KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI,

GHANA

AUXILIARIES FOR ORGANIC MATERIALS IN COSTUME JEWELLERY

By

JOYCE TWIRI AMPAH (MRS.)

(B.A INTEGRATED ART AND INDUSTRY)

A thesis submitted to the department of Integrated Rural Art and Industry in the Faculty

of Art

College of Art and Built Environment,

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree

MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY

AUGUST, 2018 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis is the researcher’s work undertaken under supervision, and that it contains no material that has been presented either in whole or in part to any other institution for the award of a degree or certificate except where due acknowledgements have been made.

Joyce Twiri Ampah (Mrs.) ………………….. …………………

(20393983) Signature Date

Certified by:

Dr. Kafui Kwesi Agyeman …………….…… …………………..

(Supervisor) Signature Date

Harold Awuley-Quaye …………….…… …………………..

(Internal Examiner) Signature Date

Certified by:

Dr. Rudolf Steiner …...…………….. …………………..

(Head of Department) Signature Date

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ABSTRACT

Organic materials have been the cradle for jewellery design. However, jewellery findings which are the basic components needed to complement its application for costume jewellery has seen a setback in development. The aim of this study was to design jewellery findings (auxiliaries) for organic materials in costume jewellery. Philosophically, this research hinges on the sustainable design approach to promote green technology for a sustainable environment by designing auxiliaries for organic materials to be used for costume jewellery creation.

To fulfill the aim of the study, the objectives were to: investigate the types of findings for costume jewellery; and investigate existing organic jewellery emphasizing the jewellery findings employed and to design auxiliaries for some selected organic materials, demonstrating its adaptability for costume jewellery. The study focused attention on flamboyant seeds, bovine femur bone, ceriths, coconut shells and date seeds stemming from varied sources of organic materials. The research employed copper wire as the main material and the non-soldering technique of forming jewellery in the design of the auxiliaries for easy adaptability.

The researcher employed the descriptive and experimental research designs for the study. The population for the study comprised organic materials, jewellery findings, organic jewellery and some metals employing the random and purposive sampling methods. In conclusion, the research projects the creation of auxiliaries as complements for the popularization of organic materials in costume jewellery design.

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DEDICATION

To the Almighty God I dedicate this thesis for His grace and mercy towards me in carrying out this study. This work is also dedicated to my dear husband Mr. Benjamin Twiri Ampah for his immense support and encouragement and to my lovely son Kwame Anim Twiri Ampah

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My gratitude goes to Dr. Kafui Kwesi Agyeman, Department of Integrated Rural Art and

Industry for his guidance and recommendations through the research. I also wish to thank Mr.

Harold Awuley-Quaye, Department of Integrated Rural Art and Industry for his constructive critique. Special thanks also to Mr. Paul K. Tandoh and staff of the Horticulture Department,

KNUST for their contribution towards this study. I also wish to express my profound gratitude to everyone who contributed in diverse ways for the success of this work.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION i

ABSTRACT ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF TABLES xi

LIST OF FIGURES xii

LIST OF PLATES xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xx

CHAPTER ONE 1

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Overview 1

1.2 Background to the study 1

1.3 Statement of the problem 2

1.4 Objectives 3

1.5 Research questions 3

1.6 Delimitation 4

1.7 Importance of the study 4

1.8 Definition of terms 5

1.9 Abbreviations 6

1.10 Arrangement of the rest of the text 6

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CHAPTER TWO 7

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 7

2.1 Overview 7

2.2 Theoretical framework 7

2.3 Jewellery 7

2.3.1 Jewellery and jewellery significance 7

2.3.2 Jewellery concepts 9

2.3.3 Classifications of jewellery 10

2.3.4 Types of jewellery 13

2.3.5 Types of ornaments 16

2.3.6 Jewellery accessories 23

2.4 Costume jewellery 24

2.4.1 Concept of costume jewellery 24

2.4.2 Costume jewellery materials & processing 26

2.5 Review of some organic jewellery 29

2.6 Concept of jewellery findings 34

2.6.1 Definition of Jewellery findings 34

2.6.2 Types of jewellery findings 36

2.6.2.1 Functional Jewellery Findings 37

2.6.2.2 Decorative Jewellery Findings 39

2.6.2.3 Hybrid Jewellery Findings 39

2.6.3 Materials for jewellery findings 40

2.6.4 Suitable materials for making jewellery findings 41

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2.6.5 Processes of making jewellery findings 42

2.6.5.1 Making links and chains 44

2.6.6 Techniques employed for making jewellery findings 45

2.6.6.1 Filigree 45

2.6.6.2 Piercing 45

2.6.6.3 Casting 45

2.6.6.4 Soldering 46

2.6.7 Finishing & finishes for jewellery findings 47

2.6.7.1 Finishing techniques 49

2.6.7.1.1 Colouring metals 51

2.7 Concept of auxiliaries 52

2.7.1 Definition of auxiliaries 52

2.8 Scope of organic materials 53

2.8.1 Classifications of organic materials 54

2.8.2 Sources of organic materials 55

2.9 Philosophical foundations 55

2.10 Research methodology 58

2.10.1 Qualitative methods 58

2.10.2 Quantitative methods 60

2.10.3 Mixed methods 61

2.10.4 Research designs 63

2.10.5 Population of the study 63

2.10.6 Sampling procedure 64

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CHAPTER THREE 65

METHODOLOGY 65

3.1 Overview 65

3.2 Conceptual framework 65

3.3 Research design 66

3.4 Population for the study 67

3.5 Sampling techniques 83

3.6 Specific treatment of objectives 83

3.6.1 Objective one: Investigation into types of findings for costume jewellery 83

3.6.1.1 Data needed 83

3.6.1.2 Data collection methods 84

3.6.1.3 Data collection instruments 84

3.6.1.4 Data analyses/treatment of data 84

3.6.2 Objective two: Investigation into existing organic jewellery, emphasizing the jewellery findings employed. 86

3.6.2.1 Data needed 86

3.6.2.2 Data collection methods 86

3.6.2.3 Data collection instruments 87

3.6.2.4 Data analyses/treatment of data 87

3.6.3 Objective three 89

3.6.3.1 Data needed 89

3.6.3.2 Data collection methods 89

3.6.3.3 Data collection instruments 90

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3.6.3.4 Data analyses/treatment of data 90

3.6.3.5 Designing the auxiliaries 98

3.6.3.6 The flamboyant seeds 99

3.6.3.7 The coconut shell 102

3.6.3.8 The cerith shells 105

3.6.3.9 The cattle femur bone 108

3.6.3.10 the date palm seeds 111

CHAPTER FOUR 113

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 113

4.1 Overview 113

4.2 Adaptability of auxiliaries for organic materials 113

4.2.1 Application of flamboyant seed auxiliaries 113

4.2.2 Application of coconut shell auxiliaries 115

4.2.3 Application of cerith auxiliaries 116

4.2.4 Application of femur bone auxiliaries 117

4.2.5 Application of date seed auxiliaries 117

4.3 Relationship between jewellery findings and auxiliaries 119

4.3.1 Complimentary role of jewellery findings 119

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CHAPTER FIVE 122

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 122

5.1 Overview 122

5.2 Summary of findings 122

5.3 Conclusion 124

5.4 Recommendations 125

5.4.1 Further studies 125

5.4.2 Facilities 125

5.4.3 Tools and equipment 125

REFERENCES 127

APPENDICES 135

APPENDIX ONE: Drawings on comparison of Characteristic physical features of materials 135

APPENDIX TWO: CorelDraw representation of possible conversion of materials 137

APPENDIX THREE: Bone processing 138

APPENDIX FOUR: Sample earrings with supporting auxiliaries 140

APPENDIX FIVE: Processing of ceriths 142

APPENDIX SIX: Other auxiliaries 143

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

Table 2.1: Tabular representation of necklace types [Source: Arora, 2015] 12

Table 3.1: list of organic materials identified for possible jewellery units 69

Table 3.2: Categorization of materials showing the form in which it could be used 90

Table 3.3 Assessment criteria of organic materials for jewellery units 91

Table 3.4: Assessment criteria of materials for auxiliaries 92

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: varying types of neck ornaments according to length with designated names.

12

Fig.2.2: representation of the omega clip 38

Fig.2.3 shows the use of jump rings to connect other units to form a chain 44

Fig. 2.4: assorted niobium earring hook findings 47

Fig. 2.5: visual demonstration of threading finishing technique 49

Fig. 2.6: visual demonstration of burnishing finishing technique 50

Fig. 2.7: varying punch impressions used for finishing 50

Fig. 2.8: visual demonstration of buffing finishing technique 50

Fig. 2.9: degrees of colour change of metal at the application of heat 51

Fig. 3.1: Diagrammatic framework of methodology 66

Fig. 3.2: Diagrammatic summary of the population 67

Fig. 3.3 A&B: characteristic similarity of cowries, Africa star apple seed and date seed

upon analysis 93

Fig. 3.4 A, B, C: some basic arrangements of units in jewellery design 94

Fig. 3.5: characteristic and conversional strategies of coconut shell 94

Fig. 3.6: characteristic and conversional strategies of bamboo and femur bone 95

Fig. AP1.1: characteristic comparison of date, cowry Africa star apple & flamboyant 135

Fig. AP1.2: characteristic comparison of sweet apple, black velvet tamarind, pride of

Barbados and panama palm seeds 135

Fig. AP1.4: characteristic comparison of the cockle shells and senile ark 136

Fig. AP1.5: characteristic and conversional comparisons of ceriths obtained 136

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Fig. AP2.1: characteristic and conversional comparisons of palm kernel shells 137

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LIST OF PLATES

Plate 2.1: An example of hand jewellery decoratively hanging from the wrist and connected to the finger 15

Plate 2.2: A pair of gold earrings embellished with gems 17

Plate 2.3: typical Indian bangles in gold with enamel decorations 17

Plate 2.4: gold nose ring worn by Indian woman 18

Plate 2.5: Mangalsutra 18

Plate 2.6: various anklets in silver worn by Indian women 19

Plate 2.7: Traditional Indian Bichiya for married women 19

Plate 2.8: hair ornaments popular among Indian brides “maang tika” 20

Plate 2.9: waist ornament “Kardhani” 20

Plate 2.10: gold arm band 21

Plate 2.11: An Indian bride adorned with elegant gold ornaments 22

Plate 2.12: A variation of bridal adornment pertaining to India 22

Plate 2.13: A model display of an array of some of the finest costume jewellery pieces 25

Plate 2.14: colourful display of various ornaments of costume jewellery typically made of plastics 26

Plate 2.15: multi-stranded coconut shell Plate 2.16: interlocking coconut shell 29

Plate 2.17: varied shells threaded into jewellery 29

Plate 2.18: button-lace necklace of differring shapes 30

Plate 2.20: overlapping shell jewellery showing how a twine interlaces to connect each unit 31

Plate 2.21: beautiful sea shells Plate 2.22: pair of earrings made from wood 31

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Plate 2.23: polished date seeds with shells and beads integration for earrings 31

31

Plate 2.24: wooden beads integrated with coconut Plate 2.25: decorated wooden multi

32

Plate 2.26: Glaint; glass beads integrated with palm kernel shell jewellery 32

Plate 2.27: Stoint; stones integrated with palm kernel shells jewellery 33

Plate 2.28: pukern; pure palm kernel shells with no integrant set of jewellery 33

Plate 2.29: assorted jewellery findings 34

Plate 2.30: a variety of jewellery clasps and catches 36

Plate 2.31: a variety of earwires in different metals 37

Plate 2.32: pin backs onto which beads or other jewellery materials will be attached. 38

Plate 2.33: different types of clasps/catches 38

Plate 2.34: decorative festoon usually centre Plate 2.35: Decorative clasp 39

Plate 2.36: decorative leaves serving as clasps 40

Plate 2.37: brass drops 44

Plate 2.38: tierracast clasp 48

Plate 2.39: high lustrous metal surfaces revealing black indentations 52

Plate 3.2 A,B,C: rust tree showing plant, fruits and seeds 71

Plate 3.3: pride of barbados showing fruit and seeds 71

Plate 3.4: the champaca plant showing its fruits and dried seeds 72

Plate 3.5 A, B, C: bead tree showing fruit and seeds 73

Plate 3.6 A&B: Craterispermum laurinum showing plant and resultant seeds from fruit 73

Plate 3.7 A&B: duiker nut showing fruit and seed 74

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Plate 3.8 A&B: panama palm and fruit 74

Plate 3.9: bambusa vulgaris 75

Plate 3.10: poisonous plant with seeds 75

Plate 3.11: plant, fruits and seeds of poisonous plant 76

Plate 3.12: terminalia ivorensis (amire) Plate 3.13: terminalia superba (afara) 76

Plate 3.14: triplochiton scleroxylon wawa 77

Plate 3.15A: Date fruits Plate 3.15B: Date fruit seeds of varying 77

Plate 3.16A: sweet apple-“aluguntugui” Plate 3.16B: sweet apple seeds 78

78

Plate 3.17A: sour sop fruit Plate 3.17B: Sour sop seeds 78

Plate 3.18A: Africa star apples-“alasa” Plate 3.18B: Lustrous seeds of Africa 78

Plate 3.19A: Black velvet tamarind- Plate 3.19B: Varied shades of tamarind

“akosua tuntum” 79

Plate 3.20A: Coconut tree Plate 3.20B: shell of the coconut fruit 79

Plate 3.21: monetaria moneta- cowries in Plate 3.22: Sinelia sinilis- senile ark various sizes in varying sizes 80

Plate 3.23: Atlantic cockle shells in varying Plate 3.24: Cerith- Cerithium Nodulosom sizes 80

Plate 3.25: cerith - “ap)fee” 81

Plate 3.26A: femur bone Plate 3.26B: treated femur bone 81

Plate 3.27: palm fruits and resultant polished kernel shells 82

Plate 3.28: varied clasp types 85

Plate 3.29: varied earring findings 85

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Plate 3.30: varied beadcaps Plate 3.31: varied headpins 85

Plate 3.32: jump rings 86

Plate 3.33: test with different gauge wires Plate 3.34: test with twisted wire 87

Plate 3.35: sample auxiliary headpin Plate 3.36: sample double ends link 88

Plate 3.37: sample auxiliary earstud Plate 3.38: sample auxiliary ear whoop 88

Plate 3.39: wrap wire frame 88

Plate 3.40: pierced coconut butterflies Plate 3.41: leaf-like shapes 95

Plate 3.42: solid spheres Plate 3.43: sawn coconut tree 96

Plate 3.44: preliminary ideas of auxiliaries applied on flamboyant seeds 97

Plate 3.45: twisted wire auxiliary applied on coconut cut-outs 97

Plate 3.46: auxiliary headpin application Plate 3.47: headpin applied for coconut clasp

97

Plate 3.48: preliminary ideas of auxiliaries on ceriths 98

Plate 3.49: preliminary ideas of auxiliaries applied on coconut shells 98

Plate 3.50: Three-tier flamboyant seeds neck piece 99

Plate 3.51: pairs of pliers and metal cylinder for auxiliary design 100

Plate 3.52: step-by-step procedure for designing auxiliary for flamboyant seeds 101

Plate 3.53: coconut shell necklace embellished with copper auxiliaries 102

Plate 3.54: step-by-step guide of creating swirling auxiliaries for coconut shells 104

