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Home , Bakony, Geology of Hungary, Great Hungarian Plain, Little Hungarian Plain, Mecsek, Pannonian Basin

Regional Geology Reviews

Series Editors

Roland Oberh€ansli Maarten de Wit Francois M. Roure

For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/8643 . Ja´nos Haas Editor Ja´nos Haas • Ge´za Ha´mor{ •A´ ron Ja´mbor • Sa´ndor Kova´cs{ • Andra´s Nagymarosy • Tibor Szederke´nyi

Geology of Editor Ja´nos Haas Eotv€ os€ Lora´nd University Geological, Geophysical and Space Science Research Group Hungary

ISBN 978-3-642-21909-2 ISBN 978-3-642-21910-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-21910-8 Springer Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2012936971

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Introduction ...... ix Ja´nos Haas History of Geologic Research ...... xi Ja´nos Haas Geography and Outline of Geologic Framework ...... xvii Ja´nos Haas Structural Units and Main Stages of the Structural Evolution . . . xxi Ja´nos Haas 1 Geology and History of Evolution of the ALCAPA Mega-Unit 1 1.1 Austroalpine Units ...... 1 Tibor Szederke´nyi 1.1.1 Lower Austroalpine System ...... 1 1.1.2 Upper Austroalpine Nappe System ...... 6 1.1.3 Penninic Unit ...... 6 1.2 Central and Internal Western Carpathian Units ...... 9 Sa´ndor Kova´cs and Ja´nos Haas 1.2.1 Veporic Unit ...... 9 1.2.2 Zemple´nic Unit ...... 10 1.2.3 Internal Western Carpathian Nappe-Stack ...... 11 1.2.3.1 Bo´dvaNappe...... 12 1.2.3.2 Torna Nappe ...... 14 1.2.3.3 Telekesoldal Nappe ...... 15 1.2.3.4 Szo˝lo˝sardo´ Unit ...... 16 1.2.3.5 Silica–Aggtelek Nappe ...... 17 1.3 Pelso Composite Unit ...... 21 Ja´nos Haas and Sa´ndor Kova´cs 1.3.1 Transdanubian Range Unit ...... 21 1.3.1.1 Variscan Evolutionary Cycle ...... 22 1.3.1.2 Alpine Evolutionary Cycle ...... 25 1.3.2 Mid-Transdanubian Unit ...... 56 1.3.2.1 South Karavank Unit ...... 56 1.3.2.2 Julian–Savinja Unit ...... 57 1.3.2.3 South and Kalnik Units ...... 57

v vi Contents

1.3.3 Bukk€ Composite Unit ...... 58 1.3.3.1 BukkUnitss...... € 59 1.3.3.2 Szendro˝ Unit ...... 73 1.3.3.3 Uppony Unit ...... 76 1.4 Accretion of the ALCAPA Mega-Unit ...... 81 Andra´s Nagymarosy 1.4.1 Evolution and Its Consequences for the Palaeogene–Neogene Chronostratigraphic Framework ...... 81 1.4.2 Hungarian Palaeogene Basin ...... 83 1.4.2.1 General Trends of Evolution and Palaeogeography ...... 84 1.4.2.2 Eocene ...... 84 1.4.2.3 Oligocene ...... 91 1.4.2.4 Late Egerian-Eggenburgian-Earliest Ottnangian ...... 95 1.4.2.5 Igneous Activity During the Paleogene- Eggenburgian ...... 99 2 Geology and History of Evolution of the Mega-Unit .... 103 2.1 Pre-Variscan to Variscan Evolution ...... 103 Tibor Szederke´nyi 2.1.1 Crystalline Complexes ...... 104 2.1.2 Lithostratigraphy of the Tectono-stratigraphic Units and Tectono-metamorphic Evolution ...... 105 2.1.2.1 – Unit ...... 105 2.1.2.2 Kunsa´g Unit ...... 106 2.1.2.3 Be´ke´s Unit ...... 108 2.1.2.4 Outliers ...... 109 2.1.3 Protoliths and Polymetamorphic Deformations . . . . . 111 2.1.4 Tectono-metamorphic Events ...... 112 2.2 Post-Variscan Evolution ...... 113 Tibor Szederke´nyi 2.2.1 Late Carboniferous–Permian Continental Formations ...... 113 2.2.2 Late Carboniferous–Permian Cover of the Slavonia–Drava Unit ...... 113 2.2.3 Permian Cover of the Kunsa´g Unit ...... 117 2.2.4 Permian Cover of the Be´ke´s–Codru Unit ...... 118 2.3 Alpine Evolution ...... 118 Ja´nos Haas 2.3.1 Fluvial Sedimentation in the Early Triassic ...... 119 2.3.2 Transgression in the Anisian – Siliciclastic Ramp Sedimentation ...... 120 Contents vii

