DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 399 943 IR 056 058

TITLE Literacy: Traditional, Cultural, Technological. Selected Papers from the Annual Conference of the International Association of School Librarianship (23rd, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 17-22, 1994). INSTITUTION International Association of School Librarianship, Kalamazoo, Mich. REPORT NO ISSN-0257-3229 PUB DATE Feb 95 NOTE 150p.; For selected papers, see IR 056 059-076, ED 374 816, ED 375 834, ED 375 856, and ED 377 879. PUB TYPE Collected Works Conference Proceedings (021)

EDRS PRICE MFOI/PC06 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Conference Proceedings; *Cultural Literacy; Elementary Secondary Education; Foreign Countries; Libraries; *Library Role; *Literacy; Technological Advancement; *Technological Literacy IDENTIFIERS International Association of School Librarianship

ABSTRACT Themes of the 23rd Annual International Association of School Librarianship conference included "Traditional Literacy," "The Current Status of Libraries," "Literacy in a Technological World," and "Preserving Cultural and Historical Literacy." The following papers were presented at the conference: (1) "Bunko: Private Mini-Libraries for Children in Japan," (Satoru Takeuchi); (2) "Literacy for the School Librarian," (Anna E. Altmann);(3) "The State of the World's School Libraries," (Diljit Singh);(4) "Young Adult Reading Habits in Ukraine," (Christine Sochocky);(5) "Literacy Without Libraries: Promoting Literacy Among School Children in Nigeria," (Virginia W. Dike);(6) "Picking a Winner: Children as Judges and Evaluators of Picture Books--the Irma S. and James H. Black Award," (Linda Greengrass); (7) "Libraries Alive: Promoting Libraries and Literature," (Suzette Boyd);(8) "A Transformation in Teacher Education: or How Can Disadvantaged Teachers Become Information Literate," (Sandra Olen);(9) "Using Editorial Cartoons in the Curriculum to Enhance Visual (and Political) Literacy," (Susan Steinfirst); (10) "Preschool Partnerships: School and Public Library Cooperation to Facilitate School Readiness," (Barbara Immroth and Viki Ash-Geisler); (11) "Enhancing Information Literacy Skills Across the Curriculum," (Marlene Giguere et al.);(12) "Curriculum-Enhanced MARC (CEMARC): A New Cataloging Format for School Librarians," (Catherine Murphy);(13) "Emerging Technologies: Applications and Implications for School Library Media Centers," (Kathleen W. Craver); (14) "Students Becoming Life-Long Users: Vision Becoming Reality," (Judith A. Garlow);(15) "Research in Teacher-Librarianship and the Institutionalization of Change," (Ken Haycock); (16) "Children's Literature and the Holocaust," (Martin Goldberg); (17) "The Selection, Evaluation, and Integration of Culturally Authentic Texts: A Case for Making the On-Line Catalog Reflect Parallel Culture," (Teri S. Lesesne and Sylvia Hall-Ellis); (18) "The Classroom Library Project in South Africa," (Sophia le Roux);(19) "Incorporating Oral History into the Curriculum," (Loriene Roy);(20) "Incorporating Oral History into the Curriculum: A Pathfinder," (Hilary Craiglow); (21) "Literacy and the Inner City Children," (Jack Stack); and (22) "Looking at Britain's National Curriculum for English: Promoting Long Established Children's Fiction and Stories from a Variety of Cultures and Traditions," (Helga B. Visscher). (SWC) U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) This document has been reproduced as received from the person or organization originating it. Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality.

oPoints of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy. 23rd Annual. Conference

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL LIBRARIANSHIP

SELECTED PAPERS

SCHOOL OF LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA ao July 17-22, 1994 O "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY Ken Haycock ISSN 0257-3229

L) TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)." BEST COPY AVAILABLE LITERACY: TRADITIONAL, CULTURAL, TECHNOLOGICAL

Selected Papers from the 23rd Annual Conference International Association of School Librarianship

School of Library and Information Science University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

International Association of School Librarianship P.O. Box 19586 Kalamazoo, ML 49019-0586

February 1995 ISSN 0257--3229 Any material copied for distribution from this publication must be credited to IASL with full bibliographic information. Advise the IASL Secretariat if you propose to do this. IASL, P.O. Box 19586, Kalamazoo, MI 49019-0586, USA. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface iii Conference Program iv Bunko: Private Mini-Libraries for Children in Japan Satoru Takeuchi 1 Literacy for the School Librarian Anna E. Altmann 5 The State of the World's School Libraries Diljit Singh 13 Young Adult Reading Habits in Ukraine Christine Sochocky 26 Literacy Without Libraries: Promoting Literacy Among School Children in Nigeria Virginia W. Dike 33 Picking a Winner: Children as Judges and Evaluators of Picture Books- - the Irma S. And James H. Black Award Linda Greengrass 42 Libraries Alive: Promoting Libraries and Literature Suzette Boyd 52 A Transformation in Teacher Education: or How Can Disadvantaged Teachers Become Information Literate Sandra Olen 57 Using Editorial Cartoons in the Curriculum to Enhance Visual (and Political) Literacy Susan Steinfirst 63 Preschool Partnerships: School and Public Library Cooperation to Facilitate School Readiness Barbara Immroth and Viki Ash-Geisler 70 Enhancing Information Literacy Skills Across the Curriculum Marlene Giguere, Anne M.Galler and Joanne Locke 75 Curriculum-Enhanced MARC (CEMARC): A New Cataloging Format for School Librarians Catherine Murphy 79 Emerging Technologies: Applications and Implications for School Library Media Centers Kathleen W. Craver 81 Students Becoming Life-Long Users: Vision Becoming Reality Judith A. Garlow 90 Research In Teacher-Librarianship and the Institutionalization of Change Ken Haycock 94 Children's Literature and the Holocaust Martin Goldberg 104

The Selection, Evaluation, and Integration of Culturally Authentic Texts: A Case for Making the On-Line Catalog Reflect Parallel Culture Teri S. Lesesne and Sylvia Hall-Ellis 110 The Classroom Library Project in South Africa Sophia le Roux 114 Incorporating Oral History into the Curriculum Loriene Roy 120 Incorporating Oral History into the Curriculum. A Pathfinder Hilary Craig low 124 Literacy and the Inner City Children Jack Stack 126 Looking at Britain's National Curriculum for English: Promoting Long Established Children's Fiction and Stories from a Variety of Cultures and Traditions Helga B. Visscher 130

ii 6 Preface

All presenters at the 23rd Annual Conference of the International Association of School Librarianship were invited to submit written copies of their remarks to be publishedas selected papers. All papers that were submitted to the organizing committee for consideration have been included in this publication. Selection of papers is based upon the following criteria: Applies to the conference theme Integrates with other papers on the conference theme Presents information applicable to a large percentage of association members Is well written Presents new information or information new to association members Adheres to proposed length Unique information Represents a wide variety of countries. Papers are lightly edited for punctuatiOn, clarity, grammar, and spelling by the committee members who forward their suggestion to the chair of the committee who is responsible for the finalcopy. This year the organizing committee served as the editorial committee.

Donald C. Adcock Chair

iii IASL CONFERENCE PROGRAM

World Book International Keynote Address and Reception

Literacy: Tradition and Innovation (Keynote address sponsored by World Book International) Lillian Gerhardt Traditional Literacy

The Power of Reading (Keynote) Dr. Stephen Krashen Bunko: Private Mini-Libraries for Children in Japan Dr. Satoru Takeuchi Literacy for the School Librarian Dr. Anna E. Altmann The State of the World's School Libraries Dr. Diljit Singh Young Adult Reading Habits in Ukraine Christine Sochocky School Libraries in the World: Project of the IFLA Section of School Libraries Dr. Paulette Bernhard Literacy without Libraries: Promoting Literacy Among School Children in Nigeria Virginia W. Dike

Picking a Winner: Children as Judges and Evaluators of Picture Books-- The Irma S. and James H. Black Book Award Linda Greengrass Why Storytelling in Today's World? David Titus Association Conferences: Planning and Implementation (Workshop) Sally Myers Writing for Publication (Workshop) Dr. Blanche Woolls The Current Status of Literacy

Information Literacy: Research in the School Library (Keynote) Dr. Celeste DiCarlo Nalwasky Count on Reading: A Reading Initiative Dr. David V. Loertscher Librarians Alive: Promoting Libraries and Literature Suzette Boyd Transforming Teacher Education: Using the Project as a Vehicle to Improve Teachers' Information Literacy Dr. Sandra Olen Using Editorial Cartoons in the Curriculum to Enhance Visual (and Political) Literacy Dr. Susan Steinfirst Preschool Partnerships: School and Public Library Cooperation to Facilitate School Readiness Dr. Barbara Immroth and Viki Ash-Geisler

iv An Information Literacy Model: Helping Students to Become Life-longLibrary Users Dr. Marlene Giguere, Dr. Anne M.Galler, and Dr. Joanne Locke Library Power: A Cleveland Success Story Vivian Melton

Literacy in a Technological World

New Technologies and You (Keynote) Dr. Joseph Man-one Focus on the Learner: Technology with a Purpose Dr. Dan Fuller and Theresa Bruner Curriculum Enhanced MARC (CEMARC): A New Cataloging Format For School Librarians Dr. Catherine Murphy Using the Internet: An Introductory Demonstration Carrie Gardner Emerging Technologies: Applications and Implications for School Library Media Centers Dr. Kathleen Craver Students Becoming Life-long Library Users: Vision Becoming Reality Judith A. Gar low The Two Sides of Television Sandra L. Pezzino Research in Teacher-Librarianship and the Institutionalization of Change Dr. Ken Haycock Research in Progress Molly Kinney,Sharon Marrs, and Tom Wall Preserving Cultural & Historical Literacy

Keynote Panel Dr. Pauletta B. Bracy, Dr. Elizabeth F.Howard, and Dr. Loriene Roy Children's Literature and the Holocaust Martin Goldberg The Selection, Evaluation, and Integration of Culturally Authentic Texts: A Case for Making the Online Catalog Reflect Parallel Cultures Dr. Sylvia Hall-Ellis and Dr. Teri Lesesne Celebrating the Anishinabe (Ojibwa/Chippewa) Culture Dr. Pauletta B. Bracy The Classroom Library Project in South Africa Sophia Le Roux Resources for Teaching about the Holocaust Barbara Nosanchuk and Barbara Appelbaum Incorporating Oral History into the Curriculum Dr. Loriene Roy Literacy and the Inner-City Child Jack Stack Looking at Britain's National Curriculum for English: Promoting Long Established Children's Fiction and Stories from a Variety of Cultures and Traditions Helga B. Visscher Bunko: Private Mini-Libraries for Children in Japan by Satoru Takeuchi, Ph.D. Professor Emeritus University of Library and Information Science Tsukuba, Japan 1. WHAT IS A BUNKO? there is no public library service, the local bunko 1.1 A Private Mini-library for Children strongly advocates developing the service to the In Japan, there has been a nationwide local authorities.Quite a few bunko have parents' volunteer activity since the late 1960s succeeded in having new libraries established called the "Bunko". A bunko is a local mini- and in developing substantial library services. library for children operated voluntarily by a pri- vate individual, or a group of parents, to nur- 1.3 Child Bunko Members ture children's reading interest by offering them Children of the community come to the an inviting reading environment.The total bunko and register themselves as its members. number of bunko in Japan in 1993 is estimated More than 80% of bunko do not charge any to be about 4,000, from a survey conducted by membership fee; if any, the fee is nominal. librarians including the present writer. Membership allows the child to borrow books and to participate in regular and occasional 1.2 Adult Bunko Member(s) bunko activities. The total number of adult bunko mem- Among the child members, the largest bers is estimated to be about 32,000, with 90% age group is 1-2 graders, followed by 3-4 grad- female. The largest age groups are the thirties ers, 4-6 year olds, 5-6 graders, and 0-3 year (43.5%) and forties (31.8%). Most adult mem- olds, in declining order. The ratio of male to bers are mothers whose children have grown female is 3:7. From secondary school (seventh up, leaving them free time to volunteer. Adult grade) on, most children stop coming to the members share such characteristics as: (1) they bunko. However, a few do come occasionally to love reading, especially children's books, (2) they read books, and talk with the adult members. regard the lifelong reading habit as a good In general, children say that they feel free from means to build children's personal character, various pressures in the bunko, that it is "the and (3) they want to share the joys of reading healing place of their soul". not only with their own children but also with other children in the community.Moreover, 1.4 Bunko Holdings bunko members are motivated by the following The total number of volumes held varies social phenomena:(1) children's declining among bunko. Smaller bunko may have fewer interest in reading, (2) people's increasing focus than 100 books, while the largest collections on seeking success in material terms, which may exceed 3,000. Individually operated bunko tends to reduce interests in the beauty in are usually based in a home, while group-oper- human nature and in the natural environment, ated bunko may be housed in a local meeting and (3) a strong emphasis on school education place, a kindergarten, a religious institution, oriented toward preparation for entrance exami- etc. Some bunko have used retired and remod- nations for higher education. Adult bunko mem eled buses or trains, which children love. The bers felt that they had to do something for their larger the collection becomes, the harder it is to children and for the community, and so they find a place for the bunko. opened a bunko or joined bunko activities. The bunko opens at least once a week, 2. ACTIVITIES OF BUNKO TO ENCOUR- and each bunko group gets together at least AGE CHILDREN TO READ once a month to discuss the operation of their 2.1 Book Selection bunko. Groups cooperate with other bunko to The most important activity to promote exchange experiences, study children's books, reading is book selection.In Japan, around and promote the development of local children's 2,900 titles of children's books are published reading interests.Public librarians also often each year.Adult members carefully examine cooperate with the bunko members.Where the quality of books, considering the children's

1 interests in reading and their budget. The local these letters is not difficult for any infant who public library also lends books out to the bun- has had chances to listen to their parents' ko, and the number of books and the length of reading aloud, to see the Japanese letters re- the lending period ranges from twenty books for peatedly, to see their parents' interest in several weeks to six hundred for a three month reading, and especially to have been thought- period. These books are selected by adult bun- fully taken care of and nurtured in their interest ko members. in combining a concept, an object and the Selecting books offers a good chance for letters. the adults to study the contents of books, au- thors, book publishing and marketing, and their 2.3 Indirect Ways of Sharing the Joys of children's reading interests.Local librarians Reading offer assistance in book selection and informa- Psychologists say that: (1) children's in- tion about books and readers. Adults, in turn, telligence can be developed by their own moti- offer to young librarians their knowledge, exper- vation to learn, (2) their learning can be pro- ience, and way of thinking as parents who read moted by their own curiosity, and (3) their ac- books together with children throughout their tive learning can be developed as far as their growth. willingness to learn.In order to develop chil- dren's interests in reading, therefore, adult bun- 2.2 Direct Ways of Sharing the Joys of: ko members try to encourage children's motiva- Reading tion to learn, to awaken their curiosity, and to Reading aloud, book talk, storytelling make the bunko a pleasant place to come to. and displaying books are used to encourage chil- Indirect ways of sharing the joys of reading are dren to read.Moreover, many bunko have planned to achieve these goals. They include: adopted the method of "Reading Books by Par- storyboard theater, origami, the traditional ents and Children Together". Mother and child Japanese art of foldingpaper, top making, take turns reading. The practice works best if etc., puppet shows, and such outdoor activities done at a designated time daily, e.g., before bed as hiking, field trips, camping, observing stars, time or after dinner, etc., and if done constantly cooking out, etc. and continuously. (Cf., "Guidelines" and "Bene- fits" by Shogo Saitoh) 2.4 Various Activities Supporting a Bunko Reading aloud is felt by many to be ben- The most fundamental support activity eficial from shortly after the birth of a baby. A of the bunko is the adult members' study meet- bunko mother reported that she began reading ing. Among the variou topics, book selection is aloud to her baby within six weeks of her birth. the most important. The group also studies tec She was deeply moved when the baby respon- -hniques of reading aloud, book talks, and stor- ded willingly to the reading aloud after four ytelling.In addition, they discuss the local li- weeks of practice.In another example, a pro- brary policies, comparing them with those of fessor of psychology observed the growth of her other localities.Through these activities, the child, and reported that when her child was one adults learn a lot about the community and year and eleven months old, she already had think about their roles as citizens. her favorite book to listen to. When she was Editing and publishing newsletters, pro- three years and two months old, she began to ceedings, collections of essays and book reports read some of the Japanese letters aloud. At the are done in many bunko, and have worked ef- age of four years and five months, she began to fectively to exchange and disseminate infor- write these letters on her own. At the age of mation among the bunko members in and out four years and nine months, she began to show of the community. Forming a liaison committee keen interest in reading to her mother. From from neighboring bunko, and attending national our observations in bunko activities, such cases bunko meetings also give good chances to are not unusual. exchange experiences, study children's books, Many Japanese children can read Japa- promote children's reading interests, and devel- nese books by the time they are three or four op mutual understanding and cooperation years old.This is because Japanese books for among bunko members. ages up to five are mostly written in letters that consist of simple, cursive lines, that are easy to identify. The letters are phonetic symbols, com- bining a consonant and a vowel.Learning