Plate 3.55: Alternating cerith neckpiece 105

Plate 3.56: step-by-step approach to creating auxiliaries for ceriths 107

Plate 3.57: cattle femur bone jewellery 108

Plate 3.58: step-by-step procedure of auxiliary design for the femur bone 110

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Plate 3.59: front-brick neckpiece made from date seeds 111

Plate 4.1: a unit of auxiliary fixed onto the flamboyant 114

Plate 4.2: uniqueness of auxiliaries connecting each other 114

Plate 4.3: auxiliaries connected by jump rings 115

Plate 4.4: ready jewellery units of coconut shells 115

Plate 4.5: decorative auxiliaries showing jump rings connecting coconut units 116

Plate 4.6: decorative auxiliaries with loops connecting to jump rings 116

Plate 4.7: auxiliaries employed in a continuous chain with jump rings 116

Plate 4.8: auxiliaries employed in a dangling effect with jump rings 117

Plate 4.9: beautiful contrasting effect of auxiliaries 117

Plate 4.10: unit design of the auxiliary on the date seed 118

Plate 4.11: applied auxiliaries on date seed in a chain 118

Plate 4.12: variant application of date seed auxiliaries 118

Plate 4.13: resultant auxiliaries for flamboyant seeds 120

Plate 4.14: resultant swirl auxiliaries’ variations for coconut shells 120

Plate 4.15: resultant springy cone auxiliaries for ceriths in sizes 121

Plate 4.16: resultant single swirl auxiliaries for bone 121

Plate 4.17: resultant auxiliaries for date seed 121

Plate AP3.1: removal of flesh and fat Plate AP3.2: boiled bones soaked in from bones bleaching agent 138

Plate AP3.3: thorough washing of bones under running water 138

Plate AP3.4 A&B: Application of abrasives employing some equipment 138

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Plate AP3.5: Under developed bones showing Plate AP3.6: distinction of developed porous fatty cavities and undeveloped bones after treatment

139 plate AP4.1: cowry earring made possible Plate AP4.2: coconut shell 140

Plate AP4.3: date seed earring Plate AP4.4: cerith shell earring 140

Plate AP4.5: cockle shell earring Plate AP4.6: coconut piercing earring 141

Plate AP4.7: ear auxiliaries applied to Plate AP4.8: ear auxiliaries coconut piercing applied to coconut piece 141

Plate AP5.1: sawing the cerith shell 142

Plate AP5.2: cross-section of cerith shell Plate AP 5.3: cleaned shells 142

Plate AP6.1: integrating cockle with Plate AP6.2: cockle in wire-wrap casing- flamboyant auxiliaries 143

Plate AP6.3: varied auxiliary from coconut Plate AP6.4: variation of headpin shells applied 143

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CAD Computer Aided Design

CNC Computer Numerical Control

CJ Costume Jewellery

3D Three Dimensional

PKS Palm kernel shells

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview

This chapter introduces the entire research under the following sub-headings: background to the study which focuses on the motivation behind the research, statement of the problem: describing the condition of the issue under study followed by the objectives outlining the aims of the research as well as the research questions to which answers were sought to facilitate the study.

The scope of the study is also defined under the delimitation, whereas the importance of the study outlines the benefits the research offers. It is succeeded by the definition of terms in which contextual meanings of certain words are explained and lastly, abbreviations regarding the meaning of certain acronyms used in the research.

1.2 Background to the study

The challenge of obtaining findings for unique organic materials to be employed for jewellery coupled with the relegation of rich, biodegradable organic and environmentally friendly jewellery materials is a pivoting factor for this research. Notwithstanding this, earlier research conducted on the employability of palm kernel shells (PKS) by Tachie-Mensah and Yeboah

(2013), proved viable for jewellery making. This also buttresses the point that, there are an innumerable range of beautiful materials occurring naturally in the environment that can be employed for jewellery. Due to the nature and form of the PKS, there were various restrictions in linking and connecting the finished materials for jewellery which was its main objective. This was mainly attributed to the lack of jewellery findings that complements the material. Again, it was observed that the variety of jewellery were limited because the existing findings had to be 1 manipulated to conform to the material or new findings be created to work better. Doing all these was time consuming and inefficient and therefore detrimental to increased scale production. In the researcher’s view, if there were jewellery findings that suit organic materials like there is for inorganic materials, patronage will be increased for organic jewellery and hence, save the environment and promote “green technology”. Therefore, the research aimed at providing the access to jewellery findings, in context of this research: “auxiliaries” for organic materials to increase patronage for both jewellery artist and consumers.

1.3 Statement of the problem

The lack of auxiliaries; neglect of organic jewellery design; influx of inorganic materials coupled with long term environmental pollution is the problem statement.

Today, it is relatively easier to design costume jewellery with inorganic materials than it is with organic materials. This is because essential components; largely findings, needed to facilitate its production are readily available on the market. This ease of access to jewellery findings coupled with its facilitation of production, makes patronage considerably higher. Though organic materials are abundant in the environment, its use for jewellery is to an extent neglected, given room to inorganic materials. However, it is noteworthy that most of these inorganic materials are not biodegradable. With time, its influx is unsustainable and detrimental to environmental health.

Meanwhile, organic jewellery suffers the lack of essential components that facilitates its designing. Already, preparing organic materials for jewellery may be dangerous and cumbersome. More challenging also, is the making of findings that suit the material forms. The lack of auxiliaries makes designing organic jewellery more strenuous to inorganic jewellery.

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This has resulted in a dwindled enthusiasm and an extent of neglect in organic jewellery design which is evident in the current trend of costume jewellery in Ghana.

Therefore, this research aimed at removing impediments and accelerating the use of organic materials in jewellery design by suggesting findings purposed for them.

1.4 Objectives

The primary objective of this study was to design jewellery findings (“auxiliaries”) specifically to complement organic materials in the domain of costume jewellery and also ease their integration into jewellery. In this regard, the researcher sought to investigate the issue navigating through the following objectives:

1. To investigate into types of findings for costume jewellery.

2. To investigate into existing organic jewellery, emphasizing the jewellery findings

employed.

3. To design auxiliaries for selected organic materials, demonstrating it adaptability for

costume jewellery.

1.5 Research questions

In other to remove errors, avoid hasty conclusions and acquire authentic information, the researcher asked purposive questions to enrich intellectual imaginations through which possibilities thrive.

Therefore, the research objectives were facilitated through the following questions:

1. What is the connection between jewellery findings and auxiliaries?

2. What auxiliaries are available for organic materials?

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3. How can auxiliaries be designed and made adaptable for organic materials as jewellery?

1.6 Delimitation

The study explored many organic materials but focused attention on the following materials due to availability and accessibility: flamboyant seeds, bovine femur bone, ceriths, coconut shells and date seeds. The research was limited to the aforementioned five organic materials serving as jewellery units for which auxiliaries were designed for. The composition of various units of organic materials and findings were typically in the domain of costume jewellery. Moreover, jewellery composition employed the non-soldering technique of forming jewellery in the design of the auxiliaries. Copper wire was employed for the study based on cost effectiveness and availability.

1.7 Importance of the study

Jewellery findings and also auxiliaries are the solution to all jewellery making techniques, and as such a good understanding of their importance in design and work is essential. Therefore the study contributes in the following areas:

 Sustainable design: in line with “Sustainable Development Goal 15: life on land” which

is to “Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably

manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt

biodiversity loss”. The design of auxiliaries promotes use of organic materials for

jewellery. These organic materials emanating from nature are safe and easily absorbed

into the environment thereby causing no land degradation and sustaining the environment

4

for posterity. Therefore, auxiliaries facilitating design of organic jewellery is a sure way

to achieving a sustainable environment.

 Accelerated production: the “Sustainable Development Goal 12: responsible consumption

and production” is to “ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.” Goal

12 targets including using eco-friendly production methods and reducing the amount of

waste. Designing specific costume jewellery auxiliaries for organic material forms

alleviates improvisation that tends to impede work. The accelerated approach to organic

costume jewellery design is a demonstration of consequential improvement of the

rewards system as a result of the use of organic materials for sustainable development of

the jewellery industry. The availability of these auxiliaries reduces production time of

organic costume jewellery thereby accelerating production and consequently, a boost to

the economy.

 Documentation of the research findings is definitely serving as an intellectual reference,

thereby educating the public, entrepreneurs and jewellery manufacturers to make room

for future possible improvements and replicability.

1.8 Definition of terms

Auxiliaries: a borrowed term, used contextually to refer to jewellery findings specifically made for organic materials for costume jewellery

Costume jewellery: a class of jewellery made of less valuable materials

Findings/jewellery findings: these are very essential components to jewellery design

Organic materials: materials originating from nature which are cellulosic or proteinacous

Inorganic materials: materials which are not cellulose or protein based

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Organic jewellery: any jewellery made from organic materials in the domain of costume jewellery

Inorganic jewellery: any jewellery in the domain of costume jewellery made from any material which is not organic based

1.9 Abbreviations

CAD- computer aided design

CJ- costume jewellery

CNC- computer numerical control

3D- three dimensional

PKS- palm kernel shells

1.10 Arrangement of the rest of the text

The remaining chapters are organised as follows: chapter two, mainly comprises literature from related studies of other researchers followed by chapter three which expatiates in depth design methods and procedures employed for the success of the research. It is then succeeded by chapter four which analyses the results of the research, discussing the findings and their implications and as well, chapter five which concludes the study suggests some recommendations.

Notwithstanding these, various sources visited during the research are also noted under the list of references including other relevant materials and notes used to propel the study listed under the appendices.

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Overview

This chapter retraces theories, concepts and ideas of other researchers related to the research subject. Topics reviewed included: jewellery and jewellery concepts, jewellery classification and types, ornament types, jewellery findings and materials, designing jewellery findings, costume jewellery, materials and processing organic materials, finishing techniques, auxiliaries among others.

2.2 Theoretical framework

The development of the theoretical structure identified the variables of the study as: jewellery, auxiliaries, organic materials and costume jewellery. Theories and ideologies related to these topics from various writers, collectors, critics and artists contributed immensely to the content of this research and hence, forming the theoretical foundation for the build-up of further exploration and experimentation.

2.3 Jewellery

2.3.1 Jewellery and jewellery significance

The subject of jewellery is notably one of the earliest of human arts and largely attributed to women. In form, jewellery basics vary depending upon cultures but are often extremely longevous; the most common forms of jewellery like necklaces, earrings, and bracelets among

European cultures have persisted since ancient eras, while other forms like the nose or ankle

7 adornments, relevant in other cultures, are much less common. Through the ages, materials for jewellery design considered uncommon, very beautiful and unique encompasses a range of shells, wood, corals, bones, tusks, claws and pebbles, pearls and vitreous pastes (Gregorietti,

2014). As one of the oldest class of ancient artefact, BBC NEWS (2015) reported 100,000-year- old beads of nassarius shells described to be the oldest found jewellery. Curators, scholars and practitioners of jewellery have expressed ideas through artefacts and writing.

Many writers are of the view that jewellery is meant for adornment and beautification.

According to curators of the Victoria & Albert Museum (2015), as a cosmic form of adornment, jewellery fashioned from shells, stones and bones dates from prehistoric times. Adding that, from an early date it was possibly worn as a form of protection from the obscure uncertainties and dangers of life or as a representation of status and rank in society.

Significantly, Newman (1987) in his book titled “illustrated dictionary of jewellery” explains jewellery as any beautifying object fashioned from metals precious gemstones and may include hard organic materials of good quality, designed with artistry and fine craftsmanship with the intention to be worn on the body. Notwithstanding ornamental items like bracelets, ear-rings, necklaces and brooches, here also belong such items as functional and decorative (for instance, cuff links, buckles) and by extension, also mobile jewellery and items that are stitched on clothing items, for instance: a hat ornament, decorative buttons, and jewelled dress ornaments.

Considering jewellery from a monetary value perspective, Sullivan (2011) in his article,

“classification of gold and jewellery” argues that it is an art form worn for its artful designs and high prices and therefore, making it a good source of investment.

8

To conclude, a number of writers suggest that any article of any sort of material able to be utilized and purported to be a means of adornment along other purposes like protection and religion is jewellery. It can be expensive based on significant pointers like the materials involved and construction techniques and even the artists or jeweller. Artists and craftsmen in some eras have sometimes placed less emphasis on the intrinsic value of materials than on their aesthetic function as components contributing to the effect of the whole.

2.3.2 Jewellery concepts

Jewellery concept may vary from one jeweller to another or even place or culture. What might prompt a jeweller to work a particular style or a fashionist to wear specific jewellery in a certain manner can be what he or she wants to portray to their audience. Stringer (2006) of London's

Natural History Museum states,

The interesting thing about necklaces and this kind of behaviour is that it

is symbolic. When we wear items like this, we are sending a message, the

message may be that we are powerful, or wealthy, or sexy, that we're part

of a particular group, or to ward off evil. They're not just decorative; we

think they had a social meaning.

There is no straightforwardness when it comes to jewellery concept. www.schoolofdesign (2015) has it that, before a jewellery article is created, design concepts are rendered followed by detailed technical drawings generated by a jewellery designer, professionally trained in the architectural and functional know-how of materials, fabrication techniques, composition, wear ability and market trends. This lauds the thought that, jewellery concept answers the ideas, the

9 why’s and how’s behind a jewellery article. Therefore, considerable attention to conceptualization is critical for designing jewellery.

Nonetheless, traditional hand-drawing and drafting methods are still utilized in designing jewellery, particularly at the conceptual stage. However, there is a shift to computer-aided design programs like Rhinoceros 3D and Matrix. Whereas the traditionally hand-illustrated jewel is typically translated into wax or metal directly by a skilled craftsman, a CAD model is generally used as the basis for a CNC cut or 3D printed 'wax' pattern to be used in the rubber moulding or lost wax casting processes.

Once conceptualization or ideation is done, the design is rendered and fabricated employing materials necessary for proper adaptation to the object functionality.

Considering the above, jewellery concepts can be based on meanings and significance of what jewellery and wearing it portrays. It can also refer to the contriving process of thoughtful ideas translated into jewellery by line, form and shape representations as well as materials: therefore a necessary procedure in jewellery making.

2.3.3 Classifications of jewellery

The word classification can mean the act of forming into classes, a distribution into groups, order or families according to some relations or attributes. Therefore jewellery classification can be referred to as the divisions of jewellery according to similarities found in the various articles.

Nevertheless, this is not straight forward. In as much as some sources classify jewellery in periods of time, there is still a style and material differences across these ages, not forgetting the forms of ornaments as well.

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Kothari (2015) opines that, jewellery may be classified on the basis of materials used in the respective jewellery and includes: plain gold jewellery, plain silver jewellery, studded jewellery and beaded jewellery.

Most importantly he argues, there are some other ways of classification, for instance, on the basis of art, design, fashion or pattern. Classifications based on pattern also encompass: Ganga-

Jamuna Jewellery, Victorian Jewellery, Ethnic jewellery, Tribal Jewellery, Thewa art Jewellery.

On another hand, jewellery can be classified based on ornament types e.g. ring, necklace, earrings etc., and may also be classified as antique or modern etc.

However, Fletcher-Birmingham (2010) gives a brief synopsis comprising three main types of jewellery classification that is; fine jewellery, bridge jewellery and fashion jewellery and explains what the differences are between them.