2.3.3 Shallow Carbonate Ramp Evolution in the Middle Triassic ...... 122 2.3.4 Differentiation of the Facies Zones of the Tisza Mega-Unit ...... 124 2.3.5 Facies Unit ...... 124 2.3.5.1 Intensification of Continental Input in the Late Triassic ...... 124 2.3.5.2 Coastal Swamp and Shallow Marine Siliciclastic Ramp in the Early Liassic . . . . 125 2.3.5.3 Pelagic Marl Facies in the Middle Liassic to Early Dogger Interval ...... 127 2.3.5.4 Siliceous and Carbonate Deep-Sea Facies in the Late Dogger to Malm Interval ..... 128 2.3.5.5 Basaltic Magmatism in the Early Cretaceous ...... 129 2.3.5.6 Tectogenic Episodes and Flexural Basins in the Late Cretaceous ...... 130 2.3.5.7 Palaeogene Flysch Deposition in the “ Flysch Trough” ...... 131 Andra´s Nagymarosy 2.3.5.8 Continental Palaeogene Basin in the Mecsek ...... 137 Andra´s Nagymarosy 2.3.6 Villa´ny–Bihor Facies Unit ...... 137 2.3.6.1 Coastal–Terrestrial Sedimentation in the Late Triassic ...... 137 2.3.6.2 Discontinuous Shallow Marine Deposition in the Jurassic ...... 138 2.3.6.3 Carbonate Platform Development in the Early–Middle Cretaceous ...... 138 2.3.6.4 Pelagic Basin Formation at the End of the Mid-Cretaceous ...... 140 2.3.6.5 Senonian Basin Evolution ...... 141 2.3.7 Be´ke´s–Codru Facies Unit ...... 142 2.4 Regional Geological Cross-sections ...... 142 Ja´nos Haas and Ge´za Ha´mor 3 Genesis and Evolution of the ...... 149 Andra´s Nagymarosy and Ge´za Ha´mor 3.1 Concept of the Pannonian Basin ...... 149 3.1.1 Subsidence History and Tectonics of the Pannonian Basin ...... 151 3.1.2 Stratigraphic Considerations ...... 155 3.2 Early Miocene ...... 156 3.2.1 Post-Eggenburgian Early Miocene Formations in the ALCAPA Mega-Unit ...... 156 3.2.2 Ottnangian Formations ...... 159 3.2.2.1 Continental Formations, North Hungary . . . 159 viii Contents

3.2.2.2 Brackish to Marine Formations, North Hungary ...... 159 3.2.2.3 Marine Formations, Va´rpalota Basin . . . . . 160 3.2.3 Karpatian Formations ...... 161 3.2.3.1 Northwest Hungary ...... 161 3.2.3.2 Northeast Hungary ...... 162 3.2.4 Early Miocene Formations in the Tisza Mega-Unit . . 163 3.2.5 Igneous Formations in the Early Miocene ...... 166 3.3 Middle Miocene ...... 168 3.3.1 Formations of Large Lateral Extension ...... 170 3.3.1.1 Badenian Formations ...... 171 3.3.1.2 Sarmatian Formations ...... 172 3.3.2 Regional Units ...... 173 3.3.2.1 Mountains ...... 173 3.3.2.2 Little Hungarian ...... 174 3.3.2.3 Transdanubian Range ...... 174 3.3.2.4 (North Hungarian Range) ...... 176 3.3.2.5 Mecsek Mountains and Southeast Hungary ...... 177 3.3.2.6 Zala and Drava Basins ...... 180 3.3.2.7 Basins in the ..... 181 3.3.3 Igneous Activity in the Middle Miocene ...... 182 3.4 Late Miocene and Pliocene ...... 186 3.4.1 Late Miocene or Pannonian ...... 186 3.4.1.1 Marginal Sequences ...... 191 3.4.1.2 Sequences of the Deep Basins ...... 194 3.4.2 Pliocene ...... 197 3.4.3 Volcanic Activity in the Late Miocene-Pliocene .... 198 4 Quaternary Evolution ...... 201 A´ ron Ja´mbor 4.1 Significance of the Quaternary Formations ...... 201 4.2 History of Quaternary Research in Hungary ...... 202 4.3 Major Characteristics of the Quaternary Depositional Areas ...... 204 4.4 Volcanism ...... 211 4.5 Tectonics ...... 211 4.6 Present-Day ...... 211 4.7 History of Evolution ...... 212 References ...... 215 Index ...... 239 Introduction

