A TRANS-PACIFIC CLASH? THE ROLE OF DIPLOMATIC MISSIONS IN EARLY U.S.–JAPAN RELATIONS by Michael William Jones, B.A. A thesis submitted to the Graduate Council of Texas State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts with a Major in History December 2020 Committee Members: Ellen Tillman, Chair Peter Siegenthaler Thomas Alter COPYRIGHT by Michael William Jones 2020 FAIR USE AND AUTHOR’S PERMISSION STATEMENT Fair Use This work is protected by the Copyright Laws of the United States (Public Law 94-553, section 107). Consistent with fair use as defined in the Copyright Laws, brief quotations from this material are allowed with proper acknowledgement. Use of this material for financial gain without the author’s express written permission is not allowed. Duplication Permission As the copyright holder of this work I, Michael William Jones, authorize duplication of this work, in whole or in part, for educational or scholarly purposes only. DEDICATION For Barbara Elizabeth Swyryn, Anne Cale Jones, Miss Kitty, Charli, Bingley, and Wilson Andrew Jones ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I first began to seriously consider studying Japanese history as an undergraduate at St. Edward’s University in Austin, Texas. The late professor Cecil Lawson planted the initial spark within me through his clear enthusiasm for Japanese culture and love for the Japanese people, which he displayed in his freshman studies class “Sword, Silk, and Silicon.” This interest was nurtured by professor Holly Holliday, my Japanese language instructor at St. Edward’s, who opened my mind to one of the world’s most complex and beautiful languages and, in turn, to the entire country of Japan. I would like to express my most profound gratitude to both of these instructors, because without them, I never would have gone down this richly rewarding path that led me to this thesis. To professor Holliday, I can only apologize that I have not maintained my language skills as well as I should have. I am especially thankful for the steadfast support of Dr. Peter Siegenthaler. As my first contact at Texas State University, his mentoring helped direct my studies towards the bakumatsu and early Meiji eras, which took my broad interest in Japanese history and transformed it into meaningful and specific scholarly inquiry. Additionally, his guidance helped me integrate myself into the larger community of historians of East Asia, which has proved invaluable in my growth as a practicing historian. I am also immensely grateful to Dr. Ellen Tillman, my thesis chair. Her patience and willingness to edit my lengthy, unwieldy drafts turned this work into something v scholars might actually want to read. I will always appreciate the direction you offered, and will strive to eradicate excessive dashes from my future work – although I cannot guarantee I will always be successful. I would also like to thank Dr. Tom Alter, who pointed me in useful directions regarding the American component of this thesis. As I largely consider myself a non- Americanist, this contribution was extremely helpful. A special ‘thank you’ goes to Dr. Rebecca Montgomery, who generally guided me through the graduate program at Texas State University, and was always willing to answer my frequent questions and provide career advice. Lastly, I am most grateful for my family. My mother, Anne Jones, offered unwavering support of my goals as a historian and never lost faith in my ability to succeed in this program. My sister, Hannah Jones, offered a listening ear and gave useful feedback. And my girlfriend, Barbara Swyryn, gave me her boundless love and patience, even when I was frustrated or otherwise grumpy. My three cats, Miss Kitty, Charli, and Bingley, offered whining cries that dragged me back to reality whenever I got too lost in my own head. All of you are my treasures, and I love you from the bottom of my heart. Any mistakes in this work are mine and mine alone. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................v CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................1 A History of Conflict? .................................................................................1 II. U.S.–JAPAN RELATIONS BEFORE 1853 .......................................................5 Introduction ..................................................................................................5 Early Clashes ...............................................................................................6 The Voyages of Biddle and Glynn .............................................................10 The American Perspective, 1849-1853 ......................................................16 The Japanese Perspective, Pre-1853 ..........................................................19 Self-Delusion Before Perry ........................................................................27 III. THE PERRY EXPEDITION ...........................................................................29 Introduction and Historiography ................................................................29 Origins of the Mission ...............................................................................32 Commodore Perry’s Entry .........................................................................35 Setting the Stage in the Ryukyus ...............................................................42 The First Visit to Edo Bay, the First Negotiations with Japan ..................49 Return to the Ryukyus and Between the Voyages .....................................60 The Second Round of Negotiations ...........................................................69 Coda: An Occupation in Okinawa .............................................................88 Setting the Tone of Future Relations .........................................................90 IV. THE TOKUGAWA EMBASSY OF 1860 ......................................................94 Introduction and Historiography ................................................................94 Changing Japan, Changing America, and the Harris Treaty .....................97 Origins of the 1860 Embassy ...................................................................102 The Journey Across the Ocean ................................................................108 Interlude in the Sandwich Islands ............................................................115 Finishing the Crossing and Arrival in San Francisco ..............................121 vii Panama and Arrival in Washington .........................................................127 Washington, D.C.. ....................................................................................133 Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York ..................................................143 Japan’s Tentative Step onto the World Stage ..........................................149 V. THE IWAKURA MISSION ...........................................................................157 Introduction and Historiography ..............................................................157 The U.S.–Japan Relationship in the 1860s ..............................................161 The Loyalist Shift from Sonno Joi to Western Engagement ...................165 Origins and Composition of the Mission .................................................170 Crossing the Pacific and San Francisco, Once Again ..............................179 Crossing the United States .......................................................................186 Meeting the President and Secretary of State ..........................................193 Negotiations Grind to a Halt ....................................................................200 Failure in Washington ..............................................................................207 The End of the American Phase of the Iwakura Mission ........................209 The Journey in Europe and the Mission’s Aftermath ..............................212 The Iwakura Mission and an Assertive Japan ..........................................215 VI. CONCLUSION..............................................................................................218 Former President Grant’s Visit to Japan ..................................................218 Visiting China and the Ryukyu Challenge ...............................................219 Meeting the Meiji Emperor ......................................................................221 Nikko and Subsequent Negotiations ........................................................227 Grant’s Visit as a Capstone for Early U.S.–Japan Relations ...................232 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................235 viii I. INTRODUCTION A History of Conflict? One of the great international conflicts of the twentieth century was between the United States and Japan. Both nations were upstart powers in a changing world that was less dominated by Europe, and from the beginning of the century, the two clashed over control of the Pacific. Initially, this took the form of traded barbs regarding racial tension and immigration. However, after World War I, Japan took a more militaristic approach to the Asia-Pacific region, seizing territory as the great powers squabbled.1 In order to counter this threat, the US aligned with those same great powers and cut Japan off economically.