She expatiates that, fine jewellery comprise ornaments of diamonds, rubies and other precious gems with minimum 14k gold and above, platinum or other precious metals whereas, bridge jewellery defines the class of jewellery that encapsulates the use of opal, topaz, jasper and other semi-precious stones or fresh water pearls with silver, vermeil or gold filled. Further, this type of jewellery lies between fine and fashion or costume jewellery. Costume or fashion jewellery on the other hand is jewellery made with base metals including copper, brass and aluminium among others, glass, plastics, wood and other types of beads. The materials of this type of jewellery may be inorganic or organic.

Fletcher-Birmingham (2010) also include another classification aside the above mentioned called, the artisan jewellery. But this, she reiterate is any jewellery among the above three classifications that is one-of-a-kind or made in limited quantities and that is not mass produced

11 but artisan made. Figure 2.1 below illustrates various types of neck adornments, classifying them with names in order of their lengths.

Figure 2.1: varying types of neck ornaments according to length with designated names. [source: types-of-necklaces, 2013]

Table 2.1 also explains the various types of neck ornaments describing the specific lengths, how it is worn among others and therefore giving more emphasis on Fig. 2.1 above.

Table 2.1: Tabular representation of necklace types [Source: Arora, 2015]

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In conclusion, classifying jewellery can be made as a result of commonness or shared characteristics of the jewellery. However it is also noted that, they are also classified according to their sizes and even how they are worn on the body and their material composition and style.

2.3.4 Types of jewellery

Finding answers to what jewellery types are can be a daunting task and seems never to have accurate answers as diverse writers share varying opinions about the topic. There is a broad array of jewellery types usually with focus on the part of the body to be worn and that includes the following list: Hair ornaments (Hairpins, fascinators, hair hanglets, head jewellery), Neck

(Carcanets, chokers, torcs,), Arms (armlets {upper arm bracelets}, bracelets, friendship bracelets, cuff links, bangles) and the list goes on.

Commercial website, eBay (2014) explains what is known as body jewellery. This term usually describes any piece of jewellery that is not a routine necklace, bracelet, ring or earring. While other people might employ the term differently, generally, body jewellery is a piece of ornament worn on the body as the name implies. These pieces can range from uncomplicated to daring and comprise all sorts of materials in multiple designs from chains to piercings, given a brief below:

Belly Piercings running through the skin at the top of the navel so that a curved barbell ends both above and in the navel.

Nose Piercings includes rings, studs and could be worn on either the side of the nose or via the nasal septum.

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Eyebrow Piercings are usually found near the outer edge of the eyebrow. The piercing is situated so that a curved barbell moves perpendicularly under the eyebrow with one end sticking up above the brow and one end sticking up below.

Belly Chains can be less easy to put on as they sit around the waist and hips of which are usually covered with clothes.

Harnesses are wider pieces of body jewellery wrapping around the shoulders and even extending over the torso sometimes. They are sometimes known as shoulder chains or body chains. Harnesses could range from less complicated chains to heavy, armour-like designs.

Some harnesses could be worn as necklaces or to rest over the shoulders.

Dental Grills are metallic sets of teeth that fit over the wearer's teeth and are a significant piece of jewellery. Grills normally are very lustrous gold or silver with many designs set with crystals or gems. Some styles even play with the shape of the teeth, adding facets or vampire fangs.

Hand Jewellery, much like foot jewellery, fits over the top of the hand while leaving the fingers and the palms free. One or more rings attached to chains are put on a delicate pattern of chains and crystals stretched over the back of the hand, and then a bracelet is fastened around the wrists to keep the jewellery in place. Plate 2.1 below provides a visual idea of typical hand jewellery.

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Plate 2.1: An example of hand jewellery decoratively hanging from the wrist and connected to the finger [source: http://costumejewelleryonline.com] Notwithstanding this, the conjecture corporation on wisegeek.org explains that there are many different types of jewellery people wear. What a person chooses depends basically on his or her personal preferences. Other people choose to buy inexpensive costume or fashion jewellery, while others wear fine jewellery, made with more expensive stones and metals. The most prevailing pieces of jewellery include necklaces, pendants, rings, earrings, brooches, and bracelets. Other, somewhat less common, jewellery types include anklets and toe rings. People put on jewellery that fits into very intense piercings like navel rings, tongue rings, nasal piercings, lip rings, eyebrow rings or earrings that pierce the ear cartilage.

Considering the above, the conjecture corporation indirectly points to a category of costume or fashion jewellery and fine jewellery as main consumer preferences. It further suggests some common pieces including necklaces, earrings among others.

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Inferably, across a class of costume or fashion and fine jewellery, there are earrings, necklaces, bracelets and the list goes on. Therefore, it could be suggested that, jewellery types can be based on the ornaments whereas further classifications can be based on periods, styles, materials and other factors.

2.3.5 Types of ornaments

Ornament is said to be an element of decoration which embellishes or adorns. Ornament goes beyond jewellery and cuts across architecture and even music. Notwithstanding, jewellery ornamentation is highly prevalent among the Asian continent specifically, India.

From walkthroughindia.com (2012), India is known for its many traditions and unique culture all around the world as its life style has been playing significant roles to the identification of India for a long period. This identification includes dresses, food, languages and ornaments. Indian ornaments, have a variety of design and style. Women of India love to wear jewellery on different occasions of life as a means of rituals. Ornaments are not only worn for looks, prosperity and status but also for good health. The following are some important roles ornaments play:

Earrings worn by both women and men and comes in different forms such as “bali, jhumke and latkan”. There is a nerve passing from the ear lobe and connects three main parts of our body organs: kidney, brain and cervical. As per Indian traditions, ears of girls should be pierced at a very tender age as well as boys. Plate 2.2 beneath depicts an extensive gold earring design accentuated with gems.

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Plate 2.2: A pair of gold earrings embellished with gems [source: walkingthroughindia.com, 2012] Bangles are circular shaped ornaments worn on the wrists by women. There is a nerve in the wrist which determines pulse rates, the wearing of bangles increases the blood circulation in our body and maintains normal body charges. Traditionally, you find bangles on both hands of every young Indian child.

Plate 2.3: typical Indian bangles in gold with enamel decorations [source: walkingthroughindia.com, 2012] Nose Rings are ornaments worn in the nose. It is called “nath or nathni” in Hindi. This ornament is a compulsory one as per Hindu traditions and must be worn by every Indian girl. It helps in regular and comfortable breathing. These Indian traditions have become a fashion style lately.

Marathi women are always spotted wearing nose rings.

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Plate 2.4: gold nose ring worn by Indian woman [source: walkingthroughindia.com, 2012]

Necklace: This jewellery form makes women more beautiful and gorgeous. “Mangalsutra” is the identification of a married woman in India and this is worn above the heart so it helps regularize the blood circulation in the body. “Mangalsutra” is givenby the man promising to keep the girl ever happy in life.

Plate 2.5: Mangalsutra [source: walkingthroughindia.com, 2012]

Anklets also called “payal” in Hindi is worn on the ankle and made of silver. This is one of the favorite ornaments of a woman in India which makes very melodious sounds while walking.

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Silver, as a good conductor of energy, works as a mediator between the earth and human body and as well makes a woman more energetic while releasing unprofitable energy to the earth.

. Plate 2.6: various anklets in silver worn by Indian women [source: walkingthroughindia.com, 2012] “Bichiya” or Toe ring is the traditional Indian ornament worn only by married women in India on the second toe of either foot as a sign of the different mental and physical changes a woman will face in her new married life. This ornament gives her a regular menstrual cycle and helps in the conception process.

Plate 2.7: Traditional Indian Bichiya for married women [source: walkingthroughindia.com, 2012] “Maang Tika” is an ornament worn on the head allowing the pendant to be suspended over the forehead, presenting the woman more beautiful. It also symbolizes the Indian bride as well as

19 controlling body heat. “Maang Tika” is one of the most beautiful pieces of jewellery which adds to the ethnic sense of Indian traditions and culture.

Plate 2.8: hair ornaments popular among Indian brides “maang tika” [source: walkingthroughindia.com, 2012] “Kardhani” also known as “Kamarband” is a waist ornament worn by married Indian women.

Silver “Kardhani” are made from superior quality material and helps control extra belly fat from all sides. “Kardhani” is another fashion ornament in modern days and known as belly chain and sometimes attached with navel piercing.

Plate 2.9: waist ornament “Kardhani [source: walkingthroughindia.com, 2012]

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Armlet, also called arm ring or armband, is a ring of precious metal worn as ornament around the biceps by Indian women. Armlet was quite popular earlier but in modern days, it is generally worn as fashion accessories by women. The arm ring helps blood circulation in your arms and creates the right amount of resistance to make the arm comfortable.

Plate 2.10: gold arm band [source: walkingthroughindia.com, 2012]

Moreover, Haidar and Marika (2015) explains that, in the Asaf Jahi period, as earlier, Indian jewellery served to ornament the whole body from head to toe, many types were worn together.

Ear ornaments designed to suspend on the front side of the ear were worn in tandem with other earrings. It was also popular of women to have multiple piercings on their ears and to adorn each piercing with different ornaments. Necklaces too were worn en masse, and while each piece may be magnificently opulent on its own, wearing several together created a most extravagant effect.

Other types of necklaces known as “charlada, panchlada and satlada” are dominated by a mass of gradient pearls in each piece: char, panch and sat, meaning four, five and seven respectively.

Other types of jewellery including “bazuband” or upper armband were less familiar to a western eye. Turban ornaments known as “sarpeches” were awarded to and exchanged among princes as royal gifts.

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Plate 2.11: An Indian bride adorned with elegant gold ornaments [source: www.gold24.in]

Plate 2.12: A variation of bridal adornment pertaining to India [source:Indian- jewellery.blogspot.com Oct. 2014] Notwithstanding this, Tesfagiorgis (2011) adds that ornaments and jewellery include earrings, bracelets, arm and leg bands, and necklaces. Common ornaments are made of gold and silver.

Among the Tigrinya ethno linguistic group, there are various types of ornaments worn on the

22 neck and ears. The common ornament types include “kutisha”- a gold or silver design resembling a rose worn on ears, “gubagub”- similar design to “kutisha”, “stelini”- a coin-like design usually made of gold and worn on the neck among other varieties.

2.3.6 Jewellery accessories

The term accessories can mean: to play supplementary functions by accompanying, assisting or aiding a main component. As handbags and shoes are accessorizing fashion, so is jewellery seen.

Nevertheless, Jewellery accessories can be subordinating pieces apart from what is usually classified jewellery.

Clark (1998) says nose rings, earrings, heavy necklaces, arm bands, bangles, finger rings, silver belts, ankle bracelets and toe rings are typical jewellery accessories.

Furthermore, Anna (2011) describes jewellery accessory as a thing that can be added to something else in order to make it more useful, versatile, or attractive. She also adds that, our adoration of accessories has been around for ever, it appears we've always been fascinated by adorning ourselves with precious metals, stones and amulets whether it be to express opulence, improve our clothes or resist some evil spirit, disease or wrong doing.

Another interesting accessory according to an international commercial website eBay (2014) is the leg jewellery, thought to be a very edgy accessory and can either start at the knee or thigh. Leg jewellery resting at the knee mostly consists of a base chain which fits around the knee somewhat tightly. Then, other chains can be attached to this base chain and fall down the leg. Usually, the chains are attached together so they form a pattern along the leg without swinging loose. Similarly foot jewellery also called barefoot sandals, is a cross between many other types of jewellery. These sandals, made from chains or cord, loop around a toe and form

23 a pattern over the top of the foot, and then fasten around the ankle. They are known as barefoot sandals because the foot sole remains completely bare.

Inferring from the views above, jewellery accessories unlike traditional jewellery forms are meant to be more useable and versatile.

2.4 Costume jewellery

2.4.1 Concept of costume jewellery

Jewellery has being in existence right from man’s existence. Notable materials employed were chiefly shells, bone, and leather to mention a few. Today, jewellery that employs such materials among other relatively less expensive and less valuable materials is classified as costume jewellery. Many have described costume jewellery as fake jewellery due to the relatively inexpensive materials employed for its manufacture.

Notwithstanding, plate 2.13 shows a beautiful array of costume necklaces of varying lengths accentuating the neck.

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Plate 2.13: A model display of an array of some of the finest costume jewellery pieces [source: theblog.qccareerschool.com] Book writer Simonds (2000), opines that from its inception, costume jewellery was designed to mimic genuine jewellery worn by the upper class. Fake or imitation jewellery was despised and regarded in a bad taste. Despite efforts to make it acceptable, it was still seen as a disposable commodity- a fad item able to be thrown out when a certain style went out of use. It was usually tagged disposable, junk, throw away and fake in the past.

Furthermore, Baker (1986) in her book titled “ fifty years of collectable jewellery” re-echoed this opinion and shared that costume jewellery is also called trinkets, fashion jewellery, junk jewellery or fake jewellery and further explains that it is manufactured as ornamentation to consummate specific costume or garment. Nonetheless an appreciation for costume jewellery has been emerging and those former descriptions have been changed to brilliant and beautiful works of art. Plate 2.14 is an extensive display of colour in the art of costume jewellery as opposed to gold and silver monochrome of fine jewellery.

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Plate 2.14: colourful display of various ornaments of costume jewellery typically made of plastics [source: www.wisegeek.com] In conclusion, ranging from inorganic materials like plastics and base metals to organic materials like wood, bones and shells, costume jewellery offers the opportunity to be worked in various designs, presenting variety for adornment at a relatively cheaper cost. This notwithstanding, costume jewellery can be expensive depending on the design and the jeweller irrespective of the materials employed.

2.4.2 Costume jewellery materials & processing

Many writers have expressed ideas on costume jewellery materials and some processes pertaining to material employability. However, costume jewellery materials are insatiable and limitless. Before a material can be used or even survive wear ability when employed for jewellery, some form of processing takes place. Therefore costume jewellery materials and its processing are inseparable and crucial for manufacturing.

According to Gregorietti (2014), initial materials employed for objects of personal adornment were taken from the animal and vegetable world. The materials of animal source, whether in a

26 raw or processed form, constituted the actual adornment, whereas vegetable fibres served as its support. A great variety and pieces of shells were used during the prehistoric age and are still utilized in certain islands and coastal cultures to make necklaces, bracelets, pendants, and headdresses. In the inland regions, the first materials used for personal adornment were sourced from mammoths’ tusks, the horns of reindeer and other animals, and later on, amber and lignite.

Materials that have been utilized over the centuries for jewellery manufacturing have undergone to a certain degree, mechanical, physical, or chemical treatment for the purpose of transforming their raw states into forms that, in addition to being functional, also complement certain aesthetic concept.

Meanwhile, archaeological finding according to BBC NEWS (2015) has also proven oldest jewellery identified to be made of shells and therefore, buttresses Miller and Wainwright (2003) view and that of many other writers. Shells, bones and feathers were the first jewellery materials and then later, clay, natural glass, precious metals and gemstones were employed.

However, Fernandes (2015) described a seven- step outline for processing raw bone into workable jewellery material. It is a simple process, but smelly and unsafe due to the chemicals involved.

 Firstly, the bones are cleansed with soapy water and a stiff bristle brush to remove all the

flesh, gristle and ligaments.

 The bones are then boiled in dilute acid (hydrochloric or sulphuric) until the bones lose

the greasy texture of raw bone.

 When the above is complete, the bones are rinsed thoroughly and dried.