Hungary lies in the central part of the Pannonian (or Carpathian) Basin, surrounded by the ranges of the , Carpathians and Dinarides. The major part of the country is low-lying and flat; the greatest elevation scarcely exceeds 1,000 m. The pre-Cenozoic geologic structure shows various effects ranging from rifting to collisional mountain building in several stages, reflecting motions of the European and African Plates from the Palaeozoic to the Cenozoic. Tertiary events led to the formation of a young basin system through crustal thinning beneath the area, with sediment fill reaching 7–8,000 m. Consequently, the geology of the country can be summarised as a process whereby compli- cated plate collision-type orogeny was followed by the formation of a young basin in which a relatively complete sequence of basin infill has been preserved. Geologic research has a history of more than 150 years in this country. The Hungarian Geological Society was founded in 1848 and the independent Geological Survey in 1869. Since then, the territory of the country has been mapped in several phases. In the last decades basic and applied geologic and geophysical research has been extensively carried out, the results being summarised in the Geo- logical Atlas of Hungary (at a scale of 1:500,000). Regional geological geological maps and monographs were published. Four volumes of the handbook series “” have been edited in Hungarian (Ful€ op€ 1989, 1990, 1994; Haas et al. 2004) and a comprehensive English version was also published (Haas et al. 2001). The aim of this volume is to present an updated version of the previous edition of “Geology of Hungary” taking into consideration the important results of the investigations carried out in the last decade. The authors attempted to give an outline of the main features of the geology and geohis- tory of the for the benefit of foreign geoscientists interested in this area. Two of the authors of the previous edition Ge´za Ha´mor and Sa´ndor Kova´cs have been died. Their works were applied in the edition of this volume but we modified or occasionally significantly changed the former composition if new data or new concepts made it necessary. In developing the text we attempted to follow the evolutionary history of the major structural units. Naturally it was not possible to follow this principle in discussing the polymetamorphic complexes. In such cases a lithological–lithostratigraphic approach was applied. Due to the geohistorical approach to this study it was necessary to extend the scope of the discussion beyond the present-day political boundaries of Hungary, to cover most of the Pannonian and even the Circum-Pannonian region. ix . History of Geologic Research

The first comprehensive monograph on the geology of Hungary was written by Beudant, a professor of the University of Paris. It was published in 1822 in three volumes, supplemented by a geologic map at a scale of 1:1,000,000. In the region of the Austro–Hungarian Monarchy the first systematic geologic mapping was carried out between 1850 and 1865 by the Imperial & Royal Geological Survey (Kaiserliche und Konigliche€ Geologische Reich- sanstalt), founded in in 1849. Based on this mapping activity, gener- alised maps were compiled and published by Hauer at a scale of 1:576,000 between 1867 and 1871. Following its foundation in 1869 the independent Royal Hungarian Geo- logical Survey took over the task of geologic mapping in Hungary. The first director of the Survey (between 1869 and 1882) was Miksa Hantken, the palaeontologist acknowledged internationally for his foraminifer investiga- tions. He was followed by Ja´nos Bockh,€ who directed the institution for 25 years between 1882 and 1908 and played an outstanding role in organising the geologic mapping. Founded in 1848 (the third such organisation in ) the Hungarian Geological Society has played a fundamental role in the development of the geology of the country. In 1849 a geological department was established in Budapest University; it achieved remarkable progress under the direction of Jo´zsef Szabo´ between 1849 and 1855. He was followed by the Austrian Karl Peters. In 1862 Szabo´ returned to the university as a professor of the Mineralogical Department. At the same time he took over the direction of the Geological Society earlier as secretary and vice president, and as president from 1883 to his death in 1894. Honorary member of the Geological Society of London and several other societies, honorary doctor of the Bologna University and Edinborough Uni- versity Szabo´ was the most respected personality of the first half century of the Hungarian geology.

