Global Politics and (Trans) National Arts: Staging the “War on Terror” In
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Global Politics and (Trans)National Arts: Staging the “War on Terror” in New York, London, and Cairo A dissertation submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of English of the College of Arts and Sciences by George Potter M.A. Indiana State University May 2005 Committee Chair: Jana Braziel, Ph.D. Abstract In the post-9/11 era, over a hundred theatric performances exploring the fallout from the “war on terror” have been staged in Cairo, London, and New York. Though never discussed in relation to one another, the works from major cultural centers on three continents provide valuable insights into how people from three cultures have responded to the wars and political policies since 9/11, as well as how they have attempted to form their resistance to those policies. To explore this, my study begins with a historiography of “terrorism,” exploring the term’s roots in the French Revolution as a means by which to discuss state violence, a use that was standard throughout the nineteenth century. However, during the twentieth century, as the nation-state became the normative structure for political organization, resistance to it— “subnationals,” as they would come to be called in State Department parlance—were redefined as “terrorist.” Therefore, the construction of the United Nations, the development of human rights discourse, and the codification of terrorism laws occurred within the same era of organizing (un)acceptable political behavior. The next three chapters of the dissertation then undertake examining theatric works within each of the nations under consideration alone. From there, the following five chapters focus on formal or thematic concerns—the political efficacy of musical theater, representations of Afghanistan, the staging of Iraqi voices, stories of soldiers returning from war, and diasporic theater—in cross-cultural analyses, comparing how similar narratives and structures have been used in different cultural contexts to resist both the “war on terror” and local forms of political oppression. The final chapter of the dissertation looks at Naomi Wallace’s theater-making practices, before closely examining her play The Fever Chart: Three Visions of the Middle East, ii one of the few American dramas to draw connections between Palestine and Iraq, as well as one of the few plays about the “war on terror” to have been staged in Cairo, London, and New York. Through an examination of these performances, I argue for the necessity of a more intimate form of transnationalism, one that can understand the effects of global political events on the smallest spaces of distant lives, as well as one that resists the underlying systems of oppression, rather than their symptoms. The conclusion then expands on this argument as not only a call for artistic production, but also for scholarly endeavors in a world where artistic production has become more global and diffuse. iii iv Acknowledgements This project would not exist without the time, care, and sacrifice of many people in my life, both those who have been there for a long time and those I met along the way, in far-flung corners of the world, who took me in and helped me to better understand the contours of societies I often had much to learn about. Additionally, I am indebted to a United States Fulbright Student grant and a Charles Phelps Taft Dissertation Fellowship for funding the sixteen months of field research that made this study possible, as well as the Critical Language Enhancement and Critical Language Scholarship programs that helped with my Arabic study. I am, of course, extremely grateful for the support, mentorship, and friendship I found in the Department of English and Comparative Literatures at the University of Cincinnati. There, I found a community willing to aide me in taking risks and exploring uncommon terrain in my intellectual development. In particular, Professor Jana Braziel helped guide this project from the early stages of inquiry and the seedlings of drafts, always providing thoughtful feedback and reminders of questions and points of reference that would push and challenge my own frames and modes of analysis. I am also grateful to Professor Gary Weissman for his careful readings of my work, and his steady reminders of the space between what my text said and what I wanted it to say. Additionally, my conversations with Professor Joshua Chambers-Letson on how to negotiate the terrain between the human suffering sometimes described here and the audiences in my home country were invaluable in helping me strive for a more nuanced discourse. Furthermore, I am thankful to Professor Jonathan Kamholtz, for always being a source of professional advice, and Jessica Vieson, for making sure I met each step along the way, no matter