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 The next step requires soaking the bones in a dilute solution of bleach. This removes the

last residue of the protein gelatine that can decompose and rot. Poorly processed old

bones can possess a very strong unpleasant aroma.

 The last step is to rinse the bones in clear water and dry thoroughly for several days.

 The bones are afterwards further processed by cutting into small workable pieces and

then carved into shapes most familiar with; small pierced carvings, round and oblong

beads, pendants and nearly all other shape.

 The carved beads can also be stained or dyed.

Intriguingly, Parnes (2007) in her book “jewellery and accessories from everyday objects”, draws inspiration for jewellery projects from ready-made components or materials around her home, ranging from kitchen accessories: chocolate moulds and wrappers, bottle caps, to office supplies: roundhead fasteners, fountain pen nibs, and seasonal specialties: Christmas bells and tree accessories, alongside sewing kit: zippers, safety pins and buttons, fabric pieces and worn- out jeans, and stamps and coins, miniature figures, fishing lures and stickers. She classified jewellery materials as standard and ready-made components. Notwithstanding these, other standard jewellery materials including beads, findings, chains, fabric and threads and other miscellaneous like glue for permanent and temporal sticking.

In summary, the first costume jewellery materials are noted to have come from animal and plant sources with the former being the main components and supported by plant fibres. However, even though processing some of these materials for jewellery is relatively easy, it can be harmful as well. Nonetheless, a great assortment of beads is an indispensable costume jewellery material.

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2.5 Review of some organic jewellery

In order to build upon existing knowledge, it was necessary to review some organic jewellery created by other costume jewellers to properly understand the art of the organic materials employed. Plate 2.15 to plate 2.26 is a showcase of broader array of materials used and the jewellery findings, critically observing the styles and techniques employed.

Plate 2.15: multi-stranded coconut shell Plate 2.16: interlocking coconut shell necklace [source: aliexpress.com] earrings [source: pinterest.com]

Plate 2.17: varied shells threaded into jewellery [source: en.wikipedia.com]

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Plate 2.18: button-lace necklace of differring shapes [source: pinterest.com]

Plate 2.19: cowry shells accentuated with silver jewellery findings [source: etsy.com]

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Plate 2.20: overlapping shell jewellery showing how a twine interlaces to connect each unit [source: quirao.com]

Plate 2.21: beautiful sea shells Plate 2.22: pair of earrings made from wood rings [source: pinterest.com] integrated with cowries [source: pinterest.com]

Plate 2.23: polished date seeds with shells and beads integration for earrings [source: es.pinterest.com]

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Plate 2.24: wooden beads integrated with coconut Plate 2.25: decorated wooden multi shell jewellery [source: quirao.com] strand neckpiece [source: etsy.com]

Plates 2.26 to 2.28 are works from the researcher’s personal portfolio of previous studies done in the use of palm kernel shells for costume jewellery and therefore reviews it as part of ideas of organic jewellery.

Plate 2.26: Glaint; glass beads integrated with palm kernel shell jewellery [source: Tachie- Mensah J., Abena Yeboah H. (2013)]

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Plate 2.27: Stoint; stones integrated with palm kernel shells jewellery [source: Tachie-Mensah, Yeboah (2013)]

Plate 2.28: Pukern; pure palm kernel shells with no integrant set of jewellery [source: Tachie- Mensah, Yeboah (2013)] Observing and analysing the jewellery above it is clear that findings employed in these various pieces were mostly metals and some twines and threads. The material arrangement also captures linear, multi-strand among other arrangements.

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2.6 Concept of jewellery findings

The idea of any sort imaginary or from reality to portray a statement is a concept. Jewellery findings as such are the indispensable components usually fashioned from metals without which there is no complete jewellery.

2.6.1 Definition of Jewellery findings

Plate 2.29: assorted jewellery findings [source: Jensfindings.com]

Mach (2014) says, “Beads are the stars on the jewellery stage, whiles the findings scuttle backstage, working the lights and opening and closing the red velvet curtains”. Jewellery findings, also known as components according to Simonds (2000), are as important as lights are on any performing stage. A laudable number of sources reveal that jewellery findings are a very major component of jewellery making and as a result, there can be no jewellery without it!

Parnes (2006) together with Coles and Budwig (1990), define jewellery findings as the metal items that finish off a piece of jewellery. However jewellery findings are not always fashioned

34 from metals but a range of plastics, fabric and leather and even some beads lend themselves as clasps. Moreover, jewellery finding finishing off jewellery pieces is relative because some findings are actually used at the very commencement of a jewellery piece.

However, Beaudry (2006) relates an early twentieth century manual on home sewing, published by the Woman’s Institute of Scranton, Pennsylvania opens with the observation that,

“In dressmaking and home sewing, there is always need for finishing helps, some of which are essential to the completion of a garment or article and others of which are merely conveniences.

These items are known as findings. They include all sorts of notions, such as snap fasteners, elastic, tape and so on without which a garment usually cannot be satisfactorily finished”.

In a variant disposition Beaudry (2006) defines findings as small details that give garment or curtain or other piece of textile work a finished look and help make it fit and hang correctly.

But interestingly, Parnes (2007) again redefines the definition of jewellery findings beyond being metal items for finishing jewellery to playing functional activities in jewellery making like connecting, stringing and securing jewellery pieces. This opinion however is also shared by

Miller and Wainwright (2003)

These notwithstanding, writers Simonds (2000), Parnes (2007) and Fernandes (2015) give a list of what jewellery findings are and include: clasps, hooks, head pins, ear wires, decorative drops,

Jump rings, eye pins, crimp beads, pin backs, springs, clips, pins, bezels, rivets, catches, screws, bolts, caps, loops, links and settings among others.

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Summarily, Fernandes (2015) and Mach (2014) opine that while some include anything other than beads and gemstones to be jewellery findings, some exclude stringing and beading materials.

Conclusively, jewellery findings are a significant component which plays mechanical functions such as attaching, joining, connecting among others. It is also important to note that, not only do findings play supportive and mediating roles for jewellery materials but can sometimes also be jewellery materials themselves. These components however can either serve to accentuate the jewellery or play usually mechanical functions or even both.

2.6.2 Types of jewellery findings

Jewellery findings are crucial components or materials employed to make a piece of jewellery.

These components are usually made of metals and a variety of other materials.

Plate 2.30: a variety of jewellery clasps and catches [source: www.pinterest.com]

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Plate 2.31: a variety of earwires in different metals [source: www.pinterest.com]

According to Guyot Brothers Company Inc., 2017, jewellery findings are classified under one of the following based on their roles:

2.6.2.1 Functional Jewellery Findings

These are the component parts or materials used in making a piece of jewellery which serves a mechanical function such as attaching, joining, linking among others. Examples of such findings playing functional roles in jewellery design include: Pin Backs, Catches, Post, Omega Clip, and Screw Back .

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Plate 2.32: pin backs onto which beads or other jewellery materials will be attached. [(source) www.amazon.com]

Fig.2.2: representation of the omega clip [source: www.professionaljeweler.com]

Plate 2.33: different types of clasps/catches [source: www.cousinsuk.com]

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2.6.2.2 Decorative Jewellery Findings

The component parts or materials used in making jewellery that provides the beauty of the piece. In handmade jewellery these are the parts that are normally produced by the goldsmith or silversmith. There are many decorative findings commercially produced such as Charms, Filigrees, and Festoons.

Plate 2.34: decorative festoon usually centre Plate 2.35: Decorative clasp pieces in jewellery. [Source: etsy.com] [source: es.pinterest.com]

2.6.2.3 Hybrid Jewellery Findings

These are component parts or materials used in making a piece of jewellery that serve a mechanical function such as attaching, joining, linking but, due to their nature lend themselves to becoming decorative findings as well. Examples of hybrid jewellery findings include bead caps, bracelet links, and locket bails.

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Plate 2.36: decorative leaves serving as clasps [source: pinterest.com]

2.6.3 Materials for jewellery findings

The term jewellery findings refer to jewellery making components that are not beads, gemstones or stringing materials. Examples include bails, clasps, jump rings, connectors or head and eye pins. Due to their nature, metal wires are usually employed for making them.

Nonetheless, Weller (2015) suggests that, jewellery findings are manufactured in a variety of metals including raw brass and solid copper base metals, plated metals such as copper plated, gold plated and silver plated, and with applied finishes such antique copper, antique silver, black antique and bronze. Recently, jewellery findings are available in both precious and base metals, including brass, solid copper and sterling silver, as well as plated metals such as gold plated and silver plated

Niemeyer (2016) also adds that stainless steel findings are excellent in integrity but still have bending ability. It may require an extra effort to bend it into the desired shape than other metals, but the advantage is that the finished design retains its shape more dutifully.

With its ability to resist rust, oxidation and discoloration, this anti-corrosion alloy is ideal for lasting jewellery designs. Because stainless steel is not plated, it will not fade or chip with time.

This metal is the best suggestion for those living in high-humidity locations, as the metal will

40 keep from rusting much longer than other metals. Jewellery made with these findings endures heavy wear much longer than those manufactured with carbon steel and softer base metals. Jump rings and loops made in headpins and wire are less likely to come open under the weight of pendants or multi-layer designs.

In another perspective, Parnes (2006) together with Coles and Budwig (1990), opines that jewellery findings are not always made of metals but sometimes employs some materials ranging from plastics to fabric and leather and sometimes even some beads lend themselves as clasps.

In conclusion, metals in various forms, usually wires are undoubtedly the most employed material for jewellery findings due to reasons like withstanding weight and other force from the jewellery components they connect. As such, metals are known to offer such strength and durability. Nonetheless, there is also other non-metal conventional jewellery finding materials that are also explored.

2.6.4 Suitable materials for making jewellery findings

Gerlach (2006) says that findings are the components linking beads into a jewellery piece. It is important to always acquire the best affordable metal findings. The use of cheap base metal findings may sooner discolour. They further suggest that pewter-based metals retain its finish very well. On another hand, findings made of sterling silver and gold-filled metals mostly increases the overall cost of a jewellery piece but maintains its looks for very long.

Cosway et al (2001) are of the view that findings such as earwires and other wireworks can be made from silver-plated or silver wire. They however state that, copper wire is not a suitable material for making jewellery findings as it may cause allergic skin reactions.

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Furthermore, Cosway et al. (2001), presents another school of thought that the most suitable materials may not usually be the cheapest. Usually most expensive finding materials are more efficient to process. The choices of materials are often for their physical and aesthetic qualities.

In the early years of this century, lead was used to make children’s toys and paint manufacture, resulting in many children been poisoned. It is however important for consideration whether or not all materials used for an article is necessary. Creative designs are usually made of simple materials resulting in very skilful and elegant artefacts.

2.6.5 Processes of making jewellery findings

Many jewellery designers after attaining a certain level in their craft, starts to realize the design aspects beyond just the beads and components they include in their jewellery. Others begin to consider that the findings they employ in connecting all the parts and pieces together to create jewellery have an aesthetic effect on the end result. This is when the first inkling of an idea starts to emerge in their minds: preparing your personal findings with practice, a few hand tools, and wires, it would be surprising at how simple it is to make your personal jewellery findings.

According to Powley (2016), earring hooks are one of the most often used findings and gives a seven-step outline of making them as follows:

 Start by cutting two pieces of wire that are each 1 3/4 inches long.

 Use files to smoothen the ends. (Note: one of these ends passes through the ear hole,

hence proper filing is necessary)

 With round-nosed pliers, place the wire at about the middle of the plier nose, and make a

small curl on one end of the wire.

 Next, measure about 1/4 inch away from the curl down on your wire, and wrap the wire

around the largest end of the pliers.

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 At this almost completion point, it is noticed that the hook doesn't look very round.

Indeed, the side that will rest in the ear is almost square-like. With the round nosed-pliers

again, position the largest part of the nose at the 1/4 inch area that was initially curled in

the above step and gently bend the wire again.

 This process should be steadily thereby noticing a much rounder look.

 Finally, grasp the end of the ear hook (the side that doesn't have any curl on it) with your

thumb and forefinger and gently bend the wire up a little.

 Repeat the steps above for a matching ear hook.

Powley (2016) also suggests the 21-gauge wire preferable for most findings especially, ear wires.

This wire size usually fits easily through most ear piercings and most beads starting at about

4mm size, is also quiet stiff, and is also a pretty good multi-purpose round wire. Again, to ensure matching ear hooks, it is advisable to make concurrently by using two pieces of wire, held together and completing the above steps.

Moreover, Coen (2016) states a four brief outline on how a brass drop is created as follows:

 A brass drop begins with pieces of same length cut wires.

 It is then curled with a wire jig or pliers and then cleaned.

 The curled components are then aligned together in preparation for soldering

 It is then brush cleaned and plated

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Plate 2.37: brass drops [source: www.firemountaingems.com]

2.6.5.1 Making links and chains

Jump rings are essential findings for making simple chains. They may be produced using the method for making round rings and joining several together. This can look very effective when the links are flattened.

Fig.2.3 shows the use of jump rings to connect other units to form a chain [source: Cosway et al (2001)]

Notwithstanding these, youtube.com also displays audio visuals of making jewellery findings in the hyperlinks below: https://youtu.be/6A5G-y52EgE; https://youtu.be/7U4jHoa_CdY; https://youtu.be/Y2bbSyrT5vs; https://youtu.be/sGMDBfAqlBY;

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2.6.6 Techniques employed for making jewellery findings

Manufacturing jewellery findings employs varying techniques of jewellery making processes and includes filigree, piercing among other forming techniques.

2.6.6.1 Filigree

Accounts by Mithra (2013) succumbs that filigree refers to a type of design that uses twisted wire to create delicate, lacy and openwork jewellery. Usually made from finer metals like gold, silver and platinum, this art form has been used for centuries to craft jewellery such as pins, rings and pendants. An artisan in his attempt to create filigree rolls the malleable metal into thin filaments, twists and bends them into intricate shapes that resemble spun sugar, paisley scrolls

2.6.6.2 Piercing

Piercing refers the action cutting out shapes from the interior of a metal piece using a jeweler’s saw. To do this, first you must drill a hole in the metal, through which the saw blade is thread.

Ensure the hole is drilled near the edge of the shape in order not to do excessive sawing to reach the edge of the design.

2.6.6.3 Casting

Casting is referred to as a manufacturing activity in which materials, usually liquid are poured into a mould containing a cavity of the desired shape and allowed to solidify. This solidified outcome is broken or removed out of the mould to complete the process. The hardened shape is also known as a casting. Materials that are cast are usually metals or other cold setting materials that dries after mixing a couple of components together. Casting is mostly used for

45 manufacturing complex shapes that otherwise would be difficult or uneconomical to produce by other techniques. (Degarmo et al, 2003)

2.6.6.4 Soldering

According to a website engineersgarage (2012) and the businessdictionary.com, soldering is a metal joining procedure in which a filler metal of lower melting temperature is melted to fill the space between the two pieces of metal. The filler metal, known as solder is characterized by a lower melting point below that of the work piece. In soldering, the work piece is not melted as in other methods of joining metals but rather; they are joined using a filler metal. Soldering has transformed through cultures and generations and today, it is the best technique of metal fabrication and assembly of microelectronics. Soldering can be classified under two main types and are namely; soft soldering and hard soldering.