xi xii History of Geologic Research

In the second half of the nineteenth century the application of rapidly developing drilling techniques resulted in thousands of artesian wells and about 500 thermal wells. They significantly contributed to the knowledge of the geology of the Tertiary basins, being scattered over a large part of the territory of Hungary. Around the turn of the century Lora´nd Eotv€ os€ carried out his famous gravity measurements and applied the torsion balance technique to the solving of geologic problems. He was a pioneer of applied geophysics. After his death his students founded the Lora´nd Eotv€ os€ Geophysical Institute. In 1896 the Hungarian Geological Society edited a new geologic map of the country at a 1:1,000,000 scale. In 1900, at the World Exhibition in Paris, Lajos Lo´czy presented the manuscript of the general geologic map of Hun- gary at a scale of 1:360,000, which was awarded a gold medal.

In the last decades of the nineteenth century Eduard Suess, honorary member of the Hungarian Geological Society laid down the fundamentals of alpine geology (1875, 1885–1909). In 1903, Lugeon presented a nappe- tectonic interpretation of the High Tatra Mts. His paper inspired Uhlig (1907) to elaborate a comprehensive nappe-tectonic model for the entire Carpathian Range and the Pannonian region. History of Geologic Research xiii

Based on his field experience, but with the benefit of only relatively few borehole data and the incipient results of geophysical measurements, the most respected personality of Hungarian geology, Lajos Lo´czy, strongly opposed this concept, claiming that the basement of the Pannonian Basin is made up of crystalline rocks and that the Mesozoic series were deposited in depressions within the crystalline ranges. Kober (1921) proposed the “median mass” hypothesis to explain the peculiar geologic features of the Pannonian region. This concept postulated a crystalline massif, an autoch- thonous craton, located beneath the Mesozoic–Cenozoic cover, called Tisia by Prinz (1926). Both also believed that the mountain ranges surrounding the Pannonian Basin were folded around the cratonic core. The “median mass” concept influenced the thinking of the Hungarian geologists for a long time. In his outstanding, although unfortunately incomplete summarising work on the geology of Hungary, Ka´roly Telegdi-Ro´th (1929) emphasised that Tisia could not have been a uniform median mass extending over the entire territory of the Pannonian Basin, since nappe structure had been detected in many parts of the Inner Carpathians. In the interval between the two World Wars geologic departments were active in five universities; however, an organised education of professional geologists had not yet been established. After the Second World War, as a consequence of forced industrial development, geologic operations were significantly extended and the educating of professional geologists and geophysicists commenced. To promote this education Eleme´r Vada´sz, head of the Geological Department in Budapest, summarised all available data in 1953 in a very condensed first edition, and in 1960 in a more detailed second edition, of the textbook “Geology of Hungary”.

In the 50s and 60s the size of the staff at the Geological Survey markedly increased and mapping activity was also intensified. A series of regional maps began to be published and in 1956 a new geologic map of Hungary was edited at a 1:300,000 scale (Balogh et al. 1956). xiv History of Geologic Research