2 3. REWARDS, PROBLEMS, AND THE FU- Guidelines for "Sharing the Joys of TURE Reading by Parents and Children"! 3.1 Rewards from Bunko Members, Com- Shogo Saitoh munity and Librarian 1970 Adult bunko members are volunteers, giving their own time, money and labor for the 1.The object is share the joys of reading, not development of better environment for children. to persuade the children to read. Their rewards are simple self-satisfaction. 2. The reading ability of children will surely However, they are also encouraged by: (1) pos- bedeveloped by these practices. itive reactions from present and former child 3.The children learn how deeply the parents and adult members, (2) reactions of local people are moved by reading. who acknowledge the efforts of the bunko, un- 4.Books should not be used for moralizing or derstanding that the bunko is a place to unite lecturing. children and books, and (3) recognition of their 5.Parents should not impatiently ask a activities and cooperation by local librarians. child's impressions of a book. 6.In selecting books to read, attention should 3.2 Problems be paid to choosing "the right book for the Every bunko has many problems.It is right reader at the right time." not easy to find a suitable place to house many 7.The father's participation is, of course, books, and to find good volunteers to carry on welcome. the work.Bunko have been troubled by the 8. Knowledge acquired from reading should paucity of funds to buy books and to purse var- be assimilated by comparisons with reality ious activities.Moreover, the most difficult and practical situation. problems in present day bunko are: (1) a de- 9. Each family member should have personal creasing number of child members, because of favorite books. the declining birth rate, and the demands on 10. Every home should have a family library. children to prepare for their high school and Supplement: Reading aloud should be college entrance examinations, (2) drastic chan- done with the readers' whole heart, and ges in the children's reading tastes, because of without hurry. the changing values in the society, and (3) un- sympathetic attitudes of local people and au- Benefits of "Sharing the Joys of Reading thorities who feel that developing literacy is an by Parents and Children" important role best left to formal education, and Shogo Saitoh that private individuals concerned about chil- dren's reading are perhaps political radicals. 1. It produces lively and congenial conversa- tion between parents and children. 3.3 The Future 2. It opens windows to the minds of parents Although their activities have not been and children. easy to maintain, it is clear that bunko have 3. It helps to enhance the joys of reading. offered various chances for development to their 4. It enables everyone to find personal child members and have provided them a "heal- favorite books of good quality ing place of the soul". Such benefits are hard to 5. It develops the habit of reading. quantify, and so it is sometimes very difficult to 6. It develops language sensitivity. get social recognition. Nevertheless, bunko will 7. It helps children to understand their continue to influence the reading habits of not parents' thinking. only the next generation, but succeeding ones as 8. It reveals to the parents the growing minds well, as children themselves become parents of the children. and pass on their habits and love of reading to 9. It reveals the attractive character of the their own children. The seeds are sown for a parents. rich harvest to be gathered by the next and fu- 10.It helps to develop a better reading ture generations. environment in the home and in the com- munity.

3 12 FACTS ON JAPAN, JAPANESE SCHOOLS AND LIBRARIES Area 377,727 Square km/145,803 Square miles (State of California 158,693 Square miles) Population 124,093,000 in 1991 (U.S.A. 249,000,000 in 1990) Education2 Schools Students Teachers K 15,041 1.977,611 101,493 1-6 24,793 9,157,429 444,903 7-9 11,290 5,188,314 286,965 10-12 5,503 5,454,929 286,092 School Libraries3 Ratio of Volumes Establishment Average per student 1-6 99.7% 5,811 14.6 7-9 99.4% 6,495 12.5 10-12 99.4% 18,240 18.1 School Library Staff4 Average No. of Teachers in Ratio of Staff Placement Charge of School Lib. Certificated Librarian Teacher Librarian 1-6 2 18.5% 0.3% 7-9 1.9 20.9% 0.5% 10-12 3.77 85.1% 0.7% Public Libraries5 Total Number 2,038 (plus 651 Bookmobiles) Staff Certificated 7,323 Non-certificated 6,994 Total 14,317 Part-time 3,714 Volumes 185,232,000 Books Circulated 292,244,000 (Books for Children) 105,200,000

1A movement in Japan that advocates the practice of reading aloud to one another. This practice is recommended to be done regularly every day before bed time, after dinner, or at some other convenient times. 2japan Statistical Yearbook, 1992 3 School Library White Paper, 2, 1990. Japan School Library Association

4 Ibid. 5 Library Yearbook, 1993. Japan Library Association

4 13 Literarcy for the School Librarian by Anna E. Altmann School of Library and Information Studies University of Alberta Edmonton, Alberta, Canada I teach courses in children's literature readers, and in all cases become conscious of and young adult literature to undergraduate their own reading practice if they are to be fully and graduate students in the Faculty of effective as partners in reading for children and Education at my university, and to graduate young adults.This consciousness can be sur- students in the School of Library and prisingly difficult to achieve. This paper draws Information Studies. Among the undergraduate on my experiences and the experiences of my education students, a large number do not see students,reportedin assignments and themselves as readers. They are literate in the conversation, as we work together within the sense that they can decode the letters and broad framework of Aidan Chambers's "critical punctuation marks printed on a page and ex- blueprint" to think, speak, and write about how tract information form a text. But they do not we read. read for pleasure, and they have no confidence Aidan Chambers introduces his critical in their ability to make aesthetic judgements blueprint as "a number of questions which help about picture books, story books, or novels. clarify the nature of the book and the way we Those few undergraduates and the larger num- should mediate it with children.These ques- ber of graduate students, both in Education and tions may be asked as we read the book, or the Library School, who are enthusiastic read- afterwards, as we contemplate the experience" ers have seldom been asked or shown how to (174). The questions, as Chambers poses them reflect on their own reading, how to sort out in chapter XV of Introducing Books to Children, what they bring to a text from what that text are: asks of them. 1.What happened to me as I read? According to Henriette Dombey, children 2. Which features of the book caused my respon- need to learn to read for pleasure and satis- ses? faction, with confidence. They need to be able a. The book-as-object to draw on their experience of the world and b. Responses caused by the reader's personal their experience with other texts, and yet still history read tentatively so that they move toward the c. Response caused by the reader's history as a text rather than preempting it. School reader librarians and teachers must have these atti- d. Response caused by the Text alone tudes and strategies themselves, and must be 3.What does this book ask of readers if they are conscious of how they work, if they are to help to enjoy what it offers and discover the Text's children and adolescents learn to read. potentialities? Personal enthusiasm is crucial if we are 4. Why isthis book worth my own and the to convince children to read. We must also have children's time and attention? the skills to analyze how a literary work func- 5.Which would be the most appropriate way of tions. But an articulated understanding of the introducing this book to the children I have sources of our pleasure or dissatisfaction in in mind? reading a particular text isat least as 6.What do I know about the background of this important as enthusiasm or technical skills if book--about its author, how it came to be we are to communicate either enthusiasm or written, or the place where it is set, and so on skill to young readers, and if we are tohelp --that might interest the children and stimu- them find books that will keep them reading. late their desire to read? My experience in the university class- 7. Are there books by the same author, or by room has convinced me that librarians and other authors, which relate to this one and teachers need to be shown that they are not which the children have already read, or simply enablers of reading or transparent con- perhaps ought to read before reading this one? duits for books, but themselves practitioners of And are there books which follow on reading. They must in some cases first become naturally from this one?

5 14 When I give the critical blueprint to my To answer this question, we "tell the students as the framework for our class discus- story of our reading" (Chambers 174).The sions and for a written assignment, I present a unpracticed response is usually oneshort slightly altered version, because my objective is comment, often focussed on the book rather to clarify the nature of the reading as much as than on the reader: it was boring; I thought it it is to clarify the nature of the book. The two was dumb; I loved it; it was funny; it was too processes are, or course, inseparable, but I focus scary; or (most discouragingly), it was o.k., I on clarifying the nature of the particular read- guess. Any of these one-liners can be unpacked ings not only as a means to understanding the at least a little, and some of them a great deal nature of the text, but as a pedagogical end in more than that. itself. "It was boring" could mean that the Questions 5 and 7 are omitted because I reader started the book with a complete lack of want to dislodge my students from their mental enthusiasm and only because it was going to position as mediator in the library or classroom be discussed in class the next week. She tried and get them to think about their own reading. conscientiously to pay attention throughout the Question 6 should, perhaps, vanish for the first chapter, hoping to get interested, but the same reason. But gossip about a book or its book failed to catch her fancy, and she skimmed author is such a delightful, and inevitable, part through the rest of it just to get some idea of of any book discussion, that it seems counter- the events and characters. Or it could mean "I productive to leave it out. Question 2 is simply got confused with all that stuff about the diary reworded to achieve a parallel structure and in chapter one, and so the whole thing didn't clarify the logic. really make much sense to me." Depending on the level of the course, we "It was o.k., I guess" could introduce a discuss somewhere between eleven and eigh- variety of reading stories. The reader may have teen books together during the semester. In the quite enjoyed the book except for the ending, undergraduate course I also ask the students to which was a disappointment. Or he liked all choose one of two titles and work through the the details about running an antique shop, but first two questions of the critical blueprint on found the main plot line too predictable. Or she their own.The results are handed in as a liked the exciting action when it finally did written paper before those books are discussed happen, but there were too many slow parts. in class.After the class discussion, the Or he found the book completely boring, and students write their responses to the remaining didn't actually finish it, but knows the person questions, and reflect on their responses to the he's talking with thinks it's a marvelous book. first two questions in the light of the general The longer version of "I loved it!" turned discussion.My instructions for the written out, in one case, to be "I decided to read the assignment read, in part: first chapter while I was warming up the van, In this paper I am looking for evidence of and the next thing I knew I had finished the thought and engagement with the text: you do book and the van was REALLY warm, and I not have to like the book. You must demon- thought, Oh no, I was supposed to be thinking strate that you are conscious of your responses about the book as I was reading!" to the book and of their sources, and that you The "Oh no" serves as a reminder that have an understanding of how the book works. watching oneself read with pleasure is an In what follows I will go through ques- acquired skill.It demands entering into a state tions 1 and 2, the response questions, of the of mild schizophrenia. Naive readers will have critical blueprint as I use it with my classes, to reconstruct the story of their readings after drawing on my own experiences and those of my the fact, if they become absorbed in their book. students to illustrate each one.I hope that And the sophisticated reader may choose some- anyone who already knows the Chambers times to lose herself completely in a story. version will find this interesting as further evi- In a natural, unstructured discussion, dence of how well these questions work for the initial descriptions of responses to a text framing a discussion of a text. For those who would have causes attached to them: "I loved it don't know the Chambers version, it may serve because I'm a fantasy reader, and this book as an introduction to a very useful way of think- reminded me of my favorite McKillip novel." "I ing about books and reading. hated it because I knew right from the begin- ning that the dog would die at the end, and my 1. What happened to me as I read? dog got run over last summer and I didn't want

6 15 to go through that again.""I thought it was The British Teens-Mandarin paperback dumb because X had too much to bear, life was has a darker, more powerful cover that clearly too hard for her, I didn't think that was fair." signals fantasy.It reminded some of the read- But part of the point of following the critical ers in the discussion group of Alan Garner's The blueprint is to learn to separate out the Owl Service.The print is small, standard different sources of our response to a text. And paperback size. While the margins are not gen- so, admittedly artificially, the "because" is left erous, they seem adequate because of the out of our answers to the first question in class small print. The titles are enclosed in an intri- discussions, saved up until we get to the four cate ornament and on the table of, contents and parts of the second question. the first page of each chapter are set in a broad left margin. In short, the book looks more at- 2. What caused my responses? tractive, more interesting, and more grownup. In answering question 2, the challenge There are other differences in the para- is to figure out which of the four sources text, as well. The page preceding the title page suggested by Chambers gave rise to the reader's in the American edition carries an excerpt from responses. the text. The same page in the British edition a. The book-as-object. has a similar passage as well, somewhat Chambers reminds us that books have shorter, but it is followed by three laudatory shape, weight, texture, smell, mobility, and quotations from reviews of the book. Certainly visual appeal (174). Publishers ask us to judge the one from Books for Keeps and the one by a book by its cover, and we cannot help doing Jan Mark in TES would be likely to predispose so.I bought the Tor paperback of Jane Yolen's an adult reader familiar with the world of Sister Light, Sister Dark with great anticipation children's literature to like the book.Finally, because I like her books very much, but the the publisher's description on the back of the dreadful cover illustration has forever shadowed American edition gives away more of the plot my response to this particular story of hers.I than the British one does. onlyrealized it when I tried to explain my It would befoolish to claim that the dissatisfaction with the novel to someone who book-as-object was the only trigger for the two knows and loves the book, and who countered different sets of responses to this novel. But I all my criticisms about the text successfully could feel my liking for the book fade a little as I until at last I realized that it was a part of the looked at the American edition for the first time paratext, the picture on the cover, that was the during the discussion, and one of the members source of an initial dislike that has never been of the group, an enthusiastic fantasy reader, completely dispelled by the story between the wondered aloud as she looked at the British covers. edition whether her tepid response would not One of theclearest examples of the have been warmer if she had read that version. power of the book-as-object to influence a read- We all agreed that the British edition was a ing came to me a month ago, in a group dis- good deal more attractive. cussing Annie Dalton's young adult fantasy b. The reader's personal history. novel, Out of the Ordinary. Two members of Chambers writes that "With children, the discussion group didn't like the book, and the teacher's job is to help clarify the difference three, including me, did. The two who didn't between the experience offered by the book and like it had read the American edition, the other the same experience known to the reader three the British edition. personally" (177).I've learned that this is also The American HarperKeypoint paper- the teacher's job with university students. back has a realistic, cheerful illustration on the Helen Fogwell Porter's january, february, cover.The only hint of fantasy is the pink june orjuly is one of the novels on the reading castle rising out of fantasyland clouds in the list of my young adult materials course. It is a background.The print is very large, large Canadian book, set in St. John's, Newfound- enough to seem intended for young children, and land. The protagonist is a fifteen-year-old girl there is almost no right margin at all, so that from a poor working class family who becomes the pages look unbalanced and uncontained. pregnant and has an abortion.One of my Because of the large print, the book is 273 students, Diane, objected strenuously to the pages long, 100 pages longer than the British book, not because of the subject matter, but edition. The page numbers are emphasized by because, she said, it wasn't realistic: it wouldn't being centered at the bottom of each page. have been so simple to get an abortion in St.