Guyot Brothers Company, Inc. (2016) briefly mentions some techniques employed in their manufacture of jewellery findings. It has it that brass ornaments produced widely vary in design from minute intricately pierced to large bold and showy ornaments and the details of each piece, sharply defined. To the advantage of the designer, many findings are made in a series of sizes with many others are adaptable to manipulation. The findings include wings and bows of angels, an airy illusion of butterfly brass filigree stampings and decorative jewellery findings.

In conclusion, the manufacturing of jewellery findings, whether for decorative or functional purposes or even both, may inculcate adaptability and manipulability. This ensures for the benefit of the designer as well as for several applications in design work.

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2.6.7 Finishing & finishes for jewellery findings

Finishing procedures can be utilized to modify the appearance of materials to protect them against deterioration caused by corrosion, oxidation, mechanical wear or deformation. This provides unique surface qualities such as reflectivity, insulation or bearing properties, or to deliver special artistic effects to the materials. Finishing processes are sectioned in two broad groups. They are: those to which a coating, usually of a differing material, is applied to the surface and those to which the surface of the material is changed by chemical action, heat, or mechanical force. The former sect includes metallic coating, such as electroplating; organic finishing, such as painting; and porcelain enamelling. (Encyclopædia Britannica. , 2016)

Niobium has a high resistance to corrosion and other chemical reactions and is therefore employed in medical implants. Niobium jewellery findings are available in several anodized colours. Anodizing refers to a process of metal colouring by immersing it into an electrically charged bath that creates bright colours without plating or painting the surface. The colours don’t flake or chip like plated or painted surfaces do.

Fig. 2.4: assorted niobium earring hook findings [source: rings and things.com]

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Rings&things.com (2016) says, antiquing solutions also, oxidizers are mostly utilized by jewellery makers to deposit a patina on metal beads, charms as well as findings. Each of these solutions can be employed on various metals.

According to goldenagebeads.com (2013), jewellery findings are generally available in many different metal finishes, including gold and silver tones, antique silver, antique brass, copper and gunmetal.

TierraCast jewellery supplies, popular for its high-standard metal beads, buttons, charms and finding castings say, completed components may be finished with variety of attractive metal plating including silver, gold, copper, brass, pewter and black gunmetal finishes.

Plate 2.38: tierracast clasp [source: rings and things .com]

Cosway et al (2001) in writing on design and technology says, applied finishes must be toxic- free and should be scraping and flake resistant. The finish must also be weather-proof if the product is meant for out-door use.

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They further added that, the polish and finish you apply to your jewellery in the final stages of making can transform a rough piece of work into a beautiful object. Great care must hence be taken at this stage as it may take as long to clean up as to its construction.

Cosway et al (2001) also presents a three-step outline when preparing for finishing metals as follows:

 File out any deep scratches and rough edges with a smooth file.

 Wrap a piece of emery cloth around the file to remove marks left by filing.

 When all the file marks are removed, you may need to finish with a fine emery cloth.

2.6.7.1 Finishing techniques

According to Cosway et al (2001), there are various techniques of finishing a product and includes the following:

Threading- used to polish the inside of small holes. Tie several strands of soft strings to a hook on the bench, apply Tripoli polishing compound to the string. Thread the string through the hole and hold the string taught and rub the piece up and down the string

Fig. 2.5: visual demonstration of threading finishing technique [source: Cosway et al (2001)]

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Burnishing- bright lustrous edges can be achieved by rubbing firmly with a burnisher to compress the surface after finishing with emery cloth

Fig. 2.6: visual demonstration of burnishing finishing technique [source: Cosway et al (2001)]

Punching- metal punches can be made by filing patterns into mild steel rod. Hammer the punch onto the metal to produce a pattern.

Fig. 2.7: varying punch impressions used for finishing [source: Cosway et al (2001)]

Buffing- If you require a bright, polished shiny surface you can use buffing machine, great care needs to be taken. It is not suitable for small items-never polish a ring on your finger.

Fig. 2.8: visual demonstration of buffing finishing technique [source: Cosway et al (2001)]

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2.6.7.1.1 Colouring metals

Jewellers have traditionally introduced colour into their designs either by including precious stones or combining different metals. More recently electrical processes have been developed to produce a vast spectrum of coloured oxide finishes on aluminium, titanium and niobium. It is possible to produce several attractive colours on copper by simply applying heat. When heat is applied to a metal, the surface atoms combine with oxygen and cause a layer of oxide to be formed. As the surface gets hotter, the oxide will proceed to change colour. It is possible to preserve these colours through cooling. The colours may be preserved at any time by quenching in engine oil. The oil will deepen the colour

Fig. 2.9: degrees of colour change of metal at the application of heat [source: Cosway et al (2001)]

Blackening copper or silver- It is possible to obtain a black surface on copper or silver by applying potassium sulphide. Dip a nylon paintbrush in warm water. Load the brush with potassium sulphide. Paint the areas you wish to darken e.g.: the recesses. Leave to dry, polish with a buffing machine to reveal the black indentations. You can also mask out areas with masking tape and polish away flat surfaces to reveal black areas.

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Plate 2.39: high lustrous metal surfaces revealing black indentations [source: en.wikipedia.com]

In conclusion it is worthy of note that there are two main categories of finishing. One of which a compound of a different material is applied unto a surface. The other category caters for the surface of the material to be altered by chemical, heat or mechanical action. However, plating, painting, colouring of jewellery findings are employed finishing techniques with the former being prevalent in various metal tones like gold, silver and gunmetal. Anodizing is also employed for certain advantages over plating and painting.

2.7 Concept of auxiliaries

The role of supporting or helping to make whole a process or idea characterises the concept of auxiliaries. This understanding is therefore brought to bare in conceptualizing the idea of jewellery findings meant solely for organic materials. These “auxiliaries” helps and supports organic materials to become whole in their application for jewellery.

2.7.1 Definition of auxiliaries

The term auxiliaries to business circles means an aid to business activity or supporting activities which removes various hindrances of place, time risk, finance and knowledge which may arise in

52 connection with the production and distribution of goods. Such activities support both industry and trend, (Pandey, 2002).

To this regard, the researcher promotes the concept of auxiliaries in jewellery findings for organic materials in the positioning and arrangement of jewellery components

2.8 Scope of organic materials

Organic materials also referred to as organic matter or in other words, natural organic matter according to Greenfacts.org (2007), refers to a numerous variety of carbon-based compounds identified in natural and engineered, aquatic as well as tellurian surroundings. Also, organic materials are substances made up of organic compounds that emanates from the remnants of plant and animal organisms and their waste products in the environment.

Holbrow (2012) defines organic materials in modern chemistry as carbon-based compounds, originally obtained from living organisms but currently includes lab-synthesized variations too. Organic materials constitute wood, feathers, leather, and synthetic materials such as petroleum-based plastics. Despite the variance, Holbrow (2012) explains that organic materials share certain general traits. For instance; most of them undergo fading, yellowing, or loss of flexibility and elasticity due to overexposure to light or other elements.

IAC Publishing Labs Company (2016) gives some examples of organic materials as wood, paper, textiles and animal parts. They further assert that, organic materials are any forms of materials found in nature or fashioned out of materials found in nature and are composed basically of organic compounds. These compounds contain the element carbon and are widely found naturally in plants and animals. Organic materials originally degenerate with time.

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The New York State department of environmental conservation is also of the view that organic materials have their origination from plants and animals. Though multiform in nature, organic materials are all composed of carbon-based elements.

In conclusion, organic materials undoubtedly emanates from a range of living organisms such as plants and animals. Parts of these organisms whether living or dead (ie without life) are referred to as organic materials and contain traces of carbon-based compounds and is susceptible to degeneration which means it is adaptable in the environment.

2.8.1 Classifications of organic materials

Organic materials are separated into three classes depending on its origin.

Cellulosic Materials: these are plant materials that were or are living organisms consisting of cellulose and lignin. They include wood, bark, grass, roots, leaves, seeds, even flowers among others. Approximately, there are 350,000 plant species currently in existence and as of 2004, nearly 288,000 have been identified consisting close to 259,000 flowering species. Variation of materials employed for making objects of cultural heritage almost equals the quantum of available plants. Asian lacquer is also another organic material which originates from plant.

Proteinaceous: pertains to materials of animal origin. A bewildered assortment of animal-based materials has been manipulated by man for use in tools, objects of decoration and fine art.

Commonly occurring forms include hides, parchment, gut, fur and hair, Leather and Skin, feathers and quills, wool and silk, baleen, and tortoiseshell. Antler, Ivory, bone and shell may also contain protein components.

Organic Polymers are derived from fossil fuels or other oils.

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2.8.2 Sources of organic materials

Vegetational residues as a result of care and maintenance of farms, gardens and lawns referred to as yard trimmings are a good source of plant organic material. They include pruning from trees and shrubs, grass clippings, garden debris, leaves among others.

Soil and tree debris like giant branches and tree stumps usually are not regarded yard trimmings because they are mostly reused or recycled apart from other organic materials.

Food scraps including raw or cooked food materials from households, food services, and food processing plants waste that are not consumed by human, including food loss before, during and after meal preparation discarded from retail sales and food services.

Food processing or manufacturing refers to the transformation of meats and dairy products, fruits and vegetables for human consumption. Such manufacturers sometimes generate assorted organic wastes like whey, rinds, pulps, skins, process cleansing water, and sewage residues.

These residues are usable in some instances for animal feed, composting, land application and anaerobic digestion.

2.9 Philosophical foundations

Malcom Schoffield describes philosophy as the process of asking questions and these questions must be purposive, that is, have an agenda or target of solving something- purposive philosophy.

The questions must aim at unravelling mysteries and wonders of life and help us to get to the bottom of issues by asking the why’s, what’s and how’s of things.

Known as the intellectual midwife, Socrates used question and answer or interpretive technique significant in the clarification of others ideas and avoidance of hasty conclusions and removal of

55 errors and preconceived ideas from people’s minds in order not to fall victims to mediocrity, that is, second hand knowledge and to also recognize our own shortcomings and limitations.

This technique also applies to the acquisition of authentic information from the right sources and the enrichment of our intellectual imaginations enlarges our conception of what is possible.

2.9.1 Sustainable design philosophy

Also known as environmentally conscious or environmentally sustainable design among others,

Sustainable design refers to the philosophy of physically designing objects, the built surroundings as well as services to comply with the ethics of socio-economic and ecological sustainability, (McLennan, 2004),

The intent of sustainability design is to "totally remove the negative environmental impact through sensitive and skillful design"(McLennan, 2004), Designing for sustainability demands resources that are renewable with less effect on the environment and links humanity to the natural surroundings. Great and impactful design is undoubtedly, sustainable design.

The application of sustainable design philosophy ranges from the creation of minute articles for everyday use - microcosm, through to architectural designing among others which is referred to as macrocosm. This philosophy is applicable in areas of architecture, landscape design, urban planning and design, industrial, interior, graphic and fashion designs as well as engineering and human-computer interaction.

Scientific methods, like art involves observations that can be repeated and verified by others whereas technology is the application of these observations that are repeatable for verification in industry and commerce.

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CS Odessa Corp. (2016), using a Life Cycle Analysis method of considering the entire environmental effect, energy and resource usage of a material or product, asserts that it can be an extremely effective way of linking many different aspects of the environmental impacts of materials usage. Often known as a 'cradle-to-grave' analysis, the Life cycle analysis provides a good premise to begin consideration of environmental aspects of materials. These materials often times are resources for industry and as a result may impact the environment positively or vice versa. Therefore, the corporation further outlines some factors to ensure environmental safety in industry and commerce as follows:

Design for Sustainability covers issues such as design for successful recycling, waste reduction, energy efficiency and increased lifetime.

Use of Sustainable Materials as those that possess distinct differences that achieve environmental benefit compared to conventional materials and this include:

 Materials of significant cellulosic base, such as wood, natural fibre composites, natural

polymers.

 Materials produced from a huge amount of waste material, which includes recycled

polymers, composites from waste mineral powders, and arguably also much steel and

aluminium.

End-of-Life Issues is a significant subject area encompassing aspects such as recycling techniques and materials limitations, biodegradability and composting among others.

According to David W. Orr

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The crisis of sustainability, the fit between humanity and its habitat, is manifest in

varying ways and degrees everywhere on earth. It is not only a permanent feature

on the political agenda; for all practical purposes, it is the agenda. Sustainability

is about the terms and conditions of human survival…’

Considering the above relevance, developing auxiliaries for organic materials which are eco- friendly resources for jewellery design is a step in the right direction in ensuring environmental safety, sustainability and green technology to reverse the adverse effects of human actions on the environment by employing environmentally friendly inventions including recycling, renewable resources and safety and health concerns in industry.

2.10 Research methodology

This section revisits the research paradigm, specifically, the pragmatic approach and types of methodologies deemed appropriate for the conduct of this research. Varying methods of data collection included qualitative methods, quantitative methods and mixed methods. Therefore, a research on the preceding three approaches was undertaken to ascertain the most beneficial method to realize the objectives and the research thesis as a whole.

2.10.1 Qualitative methods

Qualitative research may assume several forms like interviews, observations, questionnaires and content analysis. Data retrieved may describe and explain issues in-depth. Notwithstanding, this is mostly regarded with less validity and reliability compared to quantitative research but may yet be a great source of analysis. Miles and Huberman (1994) explain that, qualitative researches

58 possesses ‘undeniability’ characteristic as words have substantive, concrete and specific

‘sensation’ which is more convincing than several pages of numbers to the reader (Gray, 2009).

Moreover, Robson (2011) describes qualitative research as follows:

 That research findings are demonstrated in words or in non-numerical form

 That an inductive reasoning is employed beginning with the collection of data from

which theories and concepts evolve.

 That it focuses on meanings

 That contexts are considered necessary

 issues are analyzed from the perspective of those it concerns

 The research design evolves as the research is ongoing and remains flexible through the

research

 There is consideration for the values and opinion of researchers and others that matter

 That objectivity is considered as distancing the researcher from participatory agents

 Generalisation of research findings is not a significant concern

 That it usually occurs in a natural setting and rarely uses artificial laboratory settings

 That in terms of number of participants or issues understudied, it is mostly on a small-

scale

Qualitative research data can be analyzed using various methods including thematic codes or grounded theories. Grounded theory aims at generating theories that is in line with the exact issues forming the basis of the research. According to Robson (2011), the theory is ‘grounded’ in data sourced during the research, specifically in the actions, interactions and processes of individuals involved. Also, Thematic coding analysis is another method of qualitative data analysis and which may be executed manually or by employing various data analysis software.

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Robson (2011) further states that, thematic coding is useful in reporting, the relevance, reality and experiences of participatory agents or to ascertain ways in which situations, realities, meanings and experiences are the consequences of a range of discourses happening within society.

Coding has a central role in qualitative analysis and is described by Gibbs (2007, pp. 38.) as:

‘… how you define what the data you are analyzing are about. It involves

identifying and recording one or more passages of text or other data items such

as the parts of pictures that, in some sense, exemplify the same theoretical or

descriptive idea. Usually, several passages are identified and they are then linked

with a name for that idea – the code. Thus all the text and so on that is about the

same thing or exemplifies the same thing is coded to the same name.’

2.10.2 Quantitative methods

Quantitative research comprises of approaches in which resultant data assumes a numerical form and is always ‘quantifiable’. Such information may be utilized, for instance, to examine hypotheses or find correlations and associations between sects of the information. This basically may be in association with surveys and experiments but also with questionnaires and observations (Denscombe, 2007).

