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Uneven Geographies of Low-Carbon Transition: Exploring Energy Vulnerabilities in Peripheral Communities

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Uneven Geographies of Low-Carbon Transition: Exploring Energy Vulnerabilities in Peripheral Communities Uneven geographies of low-carbon transition: exploring energy vulnerabilities in peripheral communities By Kate O’Sullivan Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Geography and Planning Cardiff University September 2019 Abstract The ongoing transition of the energy system are altering the way energy is produced, distributed and consumed. It has the promise of increased energy democracy and more distributed decentralised developments and benefits. Yet, not everyone or every place has equal access to these transition opportunities. Access to energy is already precarious for some households leading to what is conceptualised in literature as energy vulnerabilities and energy injustice. However, little explored remains how the nature of place – in its interplays with social, economic and political factors – impacts upon energy vulnerabilities and energy transition. This thesis fills this gap by exploring energy transition experiences in sub-regional peripheries of South Wales, illuminating the interplay between vulnerability, peripherality and transition. It does so by adopting an energy justice and spatial justice framework, a qualitative case study methodology and mixed research methods including interviews, personal observations, document and secondary data analysis. The research demonstrates how drivers of energy vulnerabilities (such as difficulty in affording and accessing energy) are place-specific and defined by factors associated with peripheralization: lack of agglomerative advantage, political peripheralization, sparse and shrinking population, poor energy infrastructure, high energy costs, high costs of living, dependence on external investment, limited employment opportunities and low incomes. Peripheralization is a self-reinforcing circular process, driven by disadvantageous political, symbolic, economic processes manifest spatially. The mutually reinforcing circles of peripheralization and energy vulnerabilities limit economic, political and social capacity to transition and restrain transition benefits. Research findings overall elucidate the production of spatially contingent energy vulnerabilities, thus also making contribution to the advancement of energy vulnerability and transition literature. It is also shown that geographic processes influence transition mode, trajectory and outcomes. Policy implications are identified, including the importance of recognising that energy vulnerability is influenced by place-specific factors currently unaccounted for in fuel poverty policy. 2 Acknowledgements I would like to thank the numerous people who have volunteered their time and knowledge to participate in this research. Thank you for opening your homes, community and workspaces and taking time out of your day to sit and talk with me. Each interview provided new and invaluable perspectives without which this research would not have been possible. I am indebted to the support of my supervisory team, Dr Oleg Golubchikov and Dr Abid Mehmood. I am extremely lucky to have experienced such mentorship. Your patience, direction and knowledge while invaluable in completing this research, has also given me the tools to continue on my research journey; I also owe thanks to Clare Parsons, Brecon Beacons National Park Authority, your in-depth understanding of the Parks communities, landscapes and the Authority itself proved invaluable in this research. I am also grateful to my reviewer Professor Gill Bristow for her time and extremely valuable advice at every stage of this study. I would like to thank my colleagues and friends who have supported me on this journey. My fellow PhD Students, Andy, Justyna and Christina, I owe you all thanks for your reassurances and comradery, it was so good to know we have been in this together! I would like to express my gratitude to my friends and family for their constant support, and encouragement. I would not have been able to undertake this research without you all. Particularly, I want to thank my daughter Bonnie for forcing me to have some fun along the way. Parts of this thesis have been presented at the Royal Geographic Society Annual Conference; I am appreciative of the input on my ideas received at this event. Portions of this thesis have also been published as journal articles co-authored with my supervisory team. I am grateful again to my supervisors for helping me adjust to the publishing process and also for the feedback of editors and peer-reviewers in refining my thoughts. This thesis was facilitated by an Economic and Social Research Council studentship and the Brecon Beacons National Park Sustainable Development Fund. I am thankful for the financial assistance provided by this which enabled me to pursue my research. 3 Contents Chapter 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 9 Chapter 2. Energy Vulnerability: Linking energy justice, social justice and vulnerability ......... 19 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 19 2.2 Fuel Poverty: Initial understandings of domestic energy deprivation ......................... 21 2.3 Energy justice: A lens for understanding domestic energy deprivation ...................... 29 2.4 Energy vulnerability: An alternative conceptualisation? ............................................. 33 2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 40 Chapter 3. Low-carbon energy transition: Implications for energy and spatial justice ............... 43 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 43 3.2 Low-carbon energy transition in the UK: A spatially uneven process ........................ 45 3.3 Towards a ‘just’ socio-technical transition process ..................................................... 54 3.4 Accounting for geographies: A spatial justice framework .......................................... 63 3.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 70 Chapter 4. Energy peripheries: Spatial injustice and energy vulnerability .................................. 72 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 72 4.2 Spatial differentiation: Core-periphery development .................................................. 74 4.3 Spatial injustice and peripheralization: The case of Wales ......................................... 80 4.4 Spatialized energy vulnerability .................................................................................. 92 4.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 98 Chapter 5. Methodology ............................................................................................................ 101 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 101 5.2 Methodology: A qualitative case study ..................................................................... 103 5.3 Getting to know the case: Pilot studies ...................................................................... 113 5.4 Data collection methods ............................................................................................ 114 5.5 Data collection considerations ................................................................................... 117 5.6 Sampling and recruitment .......................................................................................... 121 5.7 Ethical considerations ................................................................................................ 134 5.8 Thematic data analysis............................................................................................... 135 5.9 Evaluating the research: A critique of qualitative inquiry ......................................... 140 5.10 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 143 Chapter 6. Peripheral energy and spatial injustice: Representation, recognition, energy vulnerabilities and transition ................................................................................... 145 6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 145 6.2 National political peripheralization ........................................................................... 146 6.3 Regional and sub-regional political peripheralization ............................................... 151 6.4 The Brecon Beacons National Park: Further political peripheralization ................... 165 6.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 174 4 Chapter 7. Peripheral economies, infrastructures and living costs: Embedded energy vulnerabilities and disparate transition opportunities ............................................. 176 7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 176 7.2 Peripheral economy and income: Unaffordable energy and transition? ..................
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