where in the world I was at the time v I have also been lucky to find an endless source of warmth and intellectual challenge from my friends throughout my doctoral studies: Elizabeth Harmon Threatt, Kate Polak, Nick Chuha, Kirk Boyle, Charlie Green, Les Kay, Jeff Gross, and Melissa Dickman. This process, and my life, would be less rich without each of you. In Cairo, I was privileged to have Professor Nehad Selaiha, whose knowledge of Egyptian theater and current artists provided an endless resource and source of inspiration throughout my time there. I am also grateful to the artists and academics who opened their theaters, homes, and lives to me: Tarak al-Dwery, Hassan al-Geretly, Hazen Azmy, Lenin al- Ramly, Mahmoud al-Lozy, Frank Bradley, Youssri Khamis, Hoda Wasfi, Abul ‘Ela El- Salamouni, and Khaled el-Sawy. Additionally, I owe thanks to the endlessly helpful staff at the Binational Fulbright Commission in Egypt, where Bruce Lohof, Ranya Rashed, and Hend Rasmy were always available to help my research. In Cairo, I also benefited greatly from the friendships that always sustained me in difficult times, particularly Eric Daugherty, Matthew Kuehl, Deena Omar, Patrick Rowe, Katie Guzzi, Christina Hanna, Rania Sweis, Jonathan Hallemeier, and John Graf. Along the way in my research, I was also aided by numerous introductions and contacts provided by Professor Marvin Carlson, who has always been enthusiastically helpful when we have crossed paths around the world. Additionally, I would like to thank Jay Gibson-King for all the conversations about British theater and the information on accessing the archives in London. I have also benefited from my relationship with the American Center of Oriental Research in Amman, where I studied Arabic one summer and later worked while completing the revisions on this project. The knowledge, camaraderie, laughter, support, encouragement, and quiet corners to hide in that I found there were always welcome, and I will always remember Dr. vi Barbara Porter, Dr. Chris Tuttle, Sarah Harpending, Dr. Elena Corbett, Emily Hagemeister, Basma Guthrie, Noel Rivera, and the students of the CLS program when I think about how this work grew, developed, and was completed. Finally, I would like to thank my family, who perhaps experienced the strain of this research more than I ever did, as I spent ever-increasing stretches of time abroad, often in conditions and circumstances that made them worry about my well being … and perhaps sanity. Despite this, John and Jen Potter always invited me into their home for dinner when I was back in Cincinnati, creating a peaceful escape from the day-to-day routine, and storage space every time I went abroad. Chris, Diane, and Michael Potter were always gracious and grateful to see me during the rare times when our schedules overlapped and we could catch up. And my parents, Wilma and Perry Potter, always offered encouragement and support, sending packages and taking vacations in different corners of the world each year. If they had not raised me to explore and take risks, I would likely not be writing this today. vii Table of Contents Introduction 1 1. Who’s the Terrorist? 21 2. Censoring the Torture Debate: Political Violence and Egyptian Theater 51 3. Forty-Five Minutes that Changed the World: The September Dossier, British 78 Drama, and the New Journalism 4. Home Before History: American Domestic Drama in a Post-9/11 World 104 5. Singing to the Choir: Musical Theater and (Un)Acceptable Critiques 137 6. The War Without Context: Staging Afghan History 162 7. Performing Victimization: Iraqis on Foreign Stages 199 8. The War Comes Home: Staging Soldiers’ Returns 230 9. Speaking Between Worlds: Arab American and Muslim British Voices 260 10. Alternative Transnationals: Naomi Wallace and Cross-Cultural Performances 292 Conclusion 312 Bibliography 329 viii Introduction Talking About Terrorism A theatre which makes no contact with the public is a nonsense. ---Bertolt Brecht On July 7, 2005, a series of coordinated suicide attacks on London’s public transportation system ripped through the morning rush hour. The attacks were committed by four men, three of British Pakistani descent and one of British Jamaican descent, all angered by Britain’s continued involvement in the Iraq War. Fifty-two people were killed in addition to the bombers, and another seven hundred were injured. These are the commonly reported truths of what has come to be known as the 7/7 attacks in London. But there is also another story. That same day, at the Royal Court Theatre, Robin Soans’ controversial play Talking to Terrorists was in the middle of its summer run, complete with posters showing a shadowy figure walking through a Tube tunnel carrying a briefcase. The advertisements managed to bridge the psychological and literal fear of terrorism, showing an image of fear that became all too real on that July morning.