Robson (2011) again outlines the characteristics of quantitative research as follows:

 Measuring and quantifying is pivotal – accurate and precise measurement is sought

 Focuses on behavioral patterns (i.e. what people do or say)

 Deductive reasoning is employed in cases where preconceived theories and concepts are

examined

 Research design is described in-depth at early stages of the research

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 Valid and reliable measurements are essential

 In-depth specifications of proceedings are outlined for possible replication of study

 Expected analysis of statistics

 Generalization of research results is demanded

 Distance is maintained between researcher and participatory agents while seeking

objectivity.

A level of analyzing statistics is mostly undertaken on quantitative information. This may vary from simple statistical descriptions such as finding the standard deviation or the median, mean or mode. When testing for association, difference and significance, more in-depth statistics is required.

2.10.3 Mixed methods

Research studies which utilize varying methods in one research study is referred to as ‘mixed methods’ approach. Such strategy in research unites various approaches with different underpinning assumptions (Denscombe, 2007). This means, the research employs both qualitative and quantitative methods. It has been debated that researchers are able to enhance the level of confidence they have in the exactness of research findings via investigating a single study with various approaches. Mixed method gives favourable circumstances to the researcher to evaluate the results of one approach against the results of another approach.

In mixed method approach, opposing methods may also be utilized as a way of propagating evaluations, using an approach to decide another. In effect, a different approach is added as a means of adding on what has been learnt previously using the first method. This however differs from employing a different approach to ascertain details of an issue; the new approach is brought in to essentially tackle a study’s situation occurring by results obtained through a different

61 method (Denscombe, 2007). A different factor that can call for the use of mixed method is a research project mostly including several varying research questions and therefore, a method appropriated for a particular research question may not be appropriate for the other (Gray, 2009).

In mixed method approaches, a combination employing both qualitative and quantitative approaches is usually implemented. This method is referred to as ‘triangulation’. It encompasses not only comparing multiple sources of information, but also utilizing various data collection methods to ascertain a single phenomenon. A discourse of both qualitative and quantitative methods analysis is referred to as ‘methodological triangulation’, while using various sources of data is referred to as ‘data triangulation’ (Guion, Diehl and McDonald, 2011). Desegregation of numerous sources of data helps in increasing the authenticity of a research.

Sequential triangulation refers to using of qualitative and quantitative research approaches concurrently. In this regard, there exist minimum interactions within dual sets of data in the course of collecting information. Nonetheless, the result complements one another. When the findings of one approach used are necessary for planning the next, Sequential triangulation is used” (Morse, 1991, pp.120).

In conclusion, this study employs the pragmatic research paradigm. In that any research approach or design deemed appropriate is utilized. Therefore, the study comprises more than a single research question as well as data sources; therefore the mixed methods technique of collecting data which involves data and sequential triangulation was regarded as a very appropriate research methodology. An integration of qualitative and quantitative research methods (methodological triangulation) was employed to fulfill the objectives of the study, using one method to inform another.

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2.10.4 Research designs

The underpinning element of this research is to design jewellery findings specifically for organic materials in the concept of costume jewellery. It also emphasizes the promotion of sustainable design and green technology in jewellery making. The research design explicates the data management plan which includes how the data was retrieved and its assessment towards answering the research questions for the study.

The study employed the qualitative and quantitative research methods, making use of the content analysis, descriptive, and experimental research as the main research designs. The content analysis research design facilitated the reading and recording of relevant information, subjecting text retrieved to scrutiny, analysing the statements in it context and relationships. As well, the descriptive research design describing what exists and helps to identify particular characteristics or features observed to realize non-existing facts and its significance. The descriptive research was employed to observe, describe and document aspects of phenomena as it occurs naturally

(Polit & Hungler, 1999). Also, the experimental research design was employed to manipulate variables and purposely, to change and control materials and techniques in order to yield specific outcomes. This therefore exudes confidence in the results achieved by manipulation and control of certain variables time and again.

2.10.5 Population of the study

From the Sage Encyclopaedia of Qualitative Research Method, an individual or agent that meets the requisite requirements a researcher has outlined for a study, whether broad or narrow is termed a population of the study. Again, as explained by Kumekpor (2002), population of

63 enquiry, is the overall number of every units of the existing phenomenon being enquired in the domain of the investigation.

The research population is heterogeneous in nature. This includes a variety of jewellery findings for the purpose of critical analysis, observation and description. As well, a range of organic materials for detailed evaluation and employability together with some suitable materials for making costume jewellery findings were also employed. Indigenous merchants of ancient seeds, cowries and coins of various currencies along the Kumasi railway line are involved in the population of this study. All population are deemed representational due to a structured array of sampling procedure followed. It is essentially notable that some organic materials lose their integrity when cut or transformed in shape. Meanwhile, others still maintain its integrity even after cutting; such materials can employ still, the existing auxiliaries or findings.

2.10.6 Sampling procedure

With reference to Kalton (1983), the process of sampling involves choosing real sources of data from a broader umbrella of possibilities and that, this all-encompassing procedure mainly comprises of dual similar characters that is, making definite the complete set of probable sources of data which in general terms is known as the population hence, choosing a definite representation of information sources from that population.

Therefore, the sampling technique employed for this research is the purposive or judgemental sampling of some organic materials due to their usability characteristic for costume jewellery.

Again, the systematic random sampling technique was employed to sample the types and classifications of jewellery findings produced to compliment the organic materials.

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CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Overview

This chapter covers the specificity of research methods and designs, population and sampling procedures as well as data management plan employed for the study. Notwithstanding this, all procedures pertaining to actualization of practice, working procedures in the execution of the project is also captured in details in this chapter.

3.2 Conceptual framework

There exist findings in the domain of costume jewellery and jewellery design at large. These findings compliment a vast spectrum of beading materials. Nonetheless, not all material forms and shapes are supported, especially materials occurring naturally whose form are mostly not determined. This research therefore unveiled the possibility of microcosm sustainable design philosophy and green technology approach towards jewellery design through the creation of auxiliaries.

In fig. 3.1 below, the diagram represents the flow of methodological procedure covering the collection of literature and important data. It also summarises how the data was managed as well as the theories of choosing and selecting what works better for practice. It also covers the implications thereof to inform the practical processes of the fundamental objective subsequently.

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Fig. 3.1: Diagrammatic framework of methodology

3.3 Research design

The foundational objective of this study is to design auxiliaries to compliment organic materials for costume jewellery.

The research design clearly outlines the method, procedure, means, source and evaluation of data collected. The research designs employed was also targeted at addressing the research questions of the study. The research employed the qualitative and quantitative approaches. From the qualitative approach, the descriptive and content analysis was employed to facilitate relevant data collection. Indicative of its name, the descriptive design was employed in describing samples of resources collected for the study. The content analysis design was used to identify relevant knowledge of the content of related literature, thereby supporting opinions by the

66 comprehension of characteristic ideas in the content. From the quantitative approach, the experimental design was employed to explore the practicalities of addressing the primary research objective.

The Content analysis identified existing related projects and sought to understand their scope in relation to the study.

The Descriptive design was used to depict organic materials obtained, some existing organic jewellery as well as jewellery findings sampled.

The Experimental design ensured an outline of calculated steps to create the auxiliaries

3.4 Population for the study

The population for the study comprised organic materials, jewellery findings, organic jewellery and some metals. The research therefore targeted the following as it population:

 A variety of jewellery findings  Existing organic jewellery  A range of organic materials and  Some suitable materials for making costume jewellery findings as its population.

Fig. 3.2: Diagrammatic summary of the population 67

After conducting several searches, the researcher found a variety of jewellery resources from various plant species across the length and breadth of campus KNUST. The botanic garden, plantations along and around the many streets and edifices on campus formed part of available resources to the researcher and hence part of the population. The most common among these resources were the flamboyant plant, the rust tree and the pride of Barbados found almost along every stretch on campus. Also, traditional markets and fruit vendors were another source from which the researcher obtained some organic materials to be employed for jewellery units for which auxiliaries were designed. In all, twenty six (26) resources were identified for the research stretching through the subdivisions of sources of organic materials which encompasses materials from the sea or water bodies, plants and animals as listed in Table 3.1 below.

Table 3.1 below presents a list of the materials identified in their local Ghanaian, common and botanical names respectively as well as the part of the material to be used.

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Table 3.1: list of organic materials identified for possible jewellery units GHANAIAN COMMON BOTANICAL PART NAME NAME NAME IDENTIFIED Craterispermum Seeds laurinum Framo/ofram Afara Terminalia superba Stem Alasa Africa star Chrysophyllum Seed apple albidum Atlantic Cerastoderma edule Shells Cockle Bamboo Bambusa vulgaris Stem Bead tree Adenanthera Seeds pavonina Amire Black Afara Terminalia Ivorensis Stem Akosua Black Dialium Seeds tuntum cochinchinense Velvet

tamarind

Cattle Femur bone Cerith Cerithium Shells Nodulosom Apofee (fante) Cerith Cerithium Sulcata Shells champaca Michelia champaca Seeds Kube (akan) Coconut Cocos nucifera Shells Cowry Monetaria moneta Shells Date palm Phoenix dactylifera Seed Ato (ewe) Duiker/dika Irvingia gabonensis Seed nut flamboyant Poinciana regia Seeds Onyina Kapok tree Ceiba pentandra Stem Militia Militia thoningii Seeds Oil palm Elaeis guineensis Kernel shells Panama Carludovica palmate Seeds palm Pride of Caesalpinia Seeds Barbados pulcherrima Rust tree Peltophorum Seeds pterocarpum Senile ark Senilia sinilis Shell Aluguntugui Sugar/sweet Annona squamosal Seed apple Wawa Triplochiton Stem scleroxylon

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For the purpose of proper clarity, the researcher also supported the various resources outlined in

table 3.1 above with pictorial references, giving the plant and or the fruit as well as the potential

part to be employed. The following plates as labelled below shows the various resources

obtained.

Plate 3.1 A&B: flamboyant plant and seeds

A

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Plate 3.2 A,B,C: rust tree showing plant, fruits and seeds

Plate 3.3: pride of barbados showing fruit and seeds

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This notwithstanding, others including the duiker nut, champaca, militia, and panama palm are shown in plates 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7 below.

Plate 3.4: the champaca plant showing its fruits and dried seeds

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Plate 3.5 A, B, C: bead tree showing fruit and seeds

Plate 3.6 A&B: Craterispermum laurinum showing plant and resultant seeds from fruit

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Plate 3.7 A&B: duiker nut showing fruit and seed

Plate 3.8 A&B: panama palm and fruit

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Plate 3.9: bambusa vulgaris

Upon identification, the following plant in plates 3.10 and 3.11 below were revealed to be poisonous and as such could not be employed for the study which is eventually meant for human use.

Plate 3.10: poisonous plant with seeds

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Plate 3.11: plant, fruits and seeds of poisonous plant

Other timber species were also identified as potential resources for the research. This includes terminalia superba, wawa, and amire as shown in Plate 3.12- 3.14.

Plate 3.12: terminalia ivorensis (amire) Plate 3.13: terminalia superba (afara) [Source: wooddatabase.com (2018)]

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Plate 3.14: triplochiton scleroxylon wawa [source: wooddatabase.com (2018)]

Apart from the search for suitable jewellery materials, the researcher chanced upon some precious resources while enjoying some tropical fruit species. These were fruits purchased from fruit vendors such as the Africa star apple; locally known as “alasa”, sweet apple; also known locally as “aluguntugui”, the sour sop, the date palm, black velvet tamarind among others as shown in plates 3.15-3.20.

A B

Plate 3.15A: Date fruits Plate 3.15B: Date fruit seeds of varying [source: youtube.com] sizes

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Plate 3.16A: sweet apple-“aluguntugui” Plate 3.16B: sweet apple seeds [source: researchgate.com]

Plate 3.17A: sour sop fruit Plate 3.17B: Sour sop seeds [source: en.wikipedia.com]

Plate 3.18A: Africa star apples-“alasa” Plate 3.18B: Lustrous seeds of Africa [source: drhealthbenefit.com] star apples

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A B Plate 3.19A: Black velvet tamarind- Plate 3.19B: Varied shades of tamarind “akosua tuntum”[source: naijafoodtherapy.com] seeds

Plate 3.20A: Coconut tree Plate 3.20B: shell of the coconut fruit [source: wallpaperflare.com] [source: wallpaperflare.com] Notwithstanding these, collectors of ancient legal tenders such as cowries, ceriths and other shells as represented in Plates 3.21-3.24 were not left out during the researcher’s collection of potential resources.

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Plate 3.21: monetaria moneta- cowries in Plate 3.22: Sinelia sinilis- senile ark various sizes in varying sizes

Plate 3.23: Atlantic cockle shells in varying Plate 3.24: Cerith- Cerithium Nodulosom sizes After a series of search, the researcher found and purchased one of Ghana’s age-old delicacy known in the Fante dialect as “ap)fee” as seen in plate 3.25 from the Kaneshie market in Accra-

Ghana. It is botanically known as Cerithium Sulcata .

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Plate 3.25: cerith - “ap)fee”

A B

Plate 3.26A: femur bone Plate 3.26B: treated femur bone [source: en.wikipedia .com] [source: en.wikipedia .com] These notwithstanding, findings organized from a previous research the researcher lead also proved the shells of the oil palm fruit a viable resource for jewellery design. Therefore the researcher could not neglect the palm kernel shells as shown in Plate 3.27 in designing auxiliaries for a selection of organic materials for jewellery.

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Plate 3.27: palm fruits and resultant polished kernel shells

The above mentioned materials, to an extent have been the cradle of jewellery design and therefore necessitated their collection in this research. The researcher in order to facilitate the identification took quality photographs of some plant parts as seen from Plates 3.1-3.27. These photographs as shown in the above pages, aided in the initial categorization of the materials with the aid of a computer. With some samples, the researcher called on seeds and plants specialist in the Horticulture department of the faculty of Agriculture, KNUST, in the person of Mr Paul K.

Tandoh and other experts to assist in the identification of the collected materials. Through their expertise, it was known that some seeds of certain plant species as seen in Plates 3.10 and 3.11 were poisonous and as such could be harmful for the purpose of the research. The seeds among other materials collected were labelled with respective names in plastic containers.

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3.5 Sampling techniques

In the wake of several sampling methods available, the researcher employed the random sampling and the purposive sampling methods. The random sampling technique was used to identify a sizeable representation of the vast and diverse jewellery findings and organic jewellery available from online shops, the worldwide web, jewellery accessory shops and personal collections among other sources. The purposive sampling technique was used to select suitable organic materials for the purpose of jewellery making. Because these materials were to be able to stand a certain test of time, some criteria were developed to aid in this sampling procedure and thus, not all organic materials identified were suitable. In like manner, the purposive sampling method was used to select copper wire due to its accessibility and affordability compared to other metals that could possibly be used for the auxiliaries.

3.6 Specific treatment of objectives

3.6.1 Objective one: Investigation into types of findings for costume jewellery

3.6.1.1 Data needed

Investigating the varieties of jewellery findings that exist for costume jewellery, the following information was required:

a. The types of findings available for CJ

b. The types of materials employed for making such findings

c. Techniques employed for making the findings

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3.6.1.2 Data collection methods

In other to fulfil the objective, the researcher adopted reviewing literature and participant observation. The researcher rigorously searched and read several writings and reviewed creative works of some experts of costume jewellery design from books, the internet as well as online videos. The researcher also sought the opinion of supervising lecturers and technicians on suitable metals and techniques to employ. Again, the researcher also patronized purchasing jewellery findings from accessory shops from the Kumasi central market to experience what is available and the techniques involved in their making.