Intensive exploration for various raw materials (coal, bauxite, hydrocar- bon, etc.) also provided a large amount of valuable geologic information. Drilling activity and geophysical measurements significantly increased the quantity of data on the depth and composition of the basement of the Tertiary basins and permitted the compilation of a basement map at the scale of 1:500,000 (Csalagovits et al. 1967). In 1969 Trunko´, who worked in Germany, completed a concise German summary of the geologic build-up of the country on the basis of the data in literature (Geologie von Ungarn). The new geologic data did not support the “median mass” theory; espe- cially the recognition of flysch in the basement of the Great Plain (Alfold€ – Ko˝rossy€ 1959; Szepesha´zy 1973) seemed to contradict the concept of a cratonic behaviour of the basement. In 1969 Wein summarised the available data on the structure of the Pannonian Basin, pointing out a lineament traversing the basin from to the Tokaj Mts. and dividing the basement into two significantly different units. Many geophysical measurements were carried out by the 60s which suggested an anomalously thin crust beneath the deep basins. Sza´deczky– Kardoss (1967, 1970) explained this phenomenon with the “mantle diapir” model and attributed the formation of the deep basins to isostatic subsidence as a consequence of thinning of the crust. Influenced by the plate tectonic theory, ideas about the structural evolu- tion of the Pannonian region fundamentally changed in the 70s. Instead of the practically autochthonous concepts, mobilistic approaches became predomi- nant in the thinking of Hungarian geoscientists. Sza´deczky–Kardoss (1971) was the first to attempt the application of the plate tectonic concept to the intra-Carpathian region. The ideas of Laubscher (1971) significantly influenced the views of Hungarian geologists. According to his model the Mesozoic sequences of the Southern Alps, the Upper Austroalpine and the Inner West Carpathian nappes were formed on the African shelf of the Tethys, whereas the Helvetic and Ultrahelvetic zones of the Alps belonged to the European shelf. In the Middle Cretaceous the major nappe formations and metamor- phism in the Penninic Zone were the result of the closure of the central oceanic belt. In 1973, based on studies of the Liassic ammonite bioprovinces Ge´czy proposed that the Mecsek and Villa´ny Hills may have belonged to the European shelf whereas the Transdanubian Range, located at present north of the Mecsek Mts., may have been a part of the African plate. Channel and Horva´th (1976) postulated the importance of microplate motions during the collision of the African and European plates in the tectogenesis of the Pannonian region. A mobilistic approach is reflected in Wein’s (1978) comprehensive syn- thesis of the evolution of the Pannonian Basin. He recognised two mega- tectonic units separated by the Zagreb–Kulcs–Herna´d lineament, which moved to their present-day juxtaposed setting over a distance of 500–1,000 km, during the closure of the . History of Geologic Research xv

Based on the analysis of the Permian and Triassic facies zones, Majoros (1980) and Kova´cs (1983) concluded that the Transdanubian Range attained its present-day position from the northern foreground of the Southern Alps as a result of large-scale lateral displacement along the Periadriatic Lineament. The “continental escape” theory was proposed by Ka´zme´r and Kova´cs (1985) to explain the eastward motion of the Transdanubian Range Unit. Balla (1982, 1988) distinguished North Pannonian and South Pannonian units and a mobile zone between them, and worked out a kinetic model for the Alpine–Carpathian–Pannonian region to reconstruct the position of these units during the Late Mesozoic–Cenozoic interval. In 1988 Foldva€ ´ry, a Hungarian geologist living in , made an effort to give an overall picture of the whole of the Carpathian Basin and the surrounding mountain ranges on the basis of the data in literature (Geology of the Carpathian Region). A comprehensive overview of the Cenozoic evolution of the Pannonian Basin was presented by a team of Hungarian and American geologists in 1988 (edited by Royden and Horva´th). Detailed geological mapping and hydrocarbon exploration drilling provided an increasing amount of data on the complicated nappe structure of the pre-Cenozoic basement of the Neogene basins. Inferences of the exploration activity were reflected in the pre-Cenozoic geological map (Ful€ op€ et al. 1987a, b) and structural map (Dank et al. 1990) of the country. Between 1987 and 1992 17 other thematic maps were published at a scale of 1:500,000, in the map series of the Geological Atlas of Hungary. A comprehensive summary of the geology of Hungary was initiated by Jo´zsef Ful€ op,€ Professor of the Eotv€ os€ University in Budapest in the 80s. He published four volumes of the textbook series Geology of Hungary in : History of mineral raw materials in Hungary (1984), Introduction to the Geology of Hungary (1989), Palaeozoic I (1990), and Palaeozoic II (1994). Unfortunately, his unexpected death in 1994 did not allow him to complete his great venture. In 1996 Trunko´’s general work on the geologic formations of Hungary appeared in English language in Germany. xvi History of Geologic Research

