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Volcanology of Saba and St. Eustatius Northern Lesser Antilles

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Volcanology of Saba and St. Eustatius Northern Lesser Antilles I . , II III Volcanology of Saba and St. Eustatius, Northern Lesser Antilles M. John Roobol and Alan L. Smith , , IV Digital versions of the maps in this volume and other supporting materials are presented on the website of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, see www.knaw.nl/edita/antilles Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences P.O. Box , GC Amsterdam, the Netherlands T +-- F+-- E [email protected] www.knaw.nl --- The paper in this publication meets the requirements of « iso-norm () for permanence © Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. V Contents List of Plates XI Abstract XII Acknowledgments XVIII 1 Island Arcs of the eastern Caribbean 2 The composite arc of the Lesser Antilles 3 The Active Arc 3 The Extinct Arc of the Limestone Caribbees 5 The Aves Ridge 6 Venezuela and Grenada basins 7 Submarine banks of the northern Lesser Antilles 7 Anegada Passage 8 Kallinago Depression 9 Seismically active faults 9 Faults revealed by seismic reflection profiles 10 Lineaments 11 Drilling and seismic reflection studies on the Saba Bank 11 Mesozoic rocks of St. Croix and La Desirade islands 13 Mesozoic rocks dredged from submarine scarps on banks in the northeastern Caribbean 13 Discussion 14 VI Contents 17 Introduction 17 Development of pyroclastic studies in the Lesser Antilles 20 Classification of pyroclastic deposits of the Lesser Antilles 22 Pelean-style eruptions 23 St. Vincent-style eruptions 25 Plinian-style eruptions 25 Asama-style eruptions 26 Phreatic- / phreatomagmatic-style eruptions 27 Volcaniclastic deposits lacking primary pyroclastic structures 28 31 Introduction 31 Morphology and bathymmetry of Saba 31 Geology of Saba 34 The horseshoe-shaped crater / sector collapse structure of Saba 35 The older volcanic division of Saba 40 The younger volcanic division of Saba 43 Geochronology of Saba 44 Pyroclastic stratigraphy of Saba 47 Grain size characteristics 48 The most recent eruption of Saba 51 Structural evolution of Saba 57 59 Introduction 59 Petrography of the volcanic rocks and their inclusions 61 Basalt 62 Basaltic andesite 62 Andesite 65 Dacite 65 Partially resorbed bipyramidal quartz in the volcanic rocks of Saba 65 Contents VII Hypabyssal inclusions 66 An inclusion of a hypabyssal lamprophyre 66 Exotic crustal inclusions 69 Geochemistry of Saba 72 Introduction 72 Geochemistry of volcanic rocks from Saba 73 Geochemistry of inclusions 85 Mineralogy of inclusions 88 Isotopic compositions 90 Petrogenesis 92 . 99 Introduction 99 Morphology and bathymmetry of St. Eustatius 99 Geology of St. Eustatius 101 Geochronology of St. Eustatius 103 Geology of the Northern Centers 107 Submarine pyroclastic stratigraphy of the White Wall-Sugar Loaf ridges 108 Pyroclastic stratigraphy of the Quill 119 Introduction 119 Stratigraphic Division 1: Base Surge Division (<40,000 years. B.P.) 124 Stratigraphic Division 2: Lower Pumice Division (~ 23,000 years. B.P.) 124 Stratigraphic Division 3: Phreatomagmatic Ash Division (~ 8,000 yrs. B.P.) 130 Stratigraphic Division 4: Lower Mixed Division (undated <7,500 years B.P.) 131 Stratigraphic Division 5: Upper Pumice Division (undated <7,500 years B.P.) 133 Stratigraphic Division 6: Upper Mixed Division (undated <7,500 years B.P.) 133 Stratigraphic Division 7: The most recent erupted bedset of the Quill (~1,600 years B.P.) 133 VIII Contents Distal facies pyroclastic deposits of the Quill preserved on top of the Northern Centers 134 Grain size characteristics of the younger subaerial pyroclastic deposits of the Quill 136 Pelean-style activity 136 St. Vincent-style activity 140 Plinian-style activity 142 Asama-style activity 150 Phreatomagmatic-style activity 153 The most recent erupted bedset of the Quill 156 Introduction 156 Marker Unit K 157 Marker Unit L 159 Marker Unit M 159 Marker Unit N 162 Marker Unit O 162 Grain size analysis of samples from the most recent erupted bedset of the Quill 163 Relations between the Marker Units of the most recent erupted bedset of the Quill 166 Age of the most recent erupted bedset of the Quill 167 Petrography of the most recent erupted bedset of the Quill 173 Mineralogy of the most recent erupted bedset of the Quill 176 Geochemistry of the most recent erupted bedset of the Quill 178 Significance of the geochemical variation of the most recent erupted bedset of the Quill 184 . 