3.6.1.3 Data collection instruments

The effective collection of data as explained above was made possible with the aid of a laptop computer with access to the internet which aided reviewing works of experts and transferring information. A notepad and pen aided the collection of information from books online and personal libraries of lecturers. A set of pliers and other basic tools were the means of practicing and perfecting the creation of auxiliaries. A camera was also to capture some of the experiments to best communicate the process.

3.6.1.4 Data analyses/treatment of data

After collecting relevant data, the researcher analysed and took inspiration from the various writers and works of artists. The analyses of data gathered revealed that casting was chief among techniques costume jewellery finding making. Due to the base metals used for their production, it is usually coated or plated as shown in plates 3.28 and 3.29. Mild steel and other lightweight base metals are also usually employed for most costume jewellery findings.

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Plate 3.28: varied clasp types

Plate 3.29: varied earring findings

Plate 3.30: varied beadcaps Plate 3.31: varied headpins

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Plate 3.32: jump rings

3.6.2 Objective two: Investigation into existing organic jewellery, emphasizing the jewellery findings employed.

3.6.2.1 Data needed

In other to investigate existing organic jewellery emphasizing the jewellery findings employed, the following information was required:

a. A review of existing organic jewellery

b. Processes involved in making the jewellery findings for these jewellery

c. The connection of costume jewellery components

3.6.2.2 Data collection methods

The methods of retrieving data for the investigation of existing organic material-based costume jewellery and emphasizing the jewellery findings was successful by reviewing costume jewellery pieces found in online shops as well as personal collection from previous studies. The researcher also patronized reviewing videos of the making of some findings. Supervising lecturers also

86 offered some ideas and technical assistance on making some of the findings upon consultation.

The researcher went through a process of critical observations of the jewellery identified as well as the findings. The researcher also experimented with some auxiliaries to be used on the organic materials.

3.6.2.3 Data collection instruments

Data collection instruments included organic jewellery samples from the internet retrieved by means of a computer with able internet access. Simple jewellery making tools propelled the realization of inspiration drawn. A camera was also used to capture some samples created to effectively communicate ideas.

3.6.2.4 Data analyses/treatment of data

Data gathered was analysed following a critical observation approach as to how the jewellery units were constructed and their appearance in linking one another. The researcher also hands-on practised creating some samples by manipulating various wire gauges with some simple jewellery making tools. Plate 3.33 shows that samples created with thicker wires were much firmer compared to thin wires. Multiple twisted wires also produced a firm form and an added texture as depicted in plate 3.34 below

Plate 3.33: test with different gauge wires Plate 3.34: test with twisted wire

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Plate 3.35: sample auxiliary headpin Plate 3.36: sample double ends link

Plate 3.37: sample auxiliary earstud Plate 3.38: sample auxiliary ear whoop

Plate 3.39: wrap wire frame

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3.6.3 Objective three: Designing auxiliaries for selected organic materials, demonstrating its adaptability for costume jewellery.

3.6.3.1 Data needed

In the designing of auxiliaries suitable for some selected organic materials and demonstrate its adaptability for jewellery, data required included:

a. suitable organic materials for costume jewellery

b. Materials available for making auxiliaries

c. techniques of designing auxiliaries

3.6.3.2 Data collection methods

To effectively collect data to fulfil the design of auxiliaries for organic materials, the researcher searched the Knust botanic gardens for some plant resources. The researcher also collected some seeds from various plants within the research area. The researcher also chanced upon some seeds while eating them. Upon consultations with experts and rigorous search and reading, the researcher effectively identified the materials and eventually excluding some which were harmful. The researcher also observed and tested some materials by applying some amount of force, scraping, crashing among others and this led to their exclusion from viable resources. The researcher sought expert advice on materials and techniques to employ which led to some preliminary experiments carried out.

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3.6.3.3 Data collection instruments

Data collection instruments for the success of designing suitable auxiliaries for organic materials and adapting it for jewellery involved the use of notepad and computer was useful during the compilation of the material identification. A camera was also a means of pictorial communication of materials and ideas. Practical activities were carried out made with copper wires and organic materials for the purpose of experimentation and observation

3.6.3.4 Data analyses/treatment of data

Upon thorough cognitive analysis, data gathered during the process of identifying materials and experimentations as well as suggestions were considered and implemented as follows:

1. Categorization of organic materials

The researcher grouped materials obtained from table 3.1 above under three categories namely: wholly, convertible and both. These captures materials that could be used without losing their identity either it is used whole in its natural form or converted in size or be used either ways. Out of these groupings, five materials were selected based on employability for the research. Table

3.2 below represents the categorization of all the resources obtained whether it could be employed with and or without conversion.

Table 3.2: Categorization of materials showing the form in which it could be used Wholly Convertible Both Pks, all shells, almost all Pks, bamboo, cocos Pks seeds, duiker nut nucifera, some shells, almost all timber species

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The researcher assessed and selected five organic materials based on feasibility criteria of organic materials outlined in table 3.3 below to ascertain durable materials among the lot identified in table 3.1 above.

Table 3.3: Assessment criteria of organic materials for jewellery units DRI UNIF INTEG CRITE DECA THER DUR LLI ORM RATI RIA Y MAL ABI NG S ITY S TOXI ON RESIS RESIS TOTAL LIT ABI I H CITY WITH MATE TANC TANC TEXT Y LIT FINDI RIAL E E URE Y NGS CERIT H 4 5 2 0 3 5 4 0 3 26 SHEL LS COCO NUT 5 5 4 3 5 5 4 0 5 36 SHEL LS DATE SEED 4 4 5 1 3 4 4 0 4 29 S FEMU R 5 5 4 4 3 5 4 0 5 35 BONE S FLAM BOYA NT 4 4 4 1 4 5 5 0 4 31 SEED S

In table 3.4 below, the researcher also assesses the efficiency of materials to be employed for the

design of auxiliaries.

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Table 3.4: Assessment criteria of materials for auxiliaries CRIT TOXIC INTEGRATI AVA COST ERIA ACCE ITY ON WITH MANIP TO ILA EFFEC MATE SSIBI ORGANIC ULABI TA BILI TIVEN RIAL LITY MATERIAL LITY L TY ESS S S COPP 5 5 4 1 5 5 25 ER SILVE 2 1 2 0 5 4 14 R GOLD 1 0 1 0 5 5 12

Data gathered through observations and experiments was thoughtfully evaluated to influence the design of auxiliaries.

2. Preliminary design process

Several factors come into play in the design of auxiliaries for specific materials. Chief

among the factors is the physical outlook (shape/form) or structure of the material.

Material form/shape

The researcher sought further analysis of material forms and their convertibility through sketching. Using pencils and drawing sheets, the researcher positioned each of the materials on virtually same posts and sketched each in various categories according to their basic shapes as shown in appendix one. It was revealed that even though some materials had been grouped based on their forms, the drawings showed other characteristics and features working together best with others than earlier supposed. An instance found was the date seeds and cowries. The average shape of the cowry was like that of an irregular oval and therefore categorised together with the seeds of the Africa star apple as shown in Fig. 3.8 B. Nonetheless, the sketches revealed that though a view across the date seed was leaner than the cowry, the date seed and the cowry were similar considering the ventral groove they possessed along their length as shown in Fig. 3.3 A. 92

The researcher was therefore persuaded to conclude that, some of the materials obtained share similar traits with other materials and therefore similar auxiliaries could work for them.

The date seed was preferred over the cowry because it possessed similar ventral groove.

Moreover, there were quite a number of research explorations on cowry in jewellery design than there was for the date kernels and therefore a grey area for study. The fig. 3.3 below shows the similarity of structural form of the materials reviewed for the study.

Fig. 3.3 A&B: characteristic similarity of cowries, Africa star apple seed and date seed upon analysis

Jewellery construction It is necessary to consider the type of arrangement of a jewellery piece when obtaining materials for auxiliaries to be designed. Using basic shapes, the researcher identified some simple structural arrangements for the jewellery. In the fig. 3.4 below, A represents a series of linear arrangements of materials using different shapes whereas B shows the multi-linear arrangement and C, the brick-layer approach.

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Fig. 3.4 A, B, C: some basic arrangements of units in jewellery design

For further analysis, the researcher cited some of the materials representing the above categories in table 3.2 with the aid of 2D software (corelDraw) in the following figures 3.5, 3.6 below and appendix two.

Fig. 3.5: characteristic and conversional strategies of coconut shell

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Fig. 3.6: characteristic and conversional strategies of bamboo and femur bone Plates 3.40-3.43 below present the preliminary actualization of the CorelDraw rendition of possible conversions of the coconut shells. Notwithstanding, some of the shapes had some parts chipped off as seen in plate 3.40 and 3.41 below due to thin outlines as a result of piercing and multiple cuts creating weaker intersections respectively.

Plate 3.40: pierced coconut butterflies Plate 3.41: leaf-like shapes

Much solid shapes as shown in plate 3.42 proved more resilient and stood the multiple force applied during the design processes.

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Plate 3.42: solid spheres Plate 3.43: sawn coconut tree

These possible conversions paved way for the design of possible auxiliaries for the organic materials collected.

3. Creating sample auxiliaries

The researcher therefore hands-on practised creating some samples by manipulating wires with basic jewellery making tools. A stratum was also developed to ascertain the characteristics of employable materials for the auxiliaries. The application of sample auxiliaries was demonstrated on organic materials and is shown in plates 3.44-3.49 below as well as appendix four. The researcher also in the course of experimentations identified some organic materials could lend themselves as auxiliaries. Plate 3.47 is evident of a coconut toggle clasp.

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Plate 3.44: preliminary ideas of auxiliaries applied on flamboyant seeds

Plate 3.45: twisted wire auxiliary applied on coconut cut-outs

Plate 3.46: auxiliary headpin application Plate 3.47: headpin applied for coconut clasp

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Plate 3.48: preliminary ideas of auxiliaries on ceriths

Plate 3.49: preliminary ideas of auxiliaries applied on coconut shells

The analysis from the application of these experiments and samples influenced and inspired the creation of auxiliaries.

3.6.3.5 Designing the auxiliaries

After a series of reviews on several techniques of jewellery design and jewellery findings as well as practical experiments, the researcher set out to design simple auxiliaries to be employed for flamboyant seeds, coconut shells, cerith shells, femur bones as well as date seed. Non-soldered techniques like wire wrapping, coiling or swirling, loops and twisting of wire were among others employed.

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3.6.3.6 The flamboyant seeds

Plate 3.50: Two-tier flamboyant seeds neck piece

The flamboyant plant, so commonly called and botanically known as Poinciana Regia is one of the most common flowering plants on campus KNUST. The plant bears yellow through orange to red flowers as well as dark brown pallets which contains seeds as exhibited in plate 3.1 above.

A ripe pallet may contain about fifteen (15) to twenty five (25) seeds. The seeds are smooth, hard and strong and are irregularly slender in shape with a range of black-brown off-white demarcated colours. These flamboyant seeds range from about 0.6 inches to an inch in length and 5-6mm in

99 diameter. Among other characteristics, the flamboyant seed possesses qualities like decay resistance, drilling ability and is classified as a-ready-to-use resource and thus presents itself viable as an organic jewellery material. Therefore the researcher outlines the following 6-point processes with supporting images as involved in designing auxiliaries for flamboyant seeds:

 With a pair of calliper and cutting shears, measure and cut 110mm of copper wire

 Mark about 45mm with the calliper and bend the point from one end

 Create a loop on that bend

 With a metallic cylinder of similar diameter as the seed, wrap the wire around the

cylinder, holding the loop firmly on the cylinder with a round-nose plier

 Wrap the longest part of the wire a second time still in the same position above

 Turn the remaining wire ends into an “S” shape to form a complete auxiliary for the

flamboyant seed.

Plate 3.51: pairs of pliers and metal cylinder for auxiliary design

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Plate 3.52: step-by-step procedure for designing auxiliary for flamboyant seeds

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3.6.3.7 The coconut shell

Plate 3.53: coconut shell necklace embellished with copper auxiliaries

The coconut shell is the toughest part of the coconut fruit (plant) botanically known as Cocos

Nucifera. The shell is found between the husk and the flesh which is similar to hard woods in chemical composition. Due to its oval shape in nature, the cracked shells come concave in appearance with very rough husky outer. The coconut shell possesses very high durability characteristics, toughness, and strength as well as abrasion resistance. The coconut shell is largely utilised due to its strength and ability to resist decay. Among others, it also has the ability

102 to be drilled and sawn making it viable as a jewellery material. In this light, the researcher enumerates a seven-step outline to create auxiliaries for coconut shells to be used as jewellery as follows:

 Measure and cut copper wire about a 120mm long

 With a pair of flat-nose plier, hold one end of the wire about 3mm and bend to form a

small “L” at the end

 Hold the bent end vertically in the plier firmly and turn the wire to form a loop

 Carefully rotate the rest of the wire around the loop until wire is exhausted O

 Carefully rotate the wire around the loop until about 10mm of wire remain

 Create a step-down by bending the rest of wire with a round-nose plier

 Holding the tip of the remaining wire with a round-nose plier, create a loop

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Plate 3.54: step-by-step guide of creating swirling auxiliaries for coconut shells

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3.6.3.8 The cerith shells

Plate 3.55: Alternating cerith neckpiece

Ceriths is a general term of the family Cerithiidae and a subset of a large class of medium-sized marine gastropods of the Sorboconcha clade. Measuring about 2.5cm in size, it has a slender body with a horny operculum exhibiting a hand-full of whorls with very impressive established anterior notch. Ranging from pale white through dark brown to black shade coupled a dramatic concentric notches gives the shells a very beautiful outlook. Eaten as a delicacy in some parts of

Ghana, ceriths shells have the viability as organic jewellery materials due to its decay resistance among other properties. The research outlines an eight-step process for designing auxiliaries for propagating the use of ceriths in jewellery as follows: 105

 Measure and cut about 240mm of wire

 With a pair of round-nose plier, create a loop on one end of the wire

 Holding the loop in a flat-nose plier, steadily rotate the wire around the loop continously

until half-way of the wire

 Repeat step two on the other end of the wire but anti-clockwise to the swirl on the other

end

 Again, like step three, rotate the swirl in an opposite direction so you have a swirl on

each end like an “S”

 With very little space between the two swirls, cap or fold them up

 With a round-nose plier, gradually release each concentric layer out of the other to form a

spiral cone

 Then raise each of the loop created from the base to stand perpendicular to the barrel-

shaped auxiliary

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Plate 3.56: step-by-step approach to creating auxiliaries for ceriths

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3.6.3.9 The cattle femur bone

Plate 3.57: cattle femur bone jewellery

The cattle femur bone is the toughest of the long bones in the skeletal structure of the cattle. It serves as the source and attachment for many muscles and tendons which means that, it is distinctively structured for each species. The femur bone together with the hip bone is articulated to form the hip joint. Due to the strength and resilience and lasting characteristics of the femur

108 bone, the researcher found it a brilliant resource for organic jewellery and has therefore outlined the following steps to create auxiliaries for it:

 Measure and cut wires about 40mm long

 Gripping the very tip of the one end of the wire, create a swirl

 Unlike other auxiliaries, this must be completed on the material

 Therefore insert the open end through the one processed bone and the another

 Complete the end by forming another swirl but in an anti-clockwise direction to

the first

 Align the swirls to rest on the bone to hold the together

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Plate 3.58: step-by-step procedure of auxiliary design for the femur bone

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3.6.3.10 the date palm seeds

Plate 3.59: front-brick neckpiece made from date seeds

Date or date palm as commonly called and botanically known as Phoenix dactylifera, is one of the sweetest and probably one of the oldest cultivated fruits. The date fruits contain hard coated seeds. Date seeds also known as date kernels are usually oblong, ventrally grooved with a small embryo and possess a golden brown colour weighing about 0.5g to 4g depending on maturity variety and grade. These hard seeds possesses among others, strength, drilling ability and decay resistance, rendering itself a viable organic resource for jewellery design. The researcher therefore outlines a five-step procedure to design auxiliaries for date seeds as follows:

 Measure and cut about 50mm of copper wire

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 Firmly grip two wire ends together about 5mm with a pair of flat-nose plier

 With another pair of plier, steadily twist the wires together until about 5mm to exhaustion

 Align each pair of the loose ends to face each other vertical to the twisted section

 Using a pair of round-nose plier, create loops at each of the loose ends

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CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Overview

This chapter analyses the results of the research, discussing the findings thereof and its implication in view of the research questions enumerated:

1. What is the connection between jewellery findings and auxiliaries?

2. What auxiliaries are available for organic materials?

3. How can auxiliaries be designed and made adaptable for organic materials as

jewellery?