Since 1999 a series of regional geological maps and monographs have been published by the Geological Institute of Hungary: “Geology of the Balaton Highland” (Budai et al. 1999), “Geology of the and the Balatonfo˝” (Gyalog et al. 2004), “Geology of the Bukk€ Mountains” (Pelika´n et al. 2005), “Geology of the Ve´rtes Hills” (Budai et al. 2008). In 2001 a concise summary of geology of Hungary was performed by a team; the English language book “Geology of Hungary” was published in Budapest (Haas et al. 2001). Since 2005 the first digital geological map of Hungary (1:100 000) (Gyalog et al. 2005) has been available on the internet. This map was applied for compilation of the Hungarian part of the first global digital geological map (OneGeology) which was completed in 2008 and for an outrich volume “Geological map of Hungary for tourists” (Budai et al. 2010). A new Pre- Cenozoic geological map of Hungary (1:500,000) was published in 2010 (Haas et al. 2010). In the first decade of the twenty-first century Geological Institute of Hungary was still the center of the regional geological studies although its mapping activity has been decreased with parallel strengthening of its applied geological profile. The Geochemical Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences has been the main workshop of the geochemical research, while the paleontological investigations have been concentrated mostly in the Hungarian Natural History Museum. Education of professional geologists has taken place at several universi- ties where significant research workshops have been developed. They are as follows: Eotv€ os€ Lora´nd University, Budapest; University of ; Uni- versity of , University of Derrecen; University of Pe´cs. Geography and Outline of Geologic Framework

Hungary is situated in the Pannonian Basin, , surrounded by the Alps, the Carpathians and the Dinarides (Fig. 1). The country covers an area of 93,000 km2, extending for 520 km in an east–west and 320 km in a north–south direction. It lies in the continental climatic zone; however, the climate is tempered by Atlantic and Mediterranean influences. The physiography of the country is characterised by extensive lowlands: the Great Plain and the Little Plain. The territory of lowlands below 200 m altitude makes up about 68% of the country. The share of hilly areas of 200–400 m altitude is 30% and that of mountainous areas of 400–1,000 m altitude occupies no more than 2% of the country. The main river of the Pannonian Basin is the (Duna); actually the entire basin belongs to the catchment area of this river. The main tributaries are the Ra´ba, the Tisza and the Dra´va. The largest lake is the Balaton, 77 km long and 6–15 km wide. The present-day geologic features of Hungary as well as of the whole Pannonian region are determined mainly by its Late Cenozoic evolution, when large basins over anomalously thin crust (25–28 km), with high geothermal gradient (41–56C/km) and high surface heat flow (90 mW/m2 average; Dove€ ´nyi and Horva´th 1988) came into being. One to eight km-thick series of lacustrine, deltaic, and fluviatile sediments of the Late Miocene– Pliocene Pannonian Lake filled up the large basins. They are overlain by Quaternary alluvial deposits, , and wind-blown sand, usually covering the surface of the beneath the . The Pannonian Basin is actually a basin system consisting of several basins (, Little Plain Basin, Great Plain Basin, Drava Basin, Transylvanian Basin see Fig. 1) separated by ranges (inselbergs) made up predominantly of Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Palaeogene sedimentary sequences and Cenozoic sedimentary and igneous rocks. Metamorphosed Palaeozoic and Mesozoic complexes representing the continuation of the East Alpine ranges crop out in the northwestern part of Hungary, in the Sopron and the Ko˝szeg Mts., at the Austrian border (Fig. 2). The Transdanubian Range, extending for 250 km in a NE–SW direction, consists of hills and mountains with a great variety of geologic components. Lower Palaeozoic phyllite, and carbonates are known north of (Balaton Highland), while Carboniferous granite makes up a great part of the Velence Hills located northeast of the Balaton. Other parts of the Transda- nubian Range (, , Ve´rtes, Gerecse, Pilis and Mts.) are

xvii vi egah n uln fGooi Framework Geologic of Outline and Geography xviii 12° 14° 16° 18° 20° 22° 24° 26° 28° 30° 51°

M o l a B O H E M I A N Krakow s s B e a l e z i a n - K s i n S i r o M A S S I F s . s E A S T E U R O P E A N r a Z PK n 1 14 g u B M a o Z . P L A T F O R M 49° 2 15 Molasse CWC Basin Kosice B V IWC Z 3 16 Vienna Miskolc Northern Calcareous Alps Little NHR Bü 4 17 TW Plain RW Budapest 5 18 TR CMZ Dr Great Plain S ala outh Z P A N N O N I A N B A S I N 47° 6 19 ern in M Alp Bas s Trans-Tisza Cluj DTI Bihor o Iv D l o P ra Me Cod d 7 20 in v Szeged Transylvanian a as M K a Bih B Ba Pécs O Basin v D s V S D Zagreb i Trans i 8 21 Mo n a e d n T v Z s P u is CM b z Getic N e PG a CMZ N 9 22 . H P D r M n N o 12° i e va bia br g Sa u o 45° - Beograd n g h K a ea 10 23 a D r D K s O A a t B - B J d r ad 11 24 K r s o be t s Bucharesti Danu i D n u a i Sarajevo r - t u a . n Iv Va rda 12 25 i r M O E S I A N P L A T F O R M c U . a E