187 Petrography of the Northern Centers 187 Petrography of the White Wall-Sugar Loaf rocks 188 Petrography of the Quill 190 Basalt 190 Basaltic andesite 193 Andesite 193 Dacite 194 Rhyolite 194 Contents IX Exotic blocks ejected from the Quill volcano 194 Ejected cumulate blocks 194 Ejected blocks of green metavolcanic and metavolcaniclastic rocks 197 Ejected blocks of limestone 198 Mineralogy of the Quill 198 Plagioclase 199 Clinopyroxene 201 Orthopyroxene 201 Olivine 203 Amphibole 204 Iron-titanium oxide and spinel 205 Mineralogy of plutonic blocks 205 Geochemistry of St. Eustatius 209 Geochemistry of the Northern Centers and the White Wall-Sugar Loaf ridge 211 Geochemistry of the Quill 215 Chemical stratigraphy of the Quill 235 Isotopic compositions of volcanic rocks from the Quill 236 Petrogenesis 239 Northern Centers and the White Wall-Sugar Loaf Series 239 The Quill 239 Contrasted models for the magma recharge systems for Saba and the Quill 240 The mantle factor 241 The crustal factor 242 . , , 248 Introduction 248 Volcanic heat escape on Saba 249 Introduction 249 Hot springs at Well Bay 249 Hot springs between Ladder Bay and Tent Bay 250 A hot spring opposite Green Island 251 Heat escape from the sulfur mine adit 252 X Contents Submarine hot springs 252 Other reported areas of heat escape on Saba 252 Chemistry of hot springs on Saba 254 Distribution of heat escape on Saba 255 Heated groundwater on St. Eustatius 256 Groundwater geochemistry of St. Eustatius 257 Seismic activity on Saba and St. Eustatius 258 The 1992 felt seismic swarm 259 The April 1994 felt seismic tremors 261 The microseismic swarm of 1995 to 1997 261 Status of activity of Saba and the Quill, St. Eustatius 263 Possible precursor activities on Mt. Pelée/Quill- and Soufriere Hills/ Saba-type volcanoes 265 Precursor activity prior to the historic activity on Mt. Pelée, Martinique 266 Historic precursor activity of the Soufriere Hills volcano, Montserrat 267 Discussion 268 270 293 294 Appendix 1 — Specimen list for Saba 294 Appendix 2 — Specimen list for St. Eustatius 298 Appendix 3 — Maps showing distribution of Marker Units K to O of last erupted bedset of the Quill, St. Eustatius 305 311 XI List of Plates Plate 1 Faults and lineaments in submarine banks and islands of the northeastern Caribbean. Plate 2 Geological Map of Saba Island, scale 1:10,000 (printed here at a scaled 1:14,000 for conveniance). Plate 3 Twenty-one measured stratigraphic sections together with an index map showing their locations on Saba. Sections are numbered in a clockwise manner starting with the most northeasterly location measured. Sections are arranged about a boundary line between lithified and weakly-lithified to unlithified deposits. The age of this boundary has been estimated to be approximate 70,000 years B.P. Plate 4 Geological Map of St. Eustatius, scale 1:20,000. Plate 5 Thirty-five stratigraphic sections of the Quill with index map showing locations. Sections are numbered in a clock- wise manner starting with the most northeasterly location measured. The stratigraphic sections are subdivided into Stratigraphic Divisions 1 to 7. Marker units A through O are also indicated. XII Abstract The two small islands of Saba and St. Eustatius (Netherlands Antilles) lie on the northernmost subaerial end of the active arc of the Lesser Antilles. They are separated by the 28 km wide St. Eustatius Passage, and 20 km further along the arc the submarine Lumeyes Bank represents the north- ernmost volcanic center of the arc. Saba with an area of 13 sq. km rises to the single peak of Mt. Scenery at 877 m above sea level. The island is essentially a complex of andesitic Pelean domes with surrounding aprons of pyroclastic material. Rocks of basaltic andesite composition are sparse, as are the products of St. Vincent-type activity. Also present in small amounts are the semi-vesicular products of Asama-style activity, and the pumiceous products of Plinian-style activity. Areas of hydrothermal alter- ation including sulfur mineralization, which has been commercially mined in the past, are extensive. The island appears to overlie a north- east-southwest fault zone as indicated by recent seismic activity; the dis- tribution of hot springs including submarine springs off the northeast and southwest shores, and a major sector collapse structure which is directed towards the southwest. The oldest dated rocks on the island are around 400,000 years. Stratigraphic studies have shown that the youngest pyroclastic deposit is a thin ash surge with accretionary lapilli (dated at 280 years B.P.) which overlies Amerindian remains but under- lies those of European settlers which arrived on the island in 1640. Euro- pean settlers may have been particularly attracted to the island because of the presence of meadows of grassland instead of tropical rainforest caused by an eruption shortly before European settlement. Between 1995 and 1997 an increase in the number of local earthquakes was associated with Abstract XIII a 7-12˚C increase in the temperature of the hot springs. This recent earthquake activity is thought to represent a mild volcano-seismic crisis, with the increased heat flow resulting from either deeper circulation of groundwater or possibly renewed magma movement. In contrast, the island of St.
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