4.2 Adaptability of auxiliaries for organic materials

This answers to research questions two and three in that, the existence of auxiliaries would have altered the research dynamics thereby, redirecting the focus of designing auxiliaries. Therefore, the adaptability of auxiliaries with organic materials gives success to designing costume jewellery with organic materials. Having tested with experiments, the researcher confidently projects the procedure of adaptability of auxiliaries for organic materials and their eventual translation into jewellery with pictorial evidence in plates 3.52, 3.54, 3.56 and 3.58.

4.2.1 Application of flamboyant seed auxiliaries

The flamboyant seed possesses slender and smooth surface characteristics. The creation of auxiliaries considered among others the slippery characteristic of the seed and therefore devised means to secure the auxiliary onto the seed. The auxiliary has a spherical form and open ends to

113 accommodate the average circumference and length of the flamboyant seed. The seed is slotted into the spherical centre and firmly gripped by fixing the open end curves into the drilled holes at each end of the seed. Plate 3.52 above chronologically shows how the seed was secured. The design; colour, lustre and form of this special auxiliary easily draws attention to it and therefore, accentuates the seeds not neglecting its function of securing it and helping link one to another for an overall appealing look. Plates 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 project this assertion. In its application for costume jewellery, these auxiliaries can independently connect to another auxiliary to form links as shown in plate 4.2 below. Again each unit of auxiliary may be applied by linking with a simple jump ring as shown in plate 4.3. Moreover, these finely orchestrated auxiliaries can be applied to other organic materials with similar characteristics as the flamboyant seeds or converted to conform to such form.

Plate 4.1: a unit of auxiliary fixed onto the flamboyant

Plate 4.2: uniqueness of auxiliaries connecting each other

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Plate 4.3: auxiliaries connected by jump rings

4.2.2 Application of coconut shell auxiliaries

The surface area of the coconut shell permitted more work space for its conversion. The auxiliaries following a pattern of concentric swirls resonate with the sawn coconut shells giving a rise of a feel of movement. The auxiliaries placed in the centre of the coconut shell vary in colour, smoothness and lustre, causing it to stand out and project the coconut shells in the background. The application of the auxiliaries serves to accentuate the shells as portrayed in plate 4.5 employing the complimentary role of jump rings to link the shells. In another variation as shown in plate 4.4 and 4.6 the auxiliaries serve a linking means yet maintaining the accentuation.

Plate 4.4: ready jewellery units of coconut shells

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Plate 4.5: decorative auxiliaries showing jump rings connecting coconut units

Plate 4.6: decorative auxiliaries with loops connecting to jump rings

4.2.3 Application of cerith auxiliaries

Following a movement along the dramatic concentric notches of the cerith shells, the auxiliaries are designed to resonate the organic material itself. The lustre and smoothness of the auxiliaries serves as a compliment to project the texture on the cerith. Made in a springy cone-like form the auxiliaries are applied by flipping the spring open and slotting the shell as shown in plate 3.56 after which it is recapped. These individual units as exhibited in plate 4.8 may be applied for jewellery by hanging up to produce a dangling effect with jump rings. Again, in a continuous chain, it could also be linked to each other supported by jump rings as exhibited in plate 4.7 for jewellery.

Plate 4.7: auxiliaries employed in a continuous chain with jump rings

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Plate 4.8: auxiliaries employed in a dangling effect with jump rings

4.2.4 Application of femur bone auxiliaries

Unlike the others, the auxiliaries for the femur bone must be completed at the point of connection or link on the bone units. It is designed in a single swirl at one end leaving the one end of the wire to be applied through the hole in a bone unit. The other end is completed by forming another swirl but in an anti-clockwise direction to the first and aligned to rest on the face of the connection. As shown in plate 4.9, there is a sharp contrast in colour of the auxiliaries to the bone. This contrast was deliberately created in the choice of copper wire to draw attention to the auxiliaries and accentuate the resulting jewellery at large.

Plate 4.9: beautiful contrasting effect of auxiliaries

4.2.5 Application of date seed auxiliaries

Date seeds or date kernels usually oblong, is characterized by a ventral groove and possess a golden brown colour. This groove was the inspiration for designing the twisted auxiliaries. The auxiliaries is a double-ply twisted wire with loops created at each of its ends. Playing

117 complimentary role, jump rings are inserted at the ends of the grooves on the date kernels. The loops of the auxiliaries are open and hooked onto jump ring causing it to rest in the groove of the date seed as exhibited in plate 4.10. This is further applied for jewellery by linking up with jump rings as shown in plates 4.11 and 4.12. Though these auxiliaries are meant to lye in the groove of the date kernels, it is also applied to link up unit of some pierced coconut shells exhibited in plate 3.45 above.

Plate 4.10: unit design of the auxiliary on the date seed

Plate 4.11: applied auxiliaries on date seed in a chain

Plate 4.12: variant application of date seed auxiliaries

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4.3 Relationship between jewellery findings and auxiliaries

In resonance with research question one, to ascertain the connection between jewellery findings and auxiliaries. Jewellery findings are a significant component which plays mechanical functions such as attaching, joining, connecting among others whereas auxiliaries are these but more so is that, it is specifically meant for organic materials. The emphasis is placed on the fact that auxiliaries are meant for organic materials and this makes the difference. Plates 4.2 and 4.13 are evident that auxiliaries can survive independently due to its uniqueness of application for organic materials. This specificity in the researcher’s opinion promotes the use of organic materials for costume jewellery.

Moreover, as a practitioner, the researcher bears credence that most existing jewellery findings have not been designed with functional dynamism but just a bit of variety in style. The same beadcap over the period are still on sale just with a little variety sometimes. The auxiliaries come with the dynamism of functionality as to providing JF for specific use on organic materials.

These auxiliaries are not only functional but also accentuating the organic materials that bore them. Plates 4.3, 4.4 and 4.7 gives support to this.

4.3.1 Complimentary role of jewellery findings

Some jewellery findings are as indispensable as auxiliaries in the art of costume jewellery design. In the light of the lack of auxiliaries, jewellery findings have been improvised for organic materials. This improvised jewellery findings cannot be regarded as auxiliaries because it was not meant for organic materials. Notwithstanding this, there are some findings which are indispensable in costume jewellery making. Jump rings are a typical example. Therefore its

119 employment with auxiliaries is regarded a compliment. Plates 4.3 and 4.4 show how jump rings have been used to compliment the auxiliaries.

The following plates are the final auxiliaries created for some organic materials namely: flamboyant seeds, coconut shells, cerith shells, femur bone and date seeds respectively.

Plate 4.13: resultant auxiliaries for flamboyant seeds

Plate 4.14: resultant swirl auxiliaries’ variations for coconut shells

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Plate 4.15: resultant springy cone auxiliaries for ceriths in sizes

Plate 4.16: resultant single swirl auxiliaries for bone

Plate 4.17: resultant auxiliaries for date seed

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CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Overview

This final chapter of the research summarizes the investigations and work carried out in fulfilment of the objectives, notwithstanding challenges encountered as well as conclusions drawn from the findings of work done. In addition, some recommendations arising from experience through the study are also outlined.

5.2 Summary of findings

During the design of auxiliaries, the researcher explored with different gauges of copper wire based on manipulability. The 0.9mm gauge wire was malleable enough but the auxiliaries created were easily deformed when attached to organic materials. Therefore much stronger wire was used. The 1.2mm gauge wire was found to be firmer for creating the auxiliaries. But when annealed, the metal became soft and therefore deformation of the auxiliaries recurred.

The researcher therefore decided to use the copper wire without burning off the enamel coating to avoid excessive malleability of the metal

Due to the class of jewellery this research focuses on, inexpensive methods of designing auxiliaries is inevitable and therefore record that the non-soldered technique is a better approach.

Moreover, it is worth noting that these materials are incompatibility with fire compelling the researcher to strategically design auxiliaries prior to its application on the organic material.

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Processing the cerith for use was a daunting task. It was very cumbersome employing the saw frame with the jewellers saw blade to saw through. A much improved process was achieved with the flexible shaft with a mini cutting disc. A pungent smell coupled with dusty fumes was also produced while sawing was in progress. After cutting, the sawn shells were washed with a stronger detergent to remove the smell and dried. Notwithstanding this, it bore the smell when inspected the following day and this lead to experimentations on a lasting treatment. More so, because the researcher employed whole cerith shells, much work was involved getting it clean.

Due to this, the researcher experimented a procedure by soaking the cerith in water for three days, boiled it and allowed to dry under the sun for a couple days. It is however very necessary to always use already eaten cerith in any creative work due to the smell fresh cerith possess.

It is also worth noting to use bones that are fully developed because underdeveloped bones possess weak porous structures with traces of fat in them which is not ideal for jewellery design.

After treatment and polishing, the fully developed bones appear whiter and compact while the undeveloped bones are cream coloured and dull which shows the presence of fat in it. Again, already cooked bone reduces the processing time as lots of fats and greasy content would have been cooked out.

Coconut shells are concave in nature, possessing a dome somewhat. Sawing even basic spheres out of such concave shells was certainly cumbersome. Therefore, sorting the shells for less concave portions for sawing and piercing out shapes is necessary to reduce sawing time.

Employ organic materials with thicker walls to avoid breaking and splitting while sawing, piercing or drilling especially, materials with concave structures, less compact grains and hollow

123 at the same time. It is therefore recommended that as much as possible, such force must be applied before converting the materials.

During the researcher’s collection of resources, some conservators argued on the degeneration of environmental species because the research was mainly employing organic materials. In the researcher’s view, it means a lot more cultivation of organic materials needs to go on as already proposed by the theory of demand and supply. Again, the use of organic materials is only good for environmental safety when human activities does not proliferate its destruction.

5.3 Conclusion

The study projects the use of organic materials: biodegradable materials for that matter in costume jewellery design. This is relevant because the costume jewellery is cheaper and so the most patronised on the market. However, when patrons get tired of using them, these jewelleries are barely transferred to other users or perhaps recycled. As a result, they end up in trash bins.

Since most of these materials used are not biodegradable, they tend to contribute to the land flit.

The situation is so because there are no support mechanisms to accelerate the processing of organic materials into jewellery, and thus makes the entire process cumbersome, hence the proliferation of other inorganic materials that may be detrimental to environmental sustainability.

Most importantly, this research has unveiled explicit possibilities of well thought and finely crafted auxiliaries for a sustainable organic jewellery industry by demonstrating the design of auxiliaries for flamboyant seeds, coconut shells, cattle femur bone, the cerith and date seeds.

These auxiliaries are however not applicable only to the aforementioned materials but other organic materials with similar or complying converted forms.

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5.4 Recommendations

In order to be concise, the researcher upon completion of this project captures some recommendations for further studies in the future, facilities that ought to be improved for research efficiency as well some tools and equipment.

5.4.1 Further studies

1. Studies into organic materials that lend themselves as jewellery findings

2. Dermatological evaluations of organic materials be probed to ascertain the benefits or

otherwise on the human body.

3. Exploration of auxiliaries for other organic materials with consideration for other metals for

the auxiliaries

5.4.2 Facilities

Due to the conflicting nature of works done by the undergraduate and the MPhil students, the department must intentionally consider getting a well-equipped studio exclusively for the MPhil students. A silent room (library) should be made available to only MPhil students to enhance proper concentration and work efficiency during research.

5.4.3 Tools and equipment

In as much as students must be taught the rudimentary skills of their practice, it is also very necessary to expose them to trending technology so they can be competitive and efficient in our ever-changing industrial capacity. The researcher acknowledges the supervisor for lending his personal equipment to facilitate the progress of work without which would have taken a longer

125 time to do. Therefore, the researcher suggests the Department of Integrated Rural Arts get the following equipment to boost student capacity:

MicroLux Multi-Saw that provides ultra fine precision cut, power coping saw, jewellers saw and scroll saw

MicroLux Mini Scroll Saw used to cut slices of wood, cork, metal tubing straight or scroll.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX ONE: Drawings on comparison of Characteristic physical features of

materials

Fig. AP1.1: characteristic comparison of date, cowry Africa star apple & flamboyant

Fig. AP1.2: characteristic comparison of sweet apple, black velvet tamarind, pride of Barbados and panama palm seeds

Fig. AP1.3: characteristic comparisons of champaca, craterispermum, duiker nut & rust tree seeds

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Fig. AP1.4: characteristic comparison of the cockle shells and senile ark

Fig. AP1.5: characteristic and conversional comparisons of ceriths obtained

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APPENDIX TWO: CorelDraw representation of possible conversion of materials

Fig. AP2.1: characteristic and conversional comparisons of palm kernel shells

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APPENDIX THREE: Bone processing

Plate AP3.1: removal of flesh and fat Plate AP3.2: boiled bones soaked in from bones bleaching agent

Plate AP3.3: thorough washing of bones under running water

A B

Plate AP3.4 A&B: Application of abrasives employing some equipment

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Plate AP3.5: Under developed bones showing Plate AP3.6: distinction of developed porous fatty cavities and undeveloped bones after treatment

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APPENDIX FOUR: Sample earrings with supporting auxiliaries

Plate AP4.1: cowry earring made possible Plate AP4.2: coconut shell by auxiliaries earring

Plate AP4.3: date seed earring Plate AP4.4: cerith shell earring

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Plate AP4.5: cockle shell earring Plate AP4.6: coconut piercing earring

Plate AP4.7: ear auxiliaries applied to Plate AP4.8: ear auxiliaries coconut piercing applied to coconut piece

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APPENDIX FIVE: Processing of ceriths

Plate AP5.1: sawing the cerith shell

Plate AP5.2: cross-section of cerith shell Plate AP 5.3: cleaned shells

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APPENDIX SIX: Other auxiliaries

Plate AP6.1: integrating cockle with Plate AP6.2: cockle in wire-wrap casing flamboyant auxiliaries

Plate AP6.3: varied auxiliary from coconut Plate AP6.4: variation of headpin shells applied

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