S B j e 13 26 D

a M - B S a l k a 43° n Z B l a c k a e Sofia . c r b 0 100 e S 200 km d i a r o n e S e a B n - d n i a a G n Z. o r a Z. 18° 20° 30° 22° 24° 26° 28°

Fig. 1 Major structural units of the Carpathic–Balkan–Dinaric region. (Maps of Schmid et al, 2008; Zagorchev, 1994, Dimitrijevic, 1997 were used for the compilation). Legend: 1 Precambrian–Paleozoic platforms; 2 North Dobrogea Unit; 3 molasse basins; 4–6 Carpathian Flysch Zone: 4 Moldavides; 5 Silesian –Krossno Zone, Outer Dacides Geography and Outline of Geologic Framework xix

made up mainly of Triassic carbonates; however, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Palaeogene formations also occur in the central zone of the synform, deter- mining the basic structural pattern of the Transdanubian Range (Fig. 2). The North Hungarian Range shows a very complicated geologic setting. In the northeastern part of the region, in the Szendro˝ and the Uppony Hills, slightly metamorphosed Palaeozoic slate and carbonates crop out. The Bukk€ Mts. are made up of slightly metamorphosed Upper Palaeozoic–Jurassic series and a similarly metamorphosed Jurassic sedimentary and magmatic complex, which was overthrusted onto the former series. Both complexes are locally covered by a marine Palaeogene sequence. Nappes of Triassic and Jurassic carbonates make up the Aggtelek Mountains and Rudaba´nya Hills near the Slovakian border. They are generally considered to be the southern- most members of the Inner West Carpathians. Other parts of the North Hungarian Range are made up mainly of Palaeogene and Neogene siliciclas- tic sequences and Miocene igneous rocks (Borzs€ ony,€ Cserha´t, Ma´tra and Tokaj Mts., see Fig. 2). Carboniferous granite is exposed in the southeastern part of the Mecsek Mts. in south Transdanubia. Thick Permo-Triassic continental red-beds and Middle Triassic carbonate sequences make up the anticline of the Western Mecsek Mts., whereas extremely thick, marine, siliciclastic Jurassic sedi- ments and Cretaceous magmatic complexes constitute the syncline of the Eastern Mecsek Mts. Located south of the Mecsek Range, the Villa´ny Hills have an imbricated structure consisting mainly of Mesozoic carbonates

(Fig. 2). ä

Fig. 1 (Continued) (OD); 6 Magura Zone; 7 (PKB); 8 Upper Austroalpine Unit, Transdanubian Range Unit, Fatric, Hronic and Silicic Units; 9 Lower Austroalpine Unit, Tatric, Veporic and Gemeric Units; 10 Penninic Unit; 11 Crystalline-Mesozoic Zone (CMZ), Serbian-Macedonian-Rodope Zone, Biharia Unit (Bih); 12 Danubian Nappes, Balkan Zone; 13 Severin Nappe (Sev);14 Getic Nappes, Kucˇaj-Sredna Gora Zone; 15 Mecsek Zone (Me); 16 Villa´ny (V)–Bihor Zone; 17 Papuk(P)–Codru(Cod) Zone; 18 Southern Alpine Units; 19 High Karst Unit; 20 Pre-Karst–Bosnian Unit; 21 East Bosnian–Durmitor Unit (EBD); 22 –Ivanjuca Unit (Dr-Iv); 23 Jadar Unit (Jad), Bukk€ Unit (Bu);€ 24 Vardar Zone, Transylvanian Nappes (Trans), Dinaridic Ophiolite Belt (DOB); 25 overthrust; 26 strike-slip fault. Further abbreviations: Tw Tauern window; Rw Rechnitz window; Dr Drau Range; K Kalnik; Iv – Ivanscica; Mo Moslavacˇka Gora; PG Pozˇeksˇa Gora; VB Vienna Basin; V Villa´ny Hills; Me Mecsek Mts.;NHR North Hungarian Range; DTI Danube-Tisza Interfluve; Z Zemple´n Mts xx Geography and Outline of Geologic Framework