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16 John's, and the girl would have been far more with Pilgrim's Progress, and sometimes through disturbed by the experience than Diane thought similarity, a kind of relatedness, Chambers's the novel showed her to be. "family tree". Intertextuality need not be delib- Diane grew up a Catholic in the Mari- erately created on the author's part. The links times, and had worked as a teacher in New- can be even be made backward, from a book foundland. She certainly realized that she was that is older in my reading history but written measuring the book against her personal exper- after the book that reminds me of it.Someone ience, but she had no real understanding of how who has read widely will have a large literary her own history was coloring her reading. The repertoire to draw on, and a good chance of rest of the class argued vigorously that within having the requisite background knowledge the world of the story as it was crafted by the and understanding a particular book demands. author, the abortion and its effect on the girl But "history as a reader" must not be defined were entirely convincing, and not as straight- by books alone. Television programs, movies, forward as Diane thought they were.Diane stories told by our parents or grandparents, was not persuaded by the class discussion. music videos are allnarratives that readers Because this matter touched her so nearly, she bring to enrich or confuse their readings of a was unable to make the distinction between her particular text. world and the world of the book. But the other When I first read Susan Cooper's The participants had an effective lesson in the Dark Is Rising, I found myself bringing mem- importance of recognizing personal history as a ories of Kipling's Puck of Pook's Hill ,with its source of response to certain features of a book. spell of "oak, ash and thorn" to the story, and A reader's personal history can also be a felt myself to be in a pleasantly familiar place. gate into the world of the book, instead of a The character of the Walker was made more barrier to what Chambers calls "the text- potent by the dimly remembered figures of the intention" (177). Another student in the same Wandering Jew and the Flying Dutchman. A class had grown up in St. John's.She could jumbled composite of all the Arthurian stories I hear every Newfoundland cadence and into- ever read formed a misty backdrop for the whole nation in the dialogue, and knew every building thing, and from at least a dozen other texts I and street corner mentioned in the story.She knew about the sun sign and the Celtic cross, felt completely at home in the world created by the power of iron and running water to ward the author, and was happy to be there. As a against magic. Although I can see the flaws in sophisticated reader, she was aware that part the novel, I reread it with pleasure, largely, I of her admiration for the novel came from her think, because of these echoes it sets ringing in delight in its accurate repre-sentation of a place my head. she knew well. Many of my students love the book, too, c. The reader's history as a reader. and few of them bring the old fashioned reading It is easy to agree with Chambers that history to it that I do. John read a great deal of "In one sense, all books are made out of other popular fantasy, especially that drawing on books and all our reading is dependent on all Celtic myths. He felt himself to be an expert in we have read before" (177).Parodies are, the genre and read Cooper with the confidence perhaps, the most obvious example of this of someone prepared to judge. Tolkien readers dependency.Readers of Robert Munsch's The in the class usually love the novel, and aren't Paper Bag Princess are expected to know that in surprised to hear that Cooper had been a fairy tales princes usually rescue princesses, student of Tolkien's. Bob said he liked the book and that the author has done it the other way so much because he was a Startrek fan, and the around in his story on purpose. A reader who book had a lot in common with that television is unacquainted with the form of parody and series.Bob was delighted by his own enthu- the content of our best known fairy tales will siasm for a complex book because he was not, read the story very differently from one who is by his own admission, a reader, and lacked con- equipped to get the joke. fidence in his ability to enjoy a novel.I watch All stories work according to conventions Startrek myself, but I had never thought of it in the reader has to know or be able to figure out, connection with Cooper's novel, and I still don't. and agree to abide by for the duration of the But I can see how Bob links the two.Kathy, story.Stories can also call up other fictional also a Startrek watcher, couldn't see the con- worlds, sometimes by explicit reference to a nection. She didn't like the Cooper book specific title or character, as Little Women does because it brought fantasy into the everyday

8 17 world, while Startrek is safely set in the future. pense, even though she has told me at the She could understand the purpose of the char- beginning that nothing really bad can happen to acters in Startrek because their aim is constant Will, and even though I've read the book four and explicit, but she could never figure out what times? Why, on thefifth reading, am I still theforces of the Light in The Dark Is Rising turning the pages as quickly as I can, racing really hoped to achieve.(Nor can I, for that through the story to see what happens? matter.) Discussing responses caused by the text There are always students who don't alone usually requires a closer look at the text. like the book. Some simply dislike the heroics Lisa, who found Philippa Pearce's Tom's of epic fantasy.Others, who areunfamiliar Midnight Garden confusing on first reading, with fantasy or don't read it by choice, areliked the story a great deal better when she confused by the time slips and either lose reread it to answer this question. Because she confidence in themselves or become irritated was paying close attention to the text, she when they try to figure out the mechanism, but allowed herself to be guided by the author ina can't do so because the author doesn't tell them way that she hadn't the first time through. enough. In both cases, the readers are bumped She listened to what Pearce had to say, and out of the world of the story by their response. realized that the clock striking thirteen always Some dislike the book because all the sym- marked the transition to the fantasy world of bolism makes them uneasy. They see it, but the garden, and that the furnishings of the hall they don't understand what it means and can't changed with the shift from real time to fantasy tolerate the uncertainty of not knowing. On the time. She also noticed that some words were other hand, there are readers who know they printed in italics, and that they gave her clues are missing something but read right past the that helped her sort things out.She hadn't gaps, become absorbed in the story in spite of found Tom's growing belief that the garden was them. They sense rather than understand the real convincing, but this time she registered his power of seventh sons, of wood and iron, and brother Peter's belief, and eventually it persua- fire and water, and will have a richer context for ded her that the garden did exist. these symbols at the next encounter. And this Susan wrote the following in her intro- is a very good thing. If we responded favorably duction to her paper on Tom's Midnight Garden: only to the familiar, we would stand still. As This is the second draft of this paper.I hated my friend Margaret Mackey puts it, we become Tom's Midnight Garden. However, by the time I readers one book at a time. completed the questions and [the section on] the d. The text alone. responses caused by the text, I changed my If we have identified the layers of mind. I once again took the book, curled up on responses that are provoked by the text but my bed and reread it.I allowed myself to just come from outside it, and if we can put them listen to the story and forget all the assump- aside, which isn't always possible, then we can tions I had made regarding the story.I ignored come to responses caused by the text alone. At the fact that Tom's Midnight Garden was a this level we can see what Chambers calls "the fantasy--a genre I hate!!I now see the story author's storytelling tactics" (181).My col- differently.Although I can't say I love this league Jon Stott uses an analogy to the "instant book, I did enjoy it and would certainly recom- replay" of sports broadcasts on television. mend it. The next time someone recommends a Lemieux has a breakaway and seems about to fantasy book to me, I will be far more open score, but the goalie makes an unbelievable minded about reading it. save. How did he do that? If we're watching on As this excerpt suggests, the process of television instead of at the rink, we can see that answering the question about responses caused play again, from different camera angles, in by the text alone can be a very revealing one. slow motion, with commentary from thean- It is also the most difficult of the questions to nouncers, and appreciate exactly what hap- answer, for two reason.First, it demands an pened. effortful reading, one that listens to what the As a reader I am the camera, the direc- writer has to say, rather than asserting what tor, and the announcer all in one. I can stop the she ought to have said (Fisher 129).Second, action, while the crowd is cheering and the the students frequently fall into what I call the. players circle around the rink exchanging literary elements trap. Because they have little congratulatory thumps, and take another look. confidence in their ability to think critically How does Cooper keep up the feeling of sus- about a text, and because they have been con-

9 18 ditioned to look for the one right answer, they read the books on the reading list and carry on fall back on describing plot, characterization, the book talk at home. They bring interesting theme, mode, style, setting, and point of view excerpts from these conversations to class, con- from an objective distance, in a way that has tributing these new readings and responses as nothing to do with their responses to these data for our exploration. elements. As a result, the answer to question Often, their own readings of a text are 2 has no relation whatsoever to the answer to enriched by what other readers made of it. question 1, "What happened to me as I read?" Mine always are.Sometimes their readings One student, Heather, was an are radically changed by the comments of other extreme example of this reluctance to engage readers, and they are opened to something new. the text. She said trying to fmd the sources of One student reported the following about the her response in the text made her feel as though class discussion of Tom's Midnight Garden. she were floating on a feather on the Saskatch- My initial interpretation of the ewan River and couldn't swim. She was happy book was extremely negative to talk about her reading history and personal which stemmed from my lack of history, but she simply could not overcome her interest and familiarity with this particular genre... A discussion uneasiness about looking at the text as a of the book is what turned it source of her responses. around for me. My peers had not Aside from the engagement with experienced the same frustrations the text and the focus on one's own reading and negative reactions as I had. demanded by question 2nd, the greatest chal- Instead, they had enjoyedit. lenge the critical blueprint poses is that of sepa- Their comments suggested that rating and sorting out the different sources of this book was worthwhile reading. the reader's responses.This is, of course, an This new insight aroused my artificial situation, part of anexercise.An interest and curiosity.Not being informal discussion is not structured in this able to share in their enthusiasm way; no one interrupts in midsentence to say made me feel left out.I wanted to experience the book as they had. "Wait, that belongs in question 2c, history as a With this motivation, I returned reader." Nor do the sources operate discretely: to the book a second time to see for the reader who is deeply attached to her what I had missed. pets and won't read animal stories because the Those who have read little in the past benefit dog always dies, personal history and history as from the larger repertoires of the experienced a reader come together in her reluctance to read readers, andsee demonstrated how reading Shiloh. For me, looking at the cover of Out of builds on reading.The enthusiasm of those the Ordinary and thinking of The Owl Service, who love to read is persuasive, too. my history as a reader and the book-as-object This is important, because so many of operate together as sources of a response. But my students, especially the Education under- it is important to practice the separation graduates, are self-confessed nonreaders.It is because it is the best way to discover that there to their credit that they take the children's are different sources, to learn a part of how literature course to try to compensate for that: complex the process of reading is. they are trying to make up for what they know My students learn to use the critical will be a lack in their work with children. A blueprint in class discussion. At first they are number of students tell me at the end of the hesitant, afraid of giving a wrong or stupid course that they have learned to read for answer. Gradually they come to trust the pro- pleasure again, or for the first time The value cess and realize that even a mistake, either in given to their own responses, the creativity of following the blueprint or in following the the discussions with a community of readers, author's codes, is instructive once it isiden- the thinking they have to do, give them confi- tified, and therefore a contribution to the dis- dence as readers. cussion. The diversity of responses to a given Perhaps I am beginning to sound like a title becomes something we all look forward to, snake oil saleswoman here.I do admit my and a minority opinion ("I guess I'm the only missionary fervor. But I don't mean to suggest one who didn't think this book was wonderful") that the process is completely successful. One is welcomed for the insights it will bring. The student, Adam, was an inexperienced reader students often persuade their roommates, par- who found it impossible work within the frame ents, spouses, children, nephews and nieces to of the critical blueprint.He told me that

10 19 thinking or writing about himself made him readers they are guiding can move beyond the very uncomfortable.He never overcame his familiar, learn to like something new; that they reluctance, and became the only student ever to can read a little beyond themselves, be confused fail the written assignment on the critical and still be absorbed in the story. They have blueprint.Another student, an experienced seen that matching a book with a reader must reader with a history of academic success, could take into account a great many variables. not accept the notion that more than one This approach to the teaching and study interpretation of a text was possible.She of literature is certainly not new.Louise continued to argue for a correct answer, which Rosenblatt's Literature as Exploration was first she assumed would be hers, and I was never published in 1938. The scholarly conversations able to diffuse her frustration with the discus- about it have continued all through the suc- sions. But over the six years that I have taught ceeding 55 years, and Farrell and Squire's children's literature and young adult literature Transactions withLiterature: A Fifty-Year courses, I have become increasingly persuaded Perspective is a useful collection of artides with that the most useful thing to make happen in "a point of view that embraces both the reader the classroom is to show readers in action. and the literary work while focusing on the Even if the critical blueprint doesn't transaction between the two" (vii).David turn students into enthusiastic readers, it gives Buckingham in his introduction to Reading them the opportunity to become conscious read- Audiences: Young People and the Media expands ers.It also shows them how diverse individual the discussion to forms of narrative other than responses to a text can be, and what the the printed novel.Deanne Bogdan considers sources of that diversity are. This is, I think, of the implications for the justification and censor- enormous significancefor teachers and ship of literature texts. These are a very few of librarians.Most of the students I meet still the writers who have illuminated this approach have the notion that there is a correct reading, and reinforced my sense of its usefulness. But a right answer.I am not arguing for a year after year my students have demonstrated laissez-fire approach that gives free reign to to me that practice still lags behind theory, and subjectivity. I agree with Margery Fisher: "The so I have offered my experience as a part of the book comes first.Children must learn to come conversation. toward the book, not the other way around" (129). The point of the critical blueprint is Endnotes precisely to encourage that. 1.These questions are taken from a teaching Reading to find out how the story works kit on To Kill A Mockingbird, put out by is quite a different thing from reading to pass a The Perfection Form Company in 1960, test.Student study guides in novel units still which I found in the Education Library at ask questions like "What does Scout find in the my university. To judge by the stamps on tree in Rad ley's front yard?" "What age are the the due date slips, this kit is still very much children now?" "Does Scout want to be a lady?"1 in use. The answers to questions like these won't give the reader anything but a grade.Worse, for Sources uncertain readers they get in the way of read- ing. At the every least they insist on an efferent Buckingham, David. "Introduction: Young rather than an aesthetic reading, and are guar- People and the Media." Reading Audiences: anteed to make reading a chore rather than a Young People and the Media.Ed. David pleasure. Buckingham. Manchester, Manchester Something like the critical blueprint University Press, 1993. shows teachers and librarians an alternative to Bogdan, Deanne."Literary Literacy, Censor- twenty years of novel units on To Kill a Mock- ship, and the Politics of Engagement." ingbird.If they have worked with the critical Reassessing Language and Literacy. Ed. blueprint as students themselves, they have Mike Hayhoe and StephenParker. learned a model for teaching literature that Buckingham: Open University Press, 1992. does not depend for its authority on the Chambers, Aldan. Introducing Books to Child- answers in the Teacher's Study Guide or in ren. 2nd ed. Boston: The Horn Book, 1983. their notes from university literature courses. Cooper, Susan. The Dark Is Rising.Toronto: They have also learned from their own exper- McClelland & Stewart, 1973. ience, or from seeing it in others, that the young Dalton, Annie. Out of the Ordinary.London:

11 20 Teens - Mandarin, 1989. . Out of the Ordinary. New York: Harper Keypoint, 1990. Dombey, Henrietta."Reading: What Children Need to Learn and how Teachers Can Help Them." Reading 27.2 (1993): 2-9. Farrell, Edmund J., and James R. Squire. Transactions with Literature: a Fifty-Year Pers-pective. Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English, 1990. Fisher, Margery. "Coming to Books." Signal 33 (1980): 127-129. Pearce, Philippa.Tom's Midnight Garden. London: Oxford University Press, 1970. Porter, Helen Fogwell. january, february, June or july. St. John's: Breakwater, 1988. Yolen, Jane.Sister Light, Sister Dark. New York: TOR fantasy, 1988.

12 21 The State of the World's School Libraries by Diljit Singh State Education Resource Center Pahang State Education Department Pahang, Malaysia.

Introduction information, the school library has an important The last two and half decades have seen many role to play in education and in national devel- changes in the world's social structure. Nations opment. Unlike the isolated changes that have that were once economic powers have had their been introduced, the school library is not a new dominance reduced, large republics have broken subject to be introduced into the curriculum. up into smaller nations, numerically small re- The domain of the school library cuts across the ligious and cultural groups have become more curriculum. The school library today is no long- significant, the green revolution has spread er a luxury in education; it is a necessity. rapidly, and technology, in particular the com- Yet the state of world's school libraries puter, is playing a major role in every walk of is generally unsatisfactory.This is the view life. In addition, information is becoming a cru- based on an international survey of school li- cial factor in the economic, political, cultural, braries carried out in 1993.This paper high- ecological and technical arenas. lights the results of the relevant portions of the In short, the world is changing. It is the study. [The full study is not reported here, and responsibility of the schools of today to produce the interested reader is referred to (Singh, citizens of tomorrow who can survive in this new 1993)]. This paper goes on to suggest means for world order. A citizen of tomorrow needs a the greater development, as seen from a devel- higher quality of education, which includes not oping country perspective.It is hoped that the only the basic 3 Rs, but also knowledge, atti- results of this study and the recommendations tudes and skills that address the changes the in this paper can be used as a starting point in world is witnessing. Yet the education systems the efforts to improve the school libraries and, in most countries are still based on the agri- in turn, the quality of education worldwide. cultural economies of the past. In many devel- oping and less developed countries, the rate of The Study economic development has outpaced the chan- An international survey of school librar- ges in education. Changes, if any, have basic- ies was carried out in 1993 as part of a Ph.D. ally consisted of administrative restructuring, dissertation requirement. The main aim of the introduction of new subjects, curriculum revi- study was to examine school library systems sions, revised testing procedures and other iso- across nations. In order to do so, a series of in- lated changes. Areas which cut across the cur- dicators and variables for the comparison of riculum or the whole education system have school libraries was first established by sur- generally been neglected. Few countries have veying thirty leaders in the field of school librar- considered, much less implemented, complete ianship from twenty-nine countries. The indi- overhauls in their systems of education. cators and variables were then used as a basis The school library is one across-the-sys- to survey the current state of school libraries tem element that has been linked to increasing internationally. the quality of education. Many reviews of re- The full study basically involved the search studies on school libraries conclude that following steps, some of which were carried out the presence and active use of a school library concurrently with others: can significantly influence student achievement 1.Selected library and education literature (Mahar 1983, Didier 1985,Haycock 1987, from the past twelve years was first ana- Woolls 1990, Haycock 1992).Irrespective of lyzed to obtain an overview of the existing whether the role of the library is to encourage state of knowledge on school libraries inter- students to read widely in their spare time or to nationally. ensure that students are effective users of 2. A survey of the literature was also carried

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22 out to establish a preliminary list of indica- 8.The information obtained in steps 1 and 5 tors and variables for the comparison of was verified, where possible, through anal- school libraries internationally. ysis of documents supplied by the respon- 3.This preliminary list of indicators and vari- dents. ables was presented, in the form of a 9.The information obtained in step 5 was questionnaire, to an international panel of corroborated, where possible, with informa- experts on school librarianship to obtain a tion obtained from interviews with interna- professional judgement on a valid set of tional participants at the 21st International indicators for international comparisons. Association of School Librarianship confer- 4. An authoritative source of information on ence in Belfast. school libraries was identified in each of the 10. All available relevant information was then approximately 190 countries of the world synthesized to answer the research ques- with the assistance of the country's embas- tions of the study. sy in the United States or the country's rep- resentative to the United Nations. The Findings 5.The indicators and variables derived in step Of the 185 questionnaires sent out in 3 above were used to formulate question- January 1993, 64 countries replied by the end naire.The questionnaire was sent to the of April, giving a return rate of 34.8% (see Ap- official sources identified in step 4, for them pendix A for list of responding countries). Based to describe the current status of school li- on the analysis of responses from these sixty- braries in their respective countries. four countries, the findings can be summarized 6.In the meantime, information on the demo- in the tables that follow. The tables show the graphic, economic and social conditions of percentage of countries which gave the corres- the countries was compiled from authorita- ponding responses; more detailed information tive published sources. can be found in the original study report of 7.The information obtained in step 5 above Singh, 1993. was correlated with selected demographic, economic and social indicators obtained in step 6 for the countries, to determine if any relationships existed.

