij al-Mihwar al- http://english.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=8912070878. Irani” [Minister of the Presidency of Sudan: We Are Outside the 50. For example, see the Said Hajjarian interview with Iranian Axis], Ash-Sharq al-Awsat (London), November 4, 2012, Andisheh Pouya: “Sayyid Hajjarian az bi E’temadi Hashemi O va www.aawsat.com/details.asp?section=4&issueno=12395& Dostanesh Miguyad,” [Said Hajjarian Speaks of Hashemi’s Lack article=702669&state=true#.USWWGmfAXeI; and Ian Black, of Trust toward Him and His Friends], Khabar Online (Tehran), “Israel Accused of Air Strike on Sudan Munitions Factory,” The June 25, 2012, www.khabaronline.ir/print/237993/politics/parties. Guardian (London), October 25, 2012, www.guardian.co.uk/world Kuwait authorities also say a similar dynamic was in play in the /2012/oct/25/israel-accused-sudan-munitions-air-strike. incident referred to in “Kuwait Condemns Iran Rejection of 59. “Eritrean President: Nuclear Energy, Iran’s Undeniable Court Verdict,” Gulf News (Dubai), May 31, 2012, Right,” Islamic Republic News Agency (Tehran), June 6, 2009, http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/kuwait/kuwait-condemns-iran- http://assenna.com/eritrean-president-nuclear-energy-irans- rejection-of-court-verdict-1.1030132. undeniable-rights/. 51. “Iran-Senegal Resume Severed Diplomatic Relations,” 60. Reporters Without Borders for Freedom of Information, Islamic Republic News Agency (Tehran), February 7, 2013, Press Freedom Index 2013 , http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index- www.irna.ir/en/News/80533391/Politic/Iran-Senegal_resume 2013,1054.html. _severed_diplomatic_relations. 61. “Iran’s 5th Fleet to Head for Gulf of Aden,” Press TV, 52. “Iran, Zimbabwe Vow to Resist US Dominance,” Fars January 20, 2010, http://web.archive.org/web/20100125172427 News Agency (Tehran), November 21, 2006; and “U.S. Warns /http://www.presstv.ir/detail.aspx?id=116618§ionid= Zimbabwe Over Uranium Plan,” New Zimbabwe (London), 351020101; and “Najat-e Koshti Irani ‘Attar az Jang Dozdan-e March 9, 2011, www.newzimbabwe.com/news-4637-US%20 Darya-ye” [Rescue of the Iranian Ship ‘Attar’ From Pirates], Abrar warns%20Zim%20over%20uranium%20plan/news.aspx. (Tehran), May 18, 2011, www.abrarnews.com/politic/1390 53. “Ahmadinejad: Iran, Sudan Defend Each Other at Int'l /900228/html/rooydad.htm#s148893. Bodies,” Fars News Agency (Tehran), March 2, 2007; “Sudan,