46° 47° 48°

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fluvial sand, gravel, silt fluvial sand, gravel, lacustrine and paludal clay, mud, peat silt, calcareous drift sand slope sediment, clay, gravel, rock debris Geological map of Hungary (Brezsnya 16° Cartography: Keresztesi, Z. Cartography: Keresztesi, Geographical Research Institute Geographical Research Brezsnyánszky, K., Síkhegyi, F. K., Síkhegyi, Brezsnyánszky, © Hungarian Academy of Sciences Academy of © Hungarian © Geological Institute of Hungary 48° 47° 46° Fig. 2 Structural Units and Main Stages of the Structural Evolution

Geophysical measurements and drilling activities carried out in the last couple of decades revealed that beneath a usually fairly thick and relatively uniform Late Cenozoic cover (Fig. 3) the basement of the Pannonian Basin is rather complicated. It shows a mosaic pattern made up of heterogeneous structural elements, a collage of allochthonous terranes derived from differ- ent parts of the Tethyan realm. Moreover, these elements (structural units or terranes) were arranged in different ways in the course of the long evolution- ary history of the Pannonian region. The pre-Neogene basement of the Pannonian Basin is divided by the ENE–WSW-trending Mid-Hungarian (or Zagreb–Zemplin) Lineament into two large units (mega-units or composite terranes). These two mega-units of mark- edly different geologic history, namely the Tisza (South Pannonian) Mega-unit (Tisia Terrane) and ALCAPA (North Pannonian) Mega-unit (ALCAPA Com- posite Terrane), were juxtaposed only during the last stage of the pre-Neogene restructuring of the Pannonian realm in the Late Oligocene–Early Miocene. The Tisza Mega-unit consists of blocks accreted during the Variscan orogenic phases, when it formed a part of the European Variscan Belt. It broke off from this belt in the Middle Jurassic and subsequently moved as a separate entity. The ALCAPA Mega-unit was formed by the joining of the Penninic and Austroalpine units, and the Central and Inner Western Carpathian units to the Pelso Composite Unit during the Alpine evolution of the region. The Pelso Unit is made up of the Transdanubian Range Unit, the Bukk€ Unit, and the Mid- Transdanubian Unit (the latter two units are parts of the Mid-Hungarian Fault Zone), which were accreted in an earlier stage of the Alpine evolution history. The structural setting of the Zemple´n Unit, located in the northeastern part of Hungary, is ambiguous; it is usually assigned to the Central . The main stages of the structural evolution are as follows: • Pre-Alpine mostly Variscan evolution that determined the geological structure of the plate margins at the beginning of the Alpine plate-tectonic cycle. In the Jurassic large fragments of the Variscan Belt dismembered from the margins and incorporated into the Alpine orogenic system. • The early stage of the Alpine plate-tectonic cycle that is characterised by opening of oceanic basins, i.e. opening of the western Neotethys Ocean from east to west during the Middle Triassic to Early Jurassic and opening of the Penninic branch of the from west to east during the Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous.

xxi xxii Structural Units and Main Stages of the Structural Evolution

Fig. 3 Topography of the pre-Cenozoic basement of Hungary (After Haas et al. 2010). The depth of the basement is expressed by graded shading. One grade corresponds with 1 km (7.5 km is the maximum depth of the basins)

• The stage of the mountain building processes, i.e. closure of the Neotethys basin from the Middle Jurassic to the Late Cretaceous–earliest Tertiary; closure of the Penninic branch from the early Late Cretaceous to the Early Miocene. The terranes forming the basement of the Pannonian Basin were emplaced in their present-day, juxtaposed setting by the end of this stage. • Development of molasse basins in the foreland of the Alpine nappe stacks and in backarc setting (Pannonian Basin) related to the subduction of the European Plate in the Late Cenozoic. In the Pannonian Basin the subduction-related thinning of the crust was accompanied by intense volcanism that was followed by extended and accelerated but unequal subsiding, and infilling of the basin system during the Late Miocene–- Pliocene and in some sub-basins also in the Quaternary. The present summary also attempts to express the heterogeneous and multistage structural evolution of the Pannonian region. Therefore the geologic features and history of the individual structural units (terranes) will be dis- cussed separately, as long as they developed independently. After the accretion of two or more units their further evolution is discussed jointly; conversely, if a unit breaks up, the history of the resultant units is presented separately.