14 23 Table 1 Library Facilities in Schools

Extent of Libraries within the Schools Primary Secondary All schools have centralized libraries 12.5 % 28.1 % At least half of schools have centralized libraries 45 % 70 % None of the schools have centralized libraries 16 % 1.6 %

Access to Any Library (Inside or Outside the Schools) Primary Secondary All primary schools have access to some form of library 52.8 % 67.3 % At least half of schools have access to some form of library73.6 % 80 % None of the schools have access to some form of library 3.8 % 0 %

Table 2 Philosophy of School Library

Dountry's Philosophy on School Library Percentage The school library has a central role in education 21.8%

The school library has a supplementary role in education 43.6%

The school library is a good thing to have when resources 32.7% tllow for it

15

24 Table 3 Ranking of Libraryamong School Services

Service Rank

Textbooks 1

Science Laboratories and Equipment 2

Guidance and Counselling 3

Sports and Athletics 4

Vocational/Technical Education 5

Health Services 6

School Library 7

Special Education 8

Countries which Ranked School Libraryas Percentage Highest 1.8% Lowest 9.1%

Table 4 Role of School Library

Role Percentage No defined role 16.7% As a place for pupils to study whenthey are free 3.7% For recreational reading, viewing and/or listening 11.1% For enrichment of the learningprocess 59.3% For instruction requiring library materials and/or services 3.7% For finding specific information and ideas 3.7%

16 25 Table 5 Inclusion of School Libraries in Educational Development Plans

Inclusion in Educational Development Plans Percentage

School libraries INCLUDED in development plans 89.1 %

School libraries NOT included in development plans 10.9 %

Table 6 Schools with Teacher-Librarians

Presence of Teacher-Librarians Primary Secondary

With teacher-librarian in ALL schools 13.5% 21%

With teacher-librarian in SOME schools 67 % 75%

WITHOUT any teacher-librarians at all 19.5% 4%

Table 7 Schools with Full-Time Teacher-Librarians

Full-Time Teacher-Librarians Primary Secondary WITH full-time teacher-librarians WITHOUT full-time teacher-librarians 98.5% 90%

Table 8 Role of Teacher-Librarians

Role Percentage

No defined role 31.5%

As a librarian, making resources available to teachers and students 27.8%

As a specialist teacher, instructing teachers and students on how to 29.6% use the library

As an instructional partner, jointly planning and implementing the 5.6% with teachers

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26 Table 9 Education of Teacher-Librarians

Level of Education/Training in Librarianship Percentage No special training 21.8% In-service training only 27.3% Certificate or equivalent level 14.5% Diploma or associate degree level 12.7%

Bachelor's or Master's degree or higher 1.8%

Table 10 Collections of School Libraries

Type of Material Primary Secondary Print Materials 100% 100% Audio materials and associated equipment 42.9% 50.0% Visual materials and associated equipment 37.6% 40.7% Electronic Materials and associated equipment 14.3% 25.9%

Communication equipment 6.1% 13.0%

Table 11 Existence of Standards and/or Guidelines

Existence of Mandatory Standards for School Libraries Percentage

Yes 36.4 %

No 63.6 %

Existence of Guidelines for School Libraries Percentage

Yes 70.9 %

No 29.1 %

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27 Table 12 Existence of Professional Associations

Existence of Professional Associations for School Libraries Percentage

Yes 45.5 %

No 54.5 %

Table 13 Access to School Library

Days on which School Library is Open Primary Secondary

During certain school days only 23.6 % 14.8 %

Every school day 72.3 % 77.8 % Every school day and during holidays 2.1 % 5.6 %

Table 14 Central Organization for School Libraries

Central Organization for Advising, Administering or Coordinating School Libraries Percentage

With central organization 75 % No central organization 25 %

Table 15 Evaluation of School Libraries

Existence of formal means of evaluation Percentage Means of evaluation exists 47 % No means of evaluation 53 %

19 28 Table 16 Overall Status of School Libraries - Policymakers

Level of Satisfaction Percentage

Very satisfied 0%

Generally satisfied 43%

Minimally satisfied 30%

Not at all satisfied 27%

Table 17 Overall Status of School Libraries - Users

Level of Satisfaction Percentage

Very satisfied 0 %

Generally satisfied 37 %

Minimally satisfied 43%

Not at all satisfied 20 %

20 29 Table 18 High Positive Correlations with Socio-Economic Factors

Library Variable Sodo-Economic Factor Correlation Coefficient Percentage of primary schoolsPercentage of population + 0.78 with no libraries under age of 15 Percentage of secondary Student:Teacher ratio at + 0.771 schools with no libraries primary level Percentage of primary schools Student:Teacher ratio at + 0.69 with no libraries primary level Presence of communication Number of telephones per + 0.68 equipment in secondary 100 inhabitants in country school libraries Presence of electronic Number of telephones per + 0.67 materials and equipment in 100 inhabitants in country secondary school libraries Presence of electronic Gross national product (GNP)+ 0.63 materials and equipment in per capita of country secondary school libraries Presence of visual materials Percentage of GNP spent on + 0.63 and projection equipment in education in country primary school libraries Presence of electronic Energy consumption per + 0.62 materials and equipment in capita in country primary school libraries Percentage of secondary Percentage of population + 0.60 schools with no libraries under age of 15

21 30 Table 19 High Negative Correlations with Socio-Economic Factors

Library Variable Socio- Economic Factor Correlation Coefficient Percentage of primary schoolsGross national product (GNP) - 0.80 with no libraries per capita of country Provision of services by schoolNumber of telephones per - 0.65 library to groups of different 100 inhabitants in country cultures and backgrounds Percentage of primary schools Number of telephones per - 0.62 with no libraries 100 inhabitants in country Presence of audio materials Student:Teacher ratio at - 0.61 in secondary school libraries primary level Presence of visual materials inStudent:Teacher ratio at - 0.60 secondary school libraries primary level Percentage of secondary Gross national product (GNP) - 0.58 schools with no libraries per capita of country

Table 20 Factors Encouraging the Development of School Libraries

Factor Rank

Finance 1

Role of a central organization 2

Education/Training of Teacher-Librarians 3

Personal interest and efforts of individuals 4

Changes in the educational environment 5

22 Table 21 Factors Hindering the Development of School Libraries

Factor Rank

Lack of finances 1

Lack of trained personnel 2

Lack of physical facilities 3

Inadequate collections and materials 4

Administrative and organizational problems 5

Lack of commitment among the authorities 5

Recommendations even change our knowledge base, if necessary. The above findings suggest that the Armed with this knowledge, we need to inten- state of the world's school libraries is far from sify our efforts to improve the state of the satisfactory. While the achievements of inter- world school libraries. We must be brave in national organizations and associations, such setting bold targets. For example, we should as the International Association of School aim for the globalization of school libraries so Librarianship (IASL), in the development of that by the year 2005, every school shall have school libraries are to be commended, there is a school library. still much that needs to be done. The inter- national organizations and associations need Convincing policy makers to play an even greater role if school libraries The key policy makers in each country can are to contribute significantly in preparing the foster or hinder the development of school citizens of tomorrow. libraries. We need to identify these key offi- International organizations cannot con- ;cials, and convince them of the role and im- tinue to do what has always been done in the portance of school libraries.The study de- past, perhaps a little more or a little better, scribed earlier indicated that the personal and expect it to produce wonderful results. interests of individuals can be a major factor The efforts of the past have produced com- in the development of school libraries.The mendable results, but the world is changing study also indicated that the lack of commit- and we need to change our approaches accor- ment among the authorities is a barrier to dingly. development. Officials in the Education De- International organizations need to set partments, National Libraries, and Library bold but yet realistic targets for school librar- Associations, as well as other interested lead- ies worldwide. A few recommendations and ers must be coaxed and influenced by all pos- suggestions are put forward below, based on sible means until they are committed to the a developing country perspective. These reco- development of school libraries. A central mmendations and suggestions are primarily organization within the Ministry or Depart- directed towards the members of IASL but ment of Education or the National Library in are equally applicable to UNESCO, the World each country must be staffed by committed Bank, IFLA, and all other international agen- people who are responsible for the develop- cies and organizations. ment of school libraries. We also need to de- velop a core group of volunteer change agents Analyzing the Current Picture in every country.IASL should set itself a We need first to analyze the current target of 10,000 members, with every country research, and what it tells us about the cur- of the world represented in its membership, rent state of school libraries internationally. by the year 2000. These members must be We may need to verify some of the existing linked into a network, whether electronic or information, carry out further studies and print, so that their efforts can be synergized to

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32 achieve the goals. It is hoped that the findings and the recommendations in this paper can be used Widespread Dissemination of Informa- as a starting point in the efforts to improve tion the school libraries internationally and, in Information is a key factor in the devel- turn, the quality of education worldwide. opment of school libraries.It is ironic that while the developed nations are suffering from References Cited an information explosion and key officials are literally drowning in information, the develop- Didier, Elaine K. "An Overview of Research on ing countries are starved for information. the Impact of School Library Media Programs While we celebrate the end of political apar- on Student Achievement." School Library theid, we must ensure that an information Media Quarterly 14 No. 1 (Fall 1985): 33-36. apartheid never materializes: IASL must be committed towards ensuring the free and Haycock, Carol Ann (ed.). "Research: The widespread dissemination of information Implications for Professional Practice." about school libraries. The recommendations Emergency Librarian 14 (May-June 1987): of the 1993 IFLA pre-conference on school 28. libraries need to be disseminated as widely as possible. New publications as well as old Haycock, Ken. What Works: Research about but relevant materials must be made avail- Teaching and Learning through the School's able to the less developed nations. Old co- Library Resource Center. Seattle and pies of journals can be donated to less devel- Vancouver: Rockland Press, 1992. oped countries. Old but useful books can be reprinted for worldwide dissemination. Sum- Mahar, Mary Helen. The Teaching-Learning maries of research findings should be widely Role of Media Centers I Libraries. Background disseminated.Research should be encour- Paper No. 1. Paper prepared for the World aged at all levels and in all countries with Bank Education Sector Seminar on the simple how-to-do guides. Locals in develop- Development of School Media Services in ing countries should be taught and encour- Elementary and Secondary Education aged to do simple research and exchange their (Washington, DC: October 1983). 1983 ERIC findings with colleagues in developed coun- ED 239 616. tries. Singh, Diljit. "An International Comparative Nurturing the development of school Study of School Libraries." Ph.D. diss., libraries in all countries Florida State University, 1993. We need to play a more proactive role to ensure the development of school libraries. We Woolls, Blanche, ed. The Research of School should not expect interested parties to ap- Library Media centers: Papers of the Treasure proach us, rather we should "sell" our mes- Mountain Research Retreat, Park City, Utah, sage to anyone who is willing to listen to us. October 17-18, 1989. Castle Rock, CO: Hi The focus of our attention must change from a Willow Research and Publications, 1990. few selected countries who are interested in what we do, to all the 200+ nations of the world. There are many countries who do not APPENDIX A have even the basic library facilities, and who may not even be aware of the many poten- Countries which Responded to the tialities of libraries. A strategic action plan Survey for the advancement of school libraries in all nations needs to be urgently developed as a 1. Austria 33. Malaysia priority. This plan must encompass all areas 2. Bahrain 34. Malta that need attention, including official policies, 3. Barbados 35. Monaco funding, physical facilities, personnel, educa- 4. Belarus 36. Namibia tion, collections, etc.Other development 5. Belgium 37. Netherlands agencies must at the same time be encour- 6. Belize 38. New Zealand aged to include the development of school 7. Botswana 39. Nicaragua libraries as part of their development efforts. 8. Bulgaria 40. Niger

24 33 9. Burundi 41.Norway 10. Chile 42.Pakistan 11. Croatia 43.Panama 12. Czech Republic 44.Papua New Guinea 13. Denmark 45.Philippines 14. Dominica 46.Poland 15. Dominican Republic47.Qatar 16. El Salvador 48.St. Lucia 17. Estonia 49.St. Vincent & Grenadines 18. Ethiopia 50.Senegal 19. Fiji 51.Sierra Leone 20. Finland 52.Singapore 21. France 53.Slovakia 22. Germany 54.South Korea 23. Grenada 55.Sri Lanka 24. Italy 56.Swaziland 25. Jamaica 57.Sweden 26. Jordan 58.Thailand 27. Latvia 59.Tonga 28. Lesotho 60.Trinidad & Tobago 29. Liechtenstein 61.Uganda 30. Lithuania 62.United Arab Emirates 31. Luxembourg 63.United Kingdom 32. Malawi 64.Zambia

25 Young Adult Reading Habits in Ukraine by Christine M. Sochocky Doctoral Student University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania USA When the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, life in in the USSR. Literary Lessons published in each of the former constituent republics pro- 1990, confirms this high degree of Soviet ceeded on its own course. Although intellectual literacy.1 life in each one of them was marked deeply by Certain aspects of this success story the imprints of the common Soviet experience, must be qualified, however. With utilitarian their own particular characteristics are the purposes in mind, with its Marxist view of determinants of present and future develop- education, with radically new values, Soviet ments.Some of the steps taken in the de- leadership produced a new and specific type of a Sovietization process are firmly rooted, some are literate person. The stress on technologies and experimental. New orientations and polariza- communist ideology produced the new Soviet tions have become visible.The ecological and man. This homo sovieticus did, indeed, know economic problems seem insurmountable. how to read and write. The Communist Party These are difficult but interesting times and the of the Soviet Union, however, did not even events of the last decade were perhaps without camouflage the utilitarian purpose of this new- historic precedent. Literacy was and is a vital, found literacy in the building of the socialist perhaps deciding factor in these developments. state. Gorbachev's policy of glasnost which began the Several Western scholars were inter- process was,first and foremost, the release, or ested in Soviet literacy and studied its char- at least partial release, of information and of acteristics.Some rejected Soviet statistics as cultural life from government controls.The untrustworthy, and it should be mentioned that floodgate had opened. If one only considers that UNESCO reports were based on Soviet sources. in the years 1988 to 1991, some 900 new Maurice Friedberg, of the University of Illinois, periodicals appeared in the former Soviet Union, was very skeptical of the Soviet claim of univer- one cannot underestimate the importance of the sal literacy. In his book, Russian Culture of the printed word and the power of literacy. 1980s, he wrote, "Total liquidation of illiteracy It is most ironic that in a state which, in belongs in the same category of claims as the its beginnings, had placed a high value on non-existence of unemployment and, as an un- literacy, people felt such a hunger for informa- derground song of the 1960s mocked, the abo- tion. When Lenin was forming that state, he lition of diabetes by law."2 projected to create a model society of the Klaus Mehnert, and two British schol- proletariat, the working class.The largely il- ars, Jenny Brine and Gregory Walker, also literate masses were to be made literate. This researched Soviet readership and tried to was achieved within two decades and proved to determine how much and what the Soviet be the greatest and most long reaching citizen read. In 1988, John Garrard and Amy achievement of the whole experiment.Lenin Corning published the results of their study, entrusted the supervision of this work to his "The Soviet Reader: New Data from the Soviet wife, N. Krupskaia, and to the Education Min- Interview Project."3This was interesting new ister,A.V.Lunacharsky.Success was made information, based on interviews with about possible by three factors: free education, a zeal- one thousand participants. Its drawback, which ous movement of the young and ideologically the authors acknowledged, was the fact that fervent to go and teach reading and writing to the study was done in the United Kingdom, on the masses, and by the establishment of free information gathered from a population of most- libraries. The high degree of literacy among the ly Jewish emigrants who were very well edu- people of the U.S.S.R. was regularly under- cated, and thus, atypical of the general popu- scored by UNESCO statistics. A broader study lation. Due to the circumstances which existed by M.V. Kabatchenko and L.D. Yaskunikova in in the Soviet Union, it was not easy to question one UNESCO publication, Eradicating Illiteracy the Soviet citizen in his own element, and to

26 3 obtain good information. Times have changed could prove to be dangerous. and new studies will certainly be forthcoming. Nevertheless, even in such an atmo- As it made its population literate, the sphere, reading was a popular activity. Turning Communist Party of the Soviet Union ensured to UNESCO statistics, our best source of for itself the right to control everything which comparative information on the matter, we find pertained to literacy.Collectivization of lands how they regularly underscored this high degree and properties, achieved at the price of famines of readership in the USSR. Books, were and Gulags, was paralleled by a systematic inexpensive and private home collections grew destruction of many of the most literate, the in- in spite of the crowded living quarters. Much tellectuals.Traditionally considered to be a was written about the "prestigiousness" of separate social class, the intelligentsia, as it books in the USSR. and Valeria D. Stelmakh was called, was seen as threatening to what stressed it her1982study Books and the Mass was to be a classless society. Media: Modes of Interaction in the USSR .4In Especially dangerous was the creative comparison to other societies, Soviet citizens intelligentsia, among whom the most numerous were, indeed, avid readers. The popularity of were the writers.Those who survived the the book was not challenged until the massive Stalinist purges of the1930s,had the choice of invasion of Soviet homes by television sets, in total conformity or silence.Conformity, for a the seventies and eighties. good writer or artist was synonymous with The Communist Party of the Soviet reduction to banality. The excellent Ukrainian Union, which authorized every item published, poet, Pav lo Tychyna, for example, wrote so dif- inundated its citizens with the printed word. ferently after making concessions to the Party, Much of it, however, was not what the reader that literary history speaks of him as of two would have liked to read.In Living with people, the young Tychyna of the poem Clarinets Glasnost: Youth and Society in Changing Russia, of the Sun and the other Tychyna, of trivia and the authors refer to a survey taken in1986: of panegyrics to Stalin. There were also chosen "Only six out of then young people saw or imposed silences. The Russian poet, Anna any real chance of developing their creative Akhmatova, survived physically after writing talents, and only half found their leisure to be of her powerful Requiem, but did not publish any cultural value. Two thirds complained that again. In the times of Brezhnev, the most im- they could not get the books they wanted."5 portant contemporary Ukrainian lyricist, Lina After the year1988,even librarians admitted Kostenko, was silent for more than ten years. that their vast collections were rich in materials Much literature was written "to be kept in the which no one wanted to read and that they drawer," without hope of being read. were losing their readers. The various measures of control at the As in the world of physics where for disposal of the Party frustrated and distorted every action there is a reaction, Soviet readers the normal development of literature, historiog- acquired special skills to recognize the more raphy and even the sciences.The intellectual interesting publications, to read "between the workers, to use the Soviet term, like those of lines" of others.They learned to decode collective farms and factories became part of newspaper. articles, to look for the really their respective kolektyvs, of which the best important news on the last page.Sometimes known were the writers' unions. people stood in line to buy a book and some- Recalling these circumstances, one can times they copied items, by hand and passed it appreciate the fact that the newly acquired on to others. This was especially true of poetry. literacy represented a dilemma for the Soviet Occasionally, a book could enjoy a demand citizen. The less individualism, the less asking equal to that of a pair of jeans or other highly of questions and searching for answers there desirable goods. Bulgakov's novel The Devil and was, the safer their lives would be.The Margarita even drew very respectable prices on government, with the many means it had at its the black market, for example.Unwillingly, disposal, monitored what was to be read at Soviet controls of the printed word, cultivated a several levels, especially by controlling the public eager to read that what the government publishing and distributions of materials.It only tolerated. Many even risked to read the should, perhaps, be mentioned that librarians forbidden, the underground publications, known were asked to keep the so-called psychological collectively as samvydav in Ukrainian or sami- profiles of readers and thus they also contribut- zdat in Russian. ed to these controls.The pastime of reading This general background is important

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(Pb when one concentrates on the subject of literacy alization. of youth in Ukraine, as it is now, and on the It was practiced in various subtle, and factors which influenced it.A study of the some not too subtle, ways.All aspects of reading habits of youth in a reforming society is culture fell victim to it, especially the language. to study a bubbling process.It is, of necessity, Besides being the official language of state, impressionistic, yet it may provide an insight Russian was aggressively imposing itself in all into that society, facilitate analogies with others aspects of life.The numbers of publications in and help in better understanding of Eastern Ukrainian decreased constantly, as those in Europe, in general. Russian increased. All too often, a translation The population of Ukraine is one hun- of a French or English novel into Ukrainian dred percent literate, according to the U.S. usually had to be done from a Russian trans- Central Intelligence Agency.6 This means that lationrather than fromtheoriginal. every person between the ages of nine and forty- Russification was imposed methodically, and to nine knows how to read and write. oppose it was very dangerous, for how could one The youth of what was the second oppose the "language of Lenin" largest republic of the Soviet Union, was affec- Ukrainian youth, as all other non-Rus- ted by all the above-mentioned factors and it sian youth in the USSR, are bi-lingual. They had several additional problems of their own. usually read in two languages, their own and Some of the first printing in the cyrillic alphabet Russian. The study of other foreign languages appeared in 1574, in its territory.Yet, the has proven inadequate and, at the present collective memory of the people holds the fact time, there is a great demand for English, Ger- that in the nineteenth century, in the eastern man and French. Of these English, is the most and larger part of Ukraine which was part of desirable.Since the Rolling Stones and the tsarist Russia, there had been a prohibition of Beatles had made holes in the "iron curtain," in the Ukrainian printed word,7 The Ukrainian the sixties, enough pop and rock music has book went underground and had to be seeped through to whet their appetite for things published in Western Ukraine or even in Ge- foreign. Rock music, blue jeans, T-shirts, and neva or Vienna, and to be circulated illegally.8 other influences of the American youth culture As citizens of the Soviet Union, they saw are omnipresent. the systematic attempt to let their culture, as The Soviet education system had as- well as that of several other non-Russian re- sured a basic ten-year program for all but those publics, atrophy.Lenin's theories of a multi- who were directed to trade schools after the national state had given assurances of equal eighth grade.It had well defined goals which blossoming of languages and cultures of all of were best served by a single textbook methodol- the republics, but the reality was different. ogy, a heavy reliance on memorization and What could not be destroyed was destined to strong control of discussion in class. The fade away into ethnographic quaintness. importance of school libraries was not accented. The Ukrainian youth of today have The school librarian, typically an elderly wo- many problems. They did not inherit a culture man, was in charge of the distribution of which had developed normally. The metaphor textbooks.The collection was usually small "stumps and sprouts" which serves as title for and contained only some popular classics. an anthology of poetry, can refer to the whole When one remembers that it had to serve culture. The periods of thaws andfreezesof con- students from the age of seven to seventeen, it trol which characterized Soviet history, devas- is quite understandable that such a library was tated culture.If Russians today are taking not too popular.Among the twenty persons stock of the damages which their culture interviewed on the subject, not one had a endured in the Soviet times, the other nations positive memory by their school library. suffered all those and in addition, the heavy Much more prestigious and interesting marks of Russification. This policy consisted in places were and are the institutions called the a reduction or at least strong attempt to reduce regional children's libraries for younger children the cultures of half of the population of the and the separate libraries for youth. They are Soviet Union to a second-rateness. We in the in the cities and larger towns which serve as the Western world who have been made sensitive twenty five regional centers of Ukraine. They by the theories of Claude Levi-Strauss on the were funded by the Ministry of Culture and validity of cultures, can appreciate the losses many of them were the showplaces which were and the psychological damages of such margin- proudly shown to visiting foreign delegations.

28 37 They are very much enjoyed by their patrons pend from the state.Secondly, there was little although access to these libraries was often employment opportunity for young people. limited by the traveling distance. The collec- Finally, the general practice of early marriages, tions for children are impressive. combined with the fact of housing shortages, In the libraries for youth the selections forced the young to remain dependent on their were not always what the young people would parents for a long time. have really wanted to read, but they did offer Compared with their counterparts in the the basic menu of all classics, their own and West, young people in Ukraine, read more. foreign, some adventure literature and science Recently, since 1988, they read even more. fiction.The popular Americans were James Whole new worlds have opened to them. Fennimore Cooper, Jack London, Hemingway, Within their own world, the primary interest and Theodore Dreiser. Conan Doyle, Georges seemed to be to restore history, to fill in the Simenon and Agatha Christie were very much white spots or forbidden topics.Soviet manip- liked by the mystery fans. ulation of history was so blatant, that a com- It should be remembered that the whole mon cynical witticism which circulated claimed of Soviet society was kept free of ideologically that "the Soviet Union was the only country in unacceptable materials. Until the last years of the world with an unpredictable past." Wilson the existence of the state, it was quite puri- and Bachmatov observed, "Generations of young tanical in sexual matters. Thus books legally people were systematically kept ignorant of the available to youth were always proper in these darker pages of Soviet history.Schools gave respects.Pornography was illegal material. them the version of the moment, while parents Today, however, there seems to be a high who were witnesses or victims, generally kept demand for it and there is a good supply. Most silent."11 is imported, but some is home grown. A touch The guarded but progressive rehabilita- of urbaneness which would have previously tion of authors who had been proscribed began been rejected as contamination by the"deca- in 1988. At the same time, some of the best dent West," now characterizes many publica- and the worst of what the West has to offer was tions addressed to the general public. made available to them. This is an interesting At this point it would perhaps be help- time in which they have to rediscover their past ful to explain the designation of the term and to open themselves towards the outside "youth." From about the age of fourteen a child world simultaneously.It would be impossible was considered a youth. The outer limit of this to study the tastes and habits of a whole category is somewhat more difficult to deter- stratum of society without recognizing differ- mine and it could extend to about the age of ences. Of course some young people read a lot, twenty-four.At the same time it should be some a little, and some not at all. Most reading noted that, when compared to young persons of falls into the sphere of mass culture which the same age, young people in all of Eastern affects everyone. Some aspects of literacy, by its Europe tend to be more mature, more serious. very nature, involve more selective readers. That perception of maturity and seriousness In 1968, the prominent and prolific needs to be qualified. writer, Oles Honchar published a novel titled Typically, that youth is a keener obser- Sobor, translated as The Cathedral. The novel ver of the political and social scene. On the enjoyed two editions in Ukraine and four out- issue of ecological matters, a study by Ivan D. side of the country and left a profound mark on Zverev published in 1984, two years before the youth of today. Chornobyl, found that an overwhelming major- Its action takes place in an industrial ity displayed a high degree of social maturity in town of south-eastern Ukraine. An old church, their assessment of the problems of man's use which survived as a storage place for fodder, is and abuse of nature.9 marked for destruction by local bureaucrats. At the same time that youth did not The most aggressive of these, a young jurist, is always show an equal degree of personal ma- opposed by the student, Mykola Bahlai. Bahlai turity. In "Put in a Word for the Poor and his friends rally to prevent the demolition. Student, "10 Vladimir Afana sief described a They see in this old structure an old witness to general attitude of dependency among the stu- the continuum of the life of a people and an dent population. This was, perhaps, an expression of their gravitation towards the good inevitable result of several factors.Education and the beautiful. In the novel, there is no was free and the student even received a sti- religious sentiment expressed, although Elka, a

29 33

BEST COPY AVAILABLE girl of somewhat easy virtue, does go through a Don't pass throughlife,like moral conversion in the shadow of that shadows, Like meteors into the unknown. structure. And let new stars appear The powerful symbol of the old sobor, In the dark skies! even defamed and closed as it was, cost the For, as one sun fades, another one author his leadership in the Writer's Union of rises, Ukraine, but it inspired the next generation. As one planet dies, another sets They identified with the young metallurgy stu- out on its course! dent, Bahlai, who on his way home from the All of the atoms resemble each institute would stop on the square, "turn his other, head upwards and, as was his habit, would And irreplaceableis only the listen to the sobor, to its silence, and would human soul...."14 hear that music of the spheres which is not audible to everyone."12 A genuine idealism of youth broke "Take care of the sobors of your souls,"13 through as one of the first signs of freedom per- the author warned. The message found a reso- mitted by glasnost.It became visible in what nance with many of the young.A rich, they read, in what they wrote and even in their philosophical commentary on it, Sobor under organized movements.It should not be sur- Scaffolding by the critic E. Sverstiuk circulated prising that, as children of the Chornobyl trag- as underground literature and increased the edy Ukrainian youth rallied around the cause of parameters of the influence of the novel. There ecology. In the various movements to save the is a subtle but clear continuum in progress. planet, from informal ones to an organized polit- The young lyrical poet, Sofia Maidanska titled ical party, known as the Green Party, they vent her 1993 collection You Too, Enter This Sobor. their frustration and anger at this cataclysmic Another important novelist and poet accident. who shared with his reader and particularly the As the parameters for political expres- young reader, a very personal and spiritual sion increased, youth, particularly the students, world view was Oles Berdnyk. He wrote novels organized, published their own press and drew in a particular genre of science fiction.His up their own demands of the government. In fantastyka, as it was called, was rich in ideal- October of 1990, the students' tent-village in istic musings and represents a search for truth the center of Kiev was an unprecedented event. and virtue within the human being.His Their platform, their hunger strike, their good personal biography included two terms of behavior won the sympathy of the people and imprisonment and exile. He was active in the concessions from the government. What should Ukrainian Helsinki Group which tried to not be forgotten was that in that eleventh hour monitor the Soviet government's adherence to of the Soviet government, they were very vul- the international agreements on human rights nerable indeed, and could easily have been ar- which it had signed in Helsinki, in 1976. He rested. They put their lives at risk and were exuded the aura of a moral leader. Even his prepared for even the extreme measures of striking appearance became emblematic of the suicide. The government, thought it more ex- guru or prophet that youth which had been pedient to act democratically and acquiesced to raised in the spirit of dialectic materialism their demands. The triumph of this event gave needed very much. a great moral uplift to the participants and to At some point his writing was forced all youth.15 underground and four of his novels appeared in In the Soviet Union, youth always had the West and exerted their influence from the its own press, that ispress addressed to them. outside. Berdnyk fired the imagination of youth These were official publications, and some of with a particular back to the future vision. His them were quite large, as for example the spirituality consisting of millenarism, futurism newspaper Molod Ukrainy (Youth of Ukraine) and extreme idealism rather than religious which came out in the city of Kharkiv, five times concepts, seemed to offer something unique and per week, in huge runs of 750,000 with a to compensate for whatever the youth was counterpart published in Russian in runs of missing. 250,000.Such dreary press was the reason "Burst into flames. why so many new periodicals were established The radiation from your hearts is after 1988. Youth, more than anyone else even needed. needed their own freer press and a vibrant and

30 33 vital journalism mushroomed at the first oppor- 1995. tunity. In the days ofglasnost, at the age of 24, A more exclusive, but also "staged" Aleksander Kryvenko had published a semi- vehicle for the written word for Ukrainian youth legal newspaper which survived for about a year today is the theater.The traditional youth and half, with about 20,000 subscribers. theaters, or theaters of the young viewer, as Recently it reemerged and is of great interest to they are called, serve the younger adults. They the general public. The original name Postup, became the venue for literary events and, as (Progress) has been changed to Post-Postup. such, have to be mentioned. The "Molodizhnyi In the last several years, the general Teater" (Youth Theater) of Lviv, for example, press is getting more diverse.Young people introduced its audiences to major works, which were finding in it more and more of what was of the poet Lina Kostenko held secret during the interest to them. A landmark event was the ten years of her silence. Marusia Chuirti, based publication of the January 1991 issue of a on the historic epos of the seventeenth century, monthly journal named Suchasnist (Contem- was very popular and successful, as was the porariness).It contained the novella, Reaktsii Garden of Unmelting Statues. In the tradition (Reactions) by an excellent author, Yurii Andru- of all of Eastern Europe, poetry readings are chovych. Even ninth and tenth graders were cultural events of great importance. It is from reading it, passing it along, paying high prices the stage of that theater that the youth of the for a copy. If many of the older generation were city of Lviv, first heard the poetry of Vasyl Stus, shocked by this new type of realism, the youth a martyred young genius who died in Siberia, in loved its urbaneness and recognized their own 1984. For the youth of Ukraine, the theater is language and their slang in it. an extension of what they read, an integral part The wish to know the West and to of their literacy. belong to the rest of the world is very strong When asked what they most enjoyed after so much isolation.They imitate, adapt reading, a typical young man or woman would and they create original art.Normally music usually name historical fiction.Two favorite would be a field quite apart from literacy, but authors are Roman Ivanychuk and Pavlo the nature of the estradna muzyka which Zahrebelny. Their works, often serialized in the became popular in the late 1980s legitimizes its journals before they appear in book form, are inclusion. avidly read by all. Also, the young people genu- On intimate stages and in large sta- inely like Fennimore Cooper, Balzac, Dumas diums, there blossomed a genre which was both and Maupassant and seem to have a deeper music and literature.It can be best described understanding of them compared to our youth. as poetry which became music.Its creators, Raised with a reverence for the classics, their popularly referred to as bardy or bards, are own and foreign, they are able to draw more out young people who reached into various sources of these authors and to appreciate them more. pop, rock, jazz and folk music and produced If it appears that Ukrainian youth is several types of songs which broke the stereo- "high brow" in its reading habits, it is due to type of romantic sentimentality to which the fact that there was and still is a lack of Ukrainian songs had been reduced.Their other good literature. There is little adventure satire is courageous and biting. Both the humor fiction or interesting biography, few mystery and the pain these songs express draw the novels or travelogues. There was and is a high people around them.These bards are Victor demand for translations of American best- Morozov, Andrii Panchyshyn, Taras Chubai and sellers.The journal Vsesvit (The Universe) several others.Most make social or political serialized Mario Puzo's The Godfather. Irving statements, while some, especially the songs Shaw's Rich Man, Poor Man was very popular authored by Stefan Vorobets, border on erotica. also, as was Thornbirds which appeared in The usual accompaniment was the guitar or the print after the film made its rounds. In other bandura, but there were also drums, synthesiz- words, they are avid readers of "lower brow" er and all the trappings of rock groups. The materials, if they can get it. concerts and the three festivals of this music, in The current practice of "video piratstvo," 1989, 1991 and 1993, were truly festivals of an the copying of foreign video cassettes has, in the unleashed spirit. Whatever they may represent last years, made the American film accessible to musically, they feature poetry which wants to the public. Legal impropriety notwithstanding, be louder and to extend itself to more people. this procedure finally offers them something The next festival in the series will take place in other than the "B" films which they were

31 40 supplied with before, and thus, gives them a 8 Mykhailo Drahomamaniv published over better knowledge of American culture. one hundred titles in Geneva and Ivan In making an assessment of what is Puliui published in Vienna. read or not read by youth in Ukraine today, it becomes clear that there is a lack of a middle 9 Ivan D. Zverev. "Youth and the Natural level, entertainment or escapist literature. Environment: A Survey in the USSR." Between the iconostasis of the classics, and the Prospects: Quarterly Review of Education, vol triviality of pornography there are many levels 14, (2, 1984) :261-268. of fiction, non-fiction, biography or travelogue which would interest and entertain them. It is 10 Vladimir Afanasiev "Put in a Word for the a void which needs to be filled. Poor Student." Soviet Education 32 (3, They are curious about themselves and 1990) :86-106. the outside world.They read a lot and this reading helps them to search for a synthesis of 11 Wilson, p.166. diametrically opposed influences of their sheltered past and the modern Western world. 12 Khrestomatiia Tysiacholittia Khreschennia The culture which they inherit has been Rusi- Ukrainy. Philadelphia, Toronto: S.K. frustrated in its growth and needs healing. V. O.R., 1986. p.227. (Transl. by C.S.) There are many stumps but the new shoots are 13 vigorous and healthy. Writers, poets and bards Berdnyk, Oles. Blakytnii Kniaz Poezii. (The were of great importance to them in the past, Blue Prince Poems) New York: Smolo-skyp, and will certainly be with them in the future. 1975. (Transl. by C.S.)

ENDNOTES 14 Ibid.

M.V.Kabatchenko and L.D. Vasnikova. 15 The four demands were the insistence on Eradicating Illiteracy in the USSR. Literacy the resignation of the prime minister Masol, Lessons. Geneva: International Bureau of on a multi-party basis of government, on Education, 1990. military service only on the territory of Ukraine and on the nationalization of the 2 Maurice Friedberg. Russian Culture of the Communist Party of Ukraine. 1980s. Significant Issues Series Volume WI, No.6. Washington: Center for Strategic Studies, 1985. p. 138.

3 John Garrard and Amy Corning. "The Soviet Reader New Data from the Soviet Interview Project." Solanus, 2 n.s. (1988) :3-38.

4 V.D. Stelmakh. Books and the Mass Media Modes of Interaction in the U.S.S.R. Studies on Books and Reading No. 10.Paris: U. N. E. S.C. O. , 1982.

5 Allan Wilson and Nina Bachtakov.Living with Glasnost: Youth and Society in Changing Russia. London: Penguin Books, 1988. p.133. 6 The World Factbook 1993. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1993 p.398.

7 The Ems Ukase of 1976, signed by tsar Alexander II.

32 41 Literacy Without Libraries: Promoting Literacy Among School Children in Nigeria by Virginia W. Dike Department of Library Science University of Nigeria, Nsukka

How does one help children develop literacy and other resources for reading. where they have limited access to books and li- braries? How can one overcome the many obs- Socio-cultural factors tacles to literacy faced by schoolchildren in There are a range of socio-cultural fac- Nigeria? tors affecting the development of literacy. Niger- ian cultures are traditionally oral cultures, upon ackground to Literacy which an alien print culture has been super- Literacy, defined as the ability to read imposed. According to Fanoiki (1985,35) "our and write, is a relatively recent phenomenon in culture and tradition have been built on litera- Nigeria, as in many developing countries. Oral ture as storytelling, anecdotes, recounting of traditions characterized the past. Literacy was festivals."Recreation traditionally takes oral introduced through the propagation of the new and social forms (Ogunsheye 1972), and the religions and the colonial experience. While high value placed on sociability discourages a Nigerian languages were put into written forms solitary activity like reading.Alemna (1986, as part of this development, literacy has largely 68) attributes the poor reading habits of been associated with the English language. children to "the difficulty of an individual Formal school systems were also introduced by socialized into the oral medium of commun- the new religions and the colonial government. ication to transfer to the reading medium." These have expanded rapidly, especially since Because of this oral background, parents are the attainment of independence in 1960. unlikely to read to their children even if they Convinced of the importance of literacy can do so. Storytelling is the predominant form for development, the Nigerian government has of literary mediation for parents, literate and invested heavily in education at all levels. illiterate alike. State governments spend between 30% and Secondly the illiteracy of parents hinders 40% of their budgets on education, while local reading development. The foundations of read- governments charged with responsibility for pri- ing development are laid in the early years of mary education spend even more (Arifayan life. Early childhood experiences with books, as 1993). Yet in spite of the recognized desirabil- well as spoken language, prepare children for ity of literacy, its achievement has not been reading even before they learn to read them- easy.While education has expanded drama- selves. But the majority of Nigerian parents are tically, many still do not receive formal edu- not literate. Because of this they cannot serve cation. And education has not expanded with- as role models for reading, nor can they share out overstretching facilities, leading to a much books with their children by reading aloud to decried fall in standards. The literacy rate has them. They are unlikely to provide exposure to increased only slightly over the past few dec- books by having them in the home, giving them ades, to 38% in 1991, and many child-ren leave as gifts or taking children to libraries.For school without learning to read and write. Why these reasons children miss early childhood has the development of literacy proved so dif- experiences with books and reading and ficult? encounter both only when they start school. Current economic conditions are detri- Obstacles to Literacy mental to the development of literacy in several There are a number of obstacles to liter- ways.Most directly, poverty may prevent acy facing schoolchildren in Nigeria. These in- parents from sending their children to school, clude a range of socio-cultural factors, the se- thereby depriving them of formal literacy edu- cond language problem, the nature of the cation.If the children attend school, parents educational system, and lack of access to books may not be able to afford the textbooks, not to

33 42 BEST COPY AVAILABLE mention books for voluntary reading. difficult to carry out the policy where there is a Poverty affects literacy in less direct multiplicity of minority languages, as in Nigeria ways as well. Schoolchildren may be distracted with its estimated 300 or more, or where there by hunger or overcome by fatigue.Their after are many dialects of a language. Moreover, school hours may be filled with domestic chores there are almost no teaching materials, even in or outside work, leaving them no time for the major languages.Still others point out the assignments or reading. A deteriorating econ- need for a language of wider communication, for omy also creates harassed and distracted further education andfor unity within the adults who are less able to provide traditional country and interaction with the world. care and education for their children, thereby As a result of these problems, some weakening the foundations for learning in would advocate going straight into English or school. switching over as soon as possible. But primary education in English has not proved every effec- The Second Language Problem and tive in Nigeria. Children come to school know- Mother Tongue Education ing only their mother tongue, yet are expected to The second language problem is basic to learn in a language they do not understand. the development of literacy by Nigerian school- Perhaps the biggest obstacle to learning English children. Children come to school speaking one and learning in English is that many teachers language, their mother tongue, but in school themselves have not mastered the language. they are introduced to a second language, They are more comfortable speaking their own English, as the medium of literacy and instruc- language, and do so except when dictating notes tion. This means they are faced with two tasks from the board or reading class texts.As a at once; learning an unfamiliar language and result pupils merely memorize the notes with- learning to read. While they continue to com- out understanding. They lack the opportunities municate in their mother tongue outside the for speaking and reading that would lead to the classroom, they may never attain literacy in it, mastery of the language. since the emphasis is all on English. Even so, the majority of pupils also fail to attain per- The Educational System manent literacy in English by the end of Not only the language of instruction but primary school. the educational system as a whole presents A number of educators have concluded obstacles to the development of literacy.A that the problem lies with the use of a second system characterized by rote memorization and language as the medium of instruction in the regurgitation of facts does not encourage the early years of primary school and advocate development of readers. Children have only to instead the use of the mother tongue. In this memorize the lesson notes or basic textbook to way children learning to read can build on the pass their exams in a subject.They never oral foundation of early childhood as beginning acquire the skills for extracting relevant readers normally do. Since they would be learn- information from a variety of sources or the ing in the language they know, learning would habit of reading widely for information and be more effective and the transition to written pleasure."Reading" is conceived of very nar- language more firmly grounded. Mother tongue rowly as memorizing notes for school exams; education for the first three years of primary therefore, the need for it ceases when the last school is stipulated by the National Policy on exam is passed.Education is not seen as a Education (Nigeria 1981), and recent moves broad or continuing process, reaching out in have been made to implement this more fully. different directions and lasting throughout life. The life experiment in which Yoruba was used Arifayan (1993) among others has cited as the medium of instruction throughout the teaching methods employed from kinder- primary school and English taught as a subject, garten to the university as the main reasons attempted to establish the efficacy of education Nigerians are not a reading public. in the mother tongue (Afolayan 1976). Unoh (1968) has also cited the methods Objections, however, have been raised employed in teaching reading as an obstacle to to mother tongue education.Some question literacy.The look-and-say method follows a whether it has really been established that one similar pattern of memorization, focusing atten- learns better in the mother tongue, whether, for tion on single words without gathering up the instance, theLife experiment was a success. thought sequences of the passages. Others point to the practical problems.It is The content of the curriculum can also

34

43 serve as an obstacle toliteracy.The focus is in the ubiquitous market stalls.The drastic narrow, centered on a few topicsrepeated year fall in the value of the national currency since after year. As a result children lack the broader 1986 has reduced the number of foreign child- background knowledge which would help them ren's books to a trickle. The deterioration of the understand what they read. Promotion of economy has likewise affected localpublishing, literacy is, therefore, tied to improvement of which was just finding its feet in the more education, so that it will foster rather than prosperous days of the 1970s and early1980s. obstruct its development. While new titles still do come out, many earlier published ones are no longer available. Access to Books and Libraries Aside from the question of availability, Limited access to books and other the published output for Nigerian children is reading materials is another major obstacle to limited.Since 1960 Nigeria has built up a literacy among Nigerian schoolchildren. Men- modest body of juvenile fiction in English.If tion has already been made to the lack of books these several hundred titles were available, in most homes. There are also few books inthe they would represent a good start toward meet- schools.According to a recent World Bank ing the needs of schoolchildren. The late 1970s study report (Arifayan 1993, 7): and early 1980s also saw an outpouring of titles for youth and the appearance of a few less than one per cent of primary picture book for younger children. More of all school pupils in Nigeria have these are needed, in addition to reference access to textbooks. This means books, nonfiction topic books, and books in the thatless than one out of every Nigerian languages. hundred pupils in the country These, then, are some of the obstacles could lay hands on the textbooks to literacy.They include such socio-cultural needed togive them the basic factors as the relatively recent introduction of foundation in education. literacy into an oral culture, the illiteracy of This dismal picture is supported by observa- parents, widespread and deepening poverty; the tions at Nsukka; one observer reported seeing use of a second languagefor literacy and only one textbook, this is in the hands of a instruction; the nature of the educational sys- teacher, during a three-week stay in a primary tem; and the limited access children have to school. books and libraries. Children have little access to books As an example, in 1987 Projects with Nsukka Schoolchildren through libraries. Having examined the problem, where do Anambra State, with an estimated population I propose to of two million children under fourteen years, we begin to look for solutions? registered as begin by looking at several small projects with had a total of 2,271 children upper primary schoolchildren inNsukka, a town borrowers with the eleven public libraries in the in Ibgo-speaking area of eastern Nigeria.In state system.As of 1990 the State Central of Library in Enugu had only 3000 volumes in its most cases these involved staff and students children's library.The Nsukka Divisional the Department of Library Science, University of Library, recently reopened after more than a Nigeria using the resources of the Children's decade, has about 100 books for children. Center Library, a voluntary library organized by Primary school libraries are also few the University Women's Association. These pro- and far between.During the 1986 Anambra jects might give us further insight into the State Best School Library Competition, only 30 nature of the problem and suggest ways literacy primary school libraries were located in the might be promoted. 2,071 primary schools in the state.Not one The projects are as follows: was found in the Nsukka educational zone. 1. Story Hours (Anambra State School Libraries Association Since 1988 students of the Department 1987) Over the country as a whole, primary have been visiting primary schools in Nsukka school libraries are usually found in private town and nearby villages to conduct storyhours and book sharing sessions.Pairs of students schools, not in the vast majority of public conduct a story hour of thirty to forty minutes in schools. Igbo and English, the balance depending on the There are few books on the market, language of the storytellers and the English either in the occasional standard book shop or comprehension of the children. The story hour

35 44 includes stories, poems, riddles and songs and and rural settings in Anambra and Oyo States, the sharing of picture books and science looking at twenty eight primary schools (includ- magazines. They are structured around ing six in Nsukka), four libraries (including the themes, such as animals or countries of the Children's Center Library), playgrounds, and world, with the intention of enriching the edu- the mass media. The study examined the role cation received in the classroom. Their purpose of traditional media such as stories, play and is also to foster the enjoyment of oral and songs, and modern media such as television in written literature and encourage the use of the socialization process; the contributions of books and other library materials for both schools, libraries and playgrounds as settings; information and pleasure. the mediators of activities; and the patterns 2. Library Lessons and strategies of literary mediation. Staff of the Department of Library What can we learn from these studies? Science have conducted library lessons for fifth and sixth grade pupils of the same schools, in Observations on Access to Resources this case bringing them to the Children's Center First, what access do children at Nsuk- Library.This has taken several forms but ka have to resources for literacy in terms of emphasis is on learning how to use library books and libraries, cultural resources, and materials through activities and projects.The audiovisual and modern media? one analyzed for this paper involved learning 1. Books and Libraries about various animals using nonfiction topic Children at Nsukka, like most Nigerian books, nature magazines and junior encyclo- schoolchildren, have limited access to books and pedias. Work sheets of questions were distri- libraries.Almost two thirds (65.4%) of the buted to help guide the search, with sample children Emejulu interviewed in Anambra State questions including: Where does the animal had never been to a library to borrow books. Of live? What does it eat? Where did you get the those who had, about equal numbers had used information? Pupils were also asked to draw a school libraries (21.1%) and the two public/ picture of the animal and write three things children's libraries in the vicinity (20.5%). Of about it.The aims were to evaluate their the 13 selected schools, two had a modest comprehension and learning skills as well as library, one had a revolving class library for the appropriateness of the library collection in pupils who had contributed books, two had a relation to their reading ability. few books in the head of school's office, and 3. Studies of Reading Interests eight had no library provision of any kind. This Two library science students have con- report and others (Bozimo 1983) suggest that ducted recent studies of reading interests in two school libraries, where they exist, are the Nsukka primary schools.In 1993 Nkiru Ezeh principal source of books for Nigerian school- carried out a study of the reading habits of pri- children. mary five pupils using interview and obser- But where do children in the typical vation during four book sharing sessions. Areas public school without a library get books? All investigated included the family background, the children in Ezeh's study received books from sources of books, reading level and the types of their parents, but these were limited to school books preferred.This year Ndidi Nwankwo texts and exercise books. Only three out of the investigated the response of primary five pupils thirty were also given recreational reading to picture books. She set out to discover what materials by parents.The most important children like in books, how well they under- source of recreational books proved to be stand books in English and what things about friends.Almost half of the children (46.7%), the language attract them, what style of most of them girls, shared books within a illustrations they prefer and how well they can network of friends, with the result that the few interpret the pictures, and what types of stories storybooks received from parents and the public and characters appeal to them. library had a far wider circulation.Bozimo 4. Traditional and Modern Media in Liter- (1983), who studied reading habits at the ary Socialization Ahmadu Bello University staff school, likewise A related study of interest is the PhD found friends to be an important second source thesis of Obiajulu Emejulu on Traditional and for reading materials (after the school library), Modern Media in the Literary Socialization of especially among the girls.The third source Selected Nigerian Children (University of was the nearby public library, which was a Ibadan, 1990). The researcher selected urban source of books for five children. Even though

36 its collection of one hundred books was very they were clear and simple depictions of small, this source was underutilized by the familiar everyday experiences and objects. children. A detailed look at modern media is 2. Cultural resources beyond the scope of this paper. Most primary Cultural resources are vital to a child's schools lack electricity and very few have any socialization, both in their own right and in media requiring equipment.However, such laying the foundation for reading.Emejulu's media as audio cassettes, videotapes, radio and study indicates that cultural resources remain television are common in the society.An very much a part of children's lives.The interesting finding of Emejulu was that more children knew and shared oral literature in the children view television (90.4%) than listen to form of lullabies, proverbs, tongue twisters, radio (48%), even though radios were much riddles, songs, and of course stories. The more accessible to them. They did not seem to greater number of these were in Nigerian consider radio a medium relevant to children, languages, but some were also in English. while they demonstrated a keen interest in Storytelling was alive and well. Almost all the television programs and had definite ideas school children (99%) reported hearing stories, about their favorites.In lightof this, much the exception being the few househelps attend- more could be done in terms of adapting ing the school.Similarly, Ezeh found that traditional and modern literary forms to tele- 93.3% of the children were told stories by their vision, as was done in the case of Chinua parents.(Conversely,' only 10% of the parents Achebe's novel Things Fall Apart. read stories to their children, even though over Observation on Reading Level and half of them were teachers.) Interestingly Eme- Response to Books julu found that peers as well as parents played What can we learn from these studies a major role in mediating stories (61.2%), about the children's reading level and response lullabies (24.4%) and dances and games (47%), to books? among others. Reading Level However, schools and libraries played First, the children respond positively to almost no role at all.Most storytelling and books. They enthusiastically welcome literary traditional play forms took place in informal experiences and enjoy looking at books.But settings such as homes and playgrounds and language problems and their limited reading were mediated by parents, other family mem- ability quickly become apparent. In the words bers and peers. Only half of the children ever of one story hour report: heard stories from their teachers, usually as an Although the children found the occasional time filler after exams had ended jokes quite amusing and the rather than as part of a regular educational stories exhilarating, it was quite program.Given the importance of cultural a task having them draw any resources and the enthusiasm of children for reasonable inference or lessons them, this represents a gap and an opportunity. fromthemandhavethis 3. Audiovisual and modern media communicated in English.Even Pictures are vital to a child's develop- when asked to speak in Igbo there ment of visual and verbal imagination. Expo- still was little response from the sure to pictures develops skills necessary for pupils. No doubt the pupils reading as well as interpreting a range of visual showed genuine interest in the media. Yet there is evidence of inadequacy in books given out to them to read, the visual education of the children.This is but most wereincapableof reading.The few who did read ironic given the rich artistic traditions of many were unable to interpretwhat Nigerian cultures, including Igbo culture. they read.Most were content Emejulu found that audiovisual and other withmerelylookingatthe nonbook media did not feature in literary pictures in the books. mediation programs in most schools and libraries.And while art may be on the On the whole, the pupils displayed remarkable timetable, the occasional art class usually intellect when the level of communication be- consists of children being required to copy a came Igbo and when the discussion was cen- model as closely as possible.Perhaps this tered around things of everyday life in their explains why the children in Nwankwo's study surroundings. Their enthusiasm for books and found it difficult to interpret pictures unless

37 4$ reading was also pronounced but their reading worst papers were similarly divided. This could and comprehension ability was much too low for be partly due to the fact that some of these their level and showed they have been intro- African animals are not found in Nigeria or are duced to reading (if at all) much too late. rarely seen. The animals they indicated famil- In her study of reading habits, Ezeh iarity with were local domestic animals like also found that the children showed enthusiasm cats, pigs, rabbits, monkeys and fish. for reading when books were shared out to them This has implications for the curriculum but found it difficult to sustain interest if they and library programs.If the curriculum were encountered too many unfamiliar words. Half of broadened or pupil's background knowledge the children (eleven out of fifteen being girls) extended through library programs, they would read picture books well and understood what bring greater resources to the written word and they read. The other half read with difficulty be more likely to understand what they read. and understood little or nothing.Concerning Familiarity as an Aid to Comprehension reading rate, seventeen were able to omplete Related to this is Ezeh's observation only one picture book in the hour, ten read two that children's reading preferences were strongly books, and three read three books. Only two of influenced by the need to understand.Their the girls selected juvenile novels to read.In favorite types were folktales and Bible stories. terms of comprehension and speed, girls were When asked why they liked these stories, they the better readers; they were also most likely responded: to be voluntary readers. The library lessons at the Children's the story is familiar 43.3% Centre Library also revealed a wide range in I understand the story 30% reading ability, although even the best were the story teaches a lesson 26.7% beginning readers. A few (eight out of forty eight, or 16.7%) successfully completed the Folktales are likely to be familiar to children worksheet on animals, with scores of 90 to because of the strong storytelling tradition in 100%. On the other hand, a significant number the culture. Even if the folktale is from another (eleven out of forty eight, or 22.9%) compre- culture, the story patterns are likely to be famil- hended very little, with scores of under 40%. iar.Bible stories are known to the children These pupils copied a few words out of context through church and Sunday school and Chris- or copied someone else's responses about ano- tian religious knowledge, a primary school sub- ther animal. Some appeared to tire or give up, ject.Both folktales and Bible stories have leaving the last answers blank. The average strong moral lessons, another expectation score was 62.9%. Only a few were able to go children bring to their reading, deriving in part beyond the most straightforward questions, by from the oral tradition. for instance, picking out a striking characteristic Previous studies (Odejide and James of an animal, such as the size of a whale or long 1979) had found it difficult to ascertain whether neck of a giraffe. children preferred African or non-African titles Background Knowledge because of the paucity of African ones. But this One observation made was that the study, which included equal numbers of the pupils showed very limited background know- two, found a strong preference for books with ledge and this hindered comprehension.For African background (63.3%). Those who chose instance, many had not idea of the continents non-African books were likely to be poor readers and what animals were likely to be found attracted by the colorful illustrations and where. As a result, they identified cheetahs as limited text of foreign picture books. When Afri- being found in Europe, reindeer and elephants can and non-African books on the same theme in South America, and kangaroos, camels and were paired, children found iteasier to tigers in North America. Only 27 of the child- understand the African version. For example, ren, of 56.3% were able to identify the home they understood and enjoyed the Nigerian pic- continent of the animals.It was also inter- ture book Only Bread for Eze more than Bread esting that they demonstrated no greater famil- and Jam for Frances. iarity with African than non-African animals, Literacy in the Mother Tongue even attaining a higher average score for This preference for local background did non-African animals, (7.38 compared to 6.44). not, however, extend to language. Almost all The best papers were on giraffes, zebras, (90%) of the children preferred books in English elephants and whales, bears, wolves, and the to those in Igbo. There are a number of factors

38

4? which might influence this preference. The Igbo 1. Providing books language children's books are very few, so there Children cannot learn to read if there is is limited selection.Most lack colorful illus- nothing for them to read. A basic step toward trations.Children may have trouble reading literacy is, therefore, provision of books. Niger- Igbo because they are switched to English be- ian children need: fore mastering the written language. Moreover, the reading level is often too advanced and books which are based in their culture, in dialectical differences make reading difficult. the languages they speak and reflecting There is almost nothing in Igbo at the begin- their culture and environment; ning levels, which would be appropriate for books which relate to the world around children learning to read. them, beginning with the familiar and lead- Visual Literacy ing beyond to new knowledge; It is often felt that children use the books which they can understand, at begin- pictures to help them understand the story. ning reading levels in both English and But Nwankwo found the children in her study Nigerian languages; needed to hear the story in order to interpret books with illustrations which will enhance the pictures.Only very clear and colorful their understanding of the text and develop illustrations on themes from everyday life could visual literacy skills; be easily understood. These included Emeka's books which appeal to them. Dog, a Nigerian beginning reader describing Which books appeal to Nigerian school- how a cat's eyes are different from ours; Izzard, children? These studies provide a few hints. the story of a boy from the Virgin Islands and They enjoy humorous stories, the language of his pet lizard; and The Poky Little Puppy, who fun of Tikki Tikki Tembo and absurd situations dug a hole under the fence and went out to see in Why Animals Should Definitely Not Wear the wide world. All have naturalistic illustra- Clothing. They like stories with a clear sense of tions in full color. However, the children misin- morality, in which justice is done, the down- terpreted many of the pictures in Horton the trodden triumph, the wicked are punished. Elephant with its cartoon art and combination They like books with many colorful and clear of foreign and fantastic elements, and Madeleine illustrations.They like to read stories, but with its foreign setting and distorted figures. especially familiar stories they can understand: They were confused by the depiction of fantasy folktales, Bible stories, and stories of everyday in Where the Wild Things Are and could make life. little of the abstract drawings in Why Mosqui- But how can these books be provided for toes Buzz in People's Ears even though it is a children? This paper has suggested the impor- Nigerian story and the animals depicted are tance of libraries in making books accessible to familiar ones. children. It is certainly much easier to promote It might be noted that African and literacy with libraries than without them! So non-African pictures and stories could both be one strategy is to find ways of establishingand understood as long as they featured familiar, equipping libraries for school children, if not in everyday experiences, as with common pets, the school at least within reach. A current and had fairly naturalistic illustrations.But World Bank project represents an effort in this books with distinctly foreign settings and ele- direction, with books being sent to schools and ments of fantasy were difficult to understand, a model library established in each local govern- as was abstract and cartoon art.This is not ment area. The Childrens Centre Library and surprising if we consider the limited experience Abadina Media Resource Centre are already the children have with pictures and their lim- established libraries providing services to ited background knowledge. schools in their localities. Ways also need to be found to provide local Conclusion: What Can Be Done? books for children. Another paper would be It has been seen that children are hun- needed to examine the problems of book produc- gry for books and respond enthusiastically to tion, but I will mention one project initiated by them. They are eager to read and learn from school librarians and others. The IBBY, Niger- books.Yet many obstacles stand in their way. ian Section, assisted by funding from Unesco Our task is to find ways to build on that has been working to produce a series of non- enthusiasm and enable them to become liter- fiction titles reflecting the local culture and ate. How might this be done? environment. These are on a number of topics

39 48 in the areas of culture (marriage, naming great disservice. Literacy in the mother tongue ceremonies), history and geography (the Niger must be taken seriously, with the necessary River, seasons), and science and technology materials provided, and ways must be found for (trees, computers). They will be a step toward children to master English in both spoken and filling a major gap, providing books both for written forms. teaching/learning experiences and voluntary 3. Literary Mediation reading. Another approach is to organize work- The above factors indicate the need for a shops to create materials at the school or local strong program of literary mediation to encour- government level. Experience has shown that age children in their efforts toward literacy. teachers produce beautiful teaching resources Such programs are especially impor-tant given during their student days or on special the low reading level of many pupils, the dif- occasions, but this is not translated into better ficulties posed by reading in a second language, resources for day-to-day teaching. Ways could be and the limited materials available for reading. found to provide the motivation and materials, School libraries and schools could do much more to teachers, librarians, and pupils, to create that they are doing at present. Emejulu found resources for learning. that only four out of twenty eight schools had 2. Changes in education library periods for literary mediation activities. Literacy could be promoted by changes in Only about half of the children were told stories education. First, if the curriculum could be by their teachers, and this only occasionally. broadened to extend the knowledge and exper- Mediation of oral traditions and other cultural ience of schoolchildren, they would bring a resources took place primarily in informal set- richer background to reading which would aid tings, not in schools and libraries. Yet cultural comprehension.This is the aim of the story arts are included in the national curriculum and hour and library lesson programs described in there is provision for cultural activities in the this paper and of the Abadina Media Resource timetable. Centre library use education program (Ogun- One school has what might be a model for sheye 1987, Appendix 1). literary mediation in its reading/story club. Secondly, current teaching methods are not Held in a classroom well appointed with graphic conducive to literacy. The pattern of rote displays, the club features storytelling and memorization of lesson notes does not foster reading aloud, by either the teacher leading the reading with understanding and does not en- club or by members. The club encourages courage wide reading or the development of members to read widely on their own to "gain a reading skills. Yet, while this is the common passport to the world."Members are also method, the National Policy on Education advo- encouraged to bring books from home which can cates something very different. The key then is be read by all and discussed. this idea relates to find ways to implement the policy's vision of to the circulation class libraries built up by an education which is learner centered and pupils in several schools and informal networks resource based. This can be done through of book exchange among friends, both of which teacher education, workshops for teachers al- utilize the peer group to promote literacy. ready in the field, and provision, of school Mediation by teachers and pairing of pupils for libraries to provide the necessary learning reading are also ways of bringing along weaker resources to support these methods. Imple- readers. menting this educational approach would be a Sometimes the problems standing in the step toward creating good readers. way of literacy seem daunting. The obstacles Thirdly, solutions need to be found to the are so many and the resources for overcoming language problem in Nigerian schools.The them often so few. Yet the solutions are known. present practice seems to offer the worst of both It is true they entail substantial change and worlds. Many children fail to attain permanent considerable, massive government support for literacy in either English or the mother tongue, book production and libraries, a transformation and as a result, fail to learn in school. Efforts to of the educational system, reorientation of promote literacy are hindered by the failure or teachers. But fortunately it is also possible to inability to draw on the resources of oral move bit by bit, taking small steps to provide literature or the spoken language background books and create resources, conducting work- of the children. However the language problem shop, working with teachers and librarians. is resolved, teaching children to read in a When I remember the faces of children and their language they do not understand does them a eagerness for books and reading, it seems worth

40

49 continuing the struggle forliteracy, with or without school libraries. 12.Nigeria.Ministry of Information (1981). National Policy on Education. References 13.Odejide, A. I. and James S. (1981). "Obser- 1. Afolayan, A. (1976)."The Life 6-Year Pri- vations of Reading Patterns and Readership mary Project."In Bamgbose, A. Mother Behavior in Three Resource Cen-ters in Tongue Education. Paris: Unesco. Nigeria." In Unoh, S. 0., ed. Junior Litera- ture in English. Ibadan: African Universi- 2. Alemna, A. A. (1986). "Reading Habits and ties Press. Interests of School Students in Maiduguri Me-tropolis." Nigerian Library and Infor- 14.Ogunsheye, F. A. (1987). Effect of Library mation Science Review. Vol. 4, Nos. 1&2. Use Education Program on Academic Achievement and Social Development of the 3. Anambra State Library Board (1986). Primary School Child. Ibadan: Abaina Quarterly Reports. Media Resource Centre. 4. Anambra State School Libraries Association 15.Ogunsheye, F. A. (1972)."Reading for De- (1987)."Reports from the Zones" Anambra velopment in Urban Africa: A Case Study of State School Libraries Bulletin. Ibadan." In Reading in a Changing World. Budapest: IFLA. 5. Arifayan, B. (1993)."Education for All by the Year 2000: Policy and Strategic Impli- 16.Unoh, S.O. (1968) Studying of Reading. cations for Book Development and Library Ibadan: University Press. Provision in Nigeria." Paper presented at the 31st Annual Conference of the Nigerian Library Association, Bauchi, 19-23 April. 6. Bamgbose, A. (1976).Mother Tongue Edu- cation: The West African Experience. Paris: Unesco. 7. Bozimo, D. 0. (1983)."Reading Interests and Habits of Children in Primary iv to vi in Nigerian Primary Schools: A Case Study of ABU Staff School, Zaria." Bendel Library Journal. Vol. 6, NOS. 1&2. 8. Emejulu, O.A. (1990). Traditional and Modern Media in the Literary Socialization of Selected Nigerian Children.Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Ibadan. 9. Ezeh, N. A. (1993). Reading Habits Among Primary School Pupils: A Case Study of Central School II, Nsukka. Unpublished un- dergraduate thesis, University of Nigeria. 10. Fanoiki, F. A. (1985). "The Reading Habits of the Nigerian Adolescent." Nigerbiblios. Vol. 10, No. 4. 11. Fuglesang, A. (1982). About Understanding: Ideas and Observations on Cross- Cultural Communication. Uppsala: Dag Hammar- skjold Foundation.

41 50 Picking a Winner: Children as Judges and Evaluators of Picture Books--the Irma S. and James H. Black Book Award

by Linda Greengrass Coordinator of School Service Bank Street College of Education Library

Introduction ing skills to read many of the selections on their Discussions of fairness.Debates about peer own as well.This is also a group that has pressure. The meaning of the word"subjec- become well versed in the practice of evaluation tive". An examination of the reading habits of both in the classroom and as part of the library seven-year-olds. The economics of the publish- program.In both settings children are often ing industry. Who would imagine that having asked to report on the books that they are children be a part of the process of selecting the reading and to tell why they do or do not like recipient of a major book award could lead to the story. They are asked to identify what it is discussions of issues like these? But that is just about the story that doesn't work for them or what routinely happens each year at the Bank that they find unappealing. They are asked to Street School for Children. compare a story to others they have read, to As the number of children's books identify recurrent themes, to discern genres and published each year climbs, the number of not particular characteristics about them. The awards given to children's books increases as children are enthusiastic participants in these well.Most publisher's catalogs proudly list sessions. their award-winning titles right up front as Often I will bring to the library session selling points. Many of these awards, however, a book that adults have questions about.Will are selected by adult "experts" in the field. The children understand the plot or message of the "Irma S. and James H. Black Award" is one not- particular story? Do they enjoy the book? Is it able exception to the rule. This award, formerly too old for the supposed audience, or too young? the "Irma Simonton Black Award," has always The adults on the Child Study Children's Book involved children in the selection process. And Committee at Bank Street College, to which I more recently, children play an increasingly belong, are often divided on the answer to these important role. questions, so I bring the book to "the source" for This is as it should be.Children's a different perspective. books are meant to be read and appreciated by One thing that I have found is that children.Too often we underestimate their children of all ages continue to enjoy being read taste and their ability to appraise. We assume to.Even the ten-year-olds will complain if I that given the choice, a child will select a comic haven't read a story to them for a number of book over a more substantial work. And while weeks. So sharing a book about which there is that might sometimes be true, when children some question is easy. What is harder is to get are meaningfully involved in a process, they can the children to acknowledge when something is be discerning critical evaluators of literature. not working for them. Too often, they are re- The Bank Street School for Children is luctant to "hurt the feelings" of the reader by an independent school located on the Upper admitting that they did not really find a story West Side of New York City that serves children enjoyable. That was something I had to work from the age of three through fourteen (the on very hard with them.Fortunately, by the eighth grade). The school itself is divided into time we began working together on the Black three subdivisions for administrative purposes award, the children had become used to the and the classrooms are inter-age grouped. For idea of giving not only their genuine opinions the purposes of the process, when I assumed re- but also the reasons for them. sponsibility for administering the award, I deci- In 1989 I assumed primary respons- ded to work extensively with the eight-, nine- ibility for the selection of the Black award. and ten-year-olds in the middle school.These Coincidentally, at about the time that I began youngsters still enjoy hearing a picture book working on the award process, the teachers in read to them and most of them have the read- the middle school were beginning reading re-

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5. sponse groups as part of their whole language It became necessary for me to force the literature program. As members of these re- children to choose only one book from those sponse groups, children are asked to assume they enjoyed that week. To do this we first had increasingly more responsibility for their choice to review the criteria that we have established of what to read together, to lead their own at the onset and which the children were to discussions about the literature selection, and have been thinking about as they read each so on. book. As the children were quick to understand, many of the books were different The Evaluation Process from one another and therefore difficult to On the Child Study Children's Book compare. We had to look at other qualities Committee, members read books each week when trying to decide which of the candidates and then meet to discuss and recommend or might be worthy of the award.It was only reject what they have read. A recommended when they were helped to focus on some of these book is read by a second member who has to issues that the children were finally able to agree before the book is listed on our Books of make a reluctant choice. the Year list. When I began working on the Despite the many problems that award, I decided to follow the same model with ultimately became clear as the process the children.I invited four children from each continued thatfirst year, we reached a most of the four classrooms to meet with me weekly satisfactory conclusion.When pressed, the to read and discuss the books sent in by the children were, in fact, able to make excellent publishers or identified by me as possible choices, and the final four candidates that were candidates.I eliminated from consideration sent on to the cooperating classrooms were only those items that were clearly not splendid. Many adults had expressed appropriate--books for children much too young skepticism to me about the children's ability to or much too old, books that had no text and successfully conclude the task, and I too had books that had no pictures.I then invited the been worried. For me, the hardest part was the children to choose books to take home and read knowledge that having empowered the children and report back on the following week. We had to make the decision, I would have to accept nearly two hundred books to consider and less whatever they decided. To have done otherwise than ten weeks in which to make our selections would have betrayed both their trust and the because the final choices had to be in the validity of the award. cooperating classrooms by mid-March. School When the finalists had been selected vacations further complicated the timetable. and their part in the process was complete, I The members of the group were rotated met with the children to review the process monthly to increase the number of children who together and evaluate what had gone on.I was could participate. The youngsters involved were interested in finding out from them what chosen from among the stronger readers in the worked and what they found difficult. classroom where possible, but they were told I already knew that the procedure was that it was appropriate for a participant to unwieldy from my point of view.Finding an have an adult read tathem. The children were appropriate time to meet with the represen- enthusiastic and cooperative, and they tried tatives from each class was difficult.I had a mightily to read as much as they could.The full schedule of library classes to meet with each discussions we held each week were interesting week and only certain periods free. Each class- and revealing.For the most part, children room had its own schedule and it wasn't fair to tended to serve as advocates for the specific ask children to relinquish some activities in books they read. A child reporting back on two favor of serving on the committee. There was or three books tended to want to recommend all never enough time for the group to meet and to of them. Especially in the beginning, they found fully consider the books in a relaxed fashion. it difficult to say when they did not like a book. It emerged in the final discussion that The hardest thing for the children to under- the children were equally unhappy with the stand was that just because a book had gotten process.They complained that it was very published didn't necessarily mean that they difficult for them to find the time to read and had to like it, or even that it was good. Even consider the books. They also felt burdened by those books that were good, and that they liked the necessity of making the kinds of decisions a lot, still might not be appropriate choices for forced upon them in so short a period of time. the award. While they were delighted to have been part of

43 52 the process, and in fact they were adamant that one hundred and fifty books.I then invite a children continue to participate in the selection number of adults who are actively involved in of the candidates, it was generally agreed that children's literature at the college, instructors in the process itself needed to be refined for the graduate programs, teachers in the School for next year's award. Children, and members of the Publications Group, to read as many of the books as possible The Praocess Changes and recommend those they think worthy of I gave a lot of thought over the summer being considered by the children for the award. to how the system might be revised.In the I then divide the top thirty-five to forty books course of deciding how best to alter the pro- into four sets.I try to see to it that these sets cedure, I considered some of the comments are well balanced, with equal numbers of folk made during the process by the children as well tales and realistic stories. as statements made by the teachers. Often, in Each group of books is then placed in passing, one of the teachers would comment on one of the eights-nines and nine-tens classrooms the excitement in his or her room when the for a week. During the course of the week the committee members returned from the meeting books are read and discussed by the children. with new books. They would then go on to de- Some of the books are first read aloud by the scribe the pleasure they felt watching the classroom teachers, others are left for the child- children pore over these books together and ren to explore on their own. At the end of the comment to one another about them. Some of week the children are asked to vote for their the casual comments they were overhearing three favorite books. I tally the votes and then were exactly the things I was hoping children rotate the sets to the next classroom, where the were considering when evaluating the books. So process is repeated. At the end of a four-week at least I had been reassured that some of the period, a subset of the top ten to twelve books process had been successful. With this as well is culled. I then meet with each class for a cul- as the children's comments in mind, I devised a minating session. One by one each of the fin- new method of book selection that attempted to alists is discussed. A fan of a particular book is combine elements of several of the previous asked to volunteer to describe the plot and then plans. tell why he or she thinks the book deserves Although the best solution that I could consideration for the award.If anyone holds come up with required a good deal of cooper- an opposing viewpoint, they are welcome to give ation from the classroom teachers, I felt rea- it at this time. The books are compared to one sonable certain that this would not be a prob- another and a final vote taken. The top three lem. The school places great value on children's (or, in the case of a very close vote, four) books opinions and encourages children to be critical are then sent on to the cooperating classrooms readers. Our teachers are also quite interested for the final decision. in children's literature themselves and attempt to keep apprised of new children's books.In Some Issues That Are Raised fact, teachers often bring me suggestions for Although each group of children is dif- new acquisitions for the library of noteworthy ferent and the conversations that we have vary books that they found in some bookstore or from class to class as well as year to year, library.I was fairly certain that they would be consistent themes emerge over the years. Some willing to go along with my new format. of these themes are predictable, but some are The current and, I think, successful, surprising. What for me was a fairly straight- format for the award now involves all of the forward undertaking raised, for the children, eight-, nine- and ten-year-old children in the surprising social issues I had never considered. third-fourth and fourth-fifth grade classrooms. It And although I have attempted to incorporate also involves the support of the Publications some of these issues into my introductory group. The new director, Ellen Schecter, and presentation each year, children still pick up on others in the department are constantly on the and explore the concerns. lookout for possible candidates and send them As the time for beginning the award to me to hold for later consideration. As books process arrives, I hold preliminary conversations are submitted by the publishers or as I encoun- with the older children during our library period. ter them during the year, I also put them aside. Most of these children were in the sevens-eights By the end of December I usually man- classrooms and voted on the finalists in age to trim the possibilities to approximately previous years. They are already familiar with

44 53 the idea of selecting an award-winning book and hearing was a worthy candidate. Now it and, in fact, are disappointed to think that they would be more difficult. While each of the books will not be making the final decision again this they would see would have been deemed appro- year. So, when I tell them that they will now be priate for the award by the participating adults, responsible for choosing the books that this there would be dear differences among them. year's sevens-eights will vote on, they are most This time the children would be trying to decide pleased and relieved. not which book they liked the best, but which Among the first things the children want book they felt seven-and eight-year-olds would to know the first time they participate in the like best, as well as which book was worthy of process is who Irma Simonton Black was and an award. how she was related to Bank Street. I describe To give the children a frame of reference the history of the award to them and show within which to consider the candidates, I read them some of the books Mrs. Black had written the list of previous award winners and show and worked on. Many of the titles, particularly them the books. The children are familiar with The Little Old Man Who Could Not Read, are most of the titles, and it is always a pleasure to familiar to them and are remembered fondly. hear someone exclaim, "Oh, I love that book!" The children also want to know where as I hold it up. If we come upon a title most of the books that would be considered came from the children find unfamiliar, I make note and and what other adults would be involved in the read it aloud to them at our next meeting. process. Was this part of the book committee As we read and discuss the previous that I was a member of and from which I was winners, we talk about what the qualities of always bringing them books to respond to and the books were that made them worthy of the evaluation? Most important, the children want award. While it was true, as some youngsters to know about the award itself.Is there a cash pointed out, that we were unable to compare prize? When they are told that the winning the winners with the other contenders for that author and illustrator are presented with a year, we could at very least generate a list of commemorative scroll at a luncheon celebration factors to be considered. Is the story in any way and that the publisher receives special award different or unusual? Are the illustrations strik- seals that may be affixed to copies of the ing or distinctive in and of themselves? Do the winning book, but that there is no monetary illustrations support the text, enhancing the award, some children question why the author mood of the book and helping to tell the story? would care about winning. Does the story have something to say to This leads to a discussion of the book children that they would be able to understand? publishing industry.The children talk about Is the language used in the text familiar or why publishers might be willing to submit a comfortable for listeners? Would you want to free copy of a book they would like to have give this book as a present to someone? considered.They imagine what winning an While all of these factors would be award might mean for sales of a book and by considered by the children, they clearly felt that extension what increased sales might mean to a "yes" answer to each question was not essen- the author and the publisher. The psychological tial. Some of them could quite eloquently argue impact of an award seal on a book to the po- for a book that did not meet all of the criteria tential buyer is also discussed.Some of our and yet was more than worthy of the award. library copies of award-winning books do not Some of the previous winners reinforced that have the seal on them because they became point. The Mysteries of Harris Burdick by Chris library books before they became award win- Van Allsburg (Houghton Mifflin, 1984) had no ners. The children are quick to notice this and "story" and yet the children found the illus- comment on it. Other children, who have copies trations so compelling and engaging to their of the book in their home mention whether or imaginations that they felt the award was not it has a seal. To my surprise, very few are justified. The Stories Julian Tells by Ann Cam- unable to remember that detail. eron, illustrated by Ann Strugnell (Macmillan, Once this background discussion is 1981) has very few illustrations and is more a completed, we review the criteria for the award. chapter book than a traditional picture book. When the children were in the sevens-eights, Yet the family life depicted in that book spoke the final three or four choices that they voted on volumes to children, who argued that it does had been preselected for them.They could exemplify excellence in text and illustration. assume that each of the books they were seeing Using The Stories Julian Tells as an

45 54 example, two ten-year-old boys raised the first not some children vote for a book simply be- objection. They insisted that seven was already cause their friend wanted them to? For children too old for picture books. By seven, they felt, this age the issue of peer pressure is a very real children were reading chapter books and would concern. They might know all the right things not care for any of the picture book candidates. to say about not succumbing, but often that is Other children in the group disagreed.They more easily said than done. still enjoyed picture books themselves at ten, There were no easy answers. We tried and so they were sure that the seven-and to air the issue fully. The children talked about eight-year-olds would too. Some of the children what was fair to the authors of the books and had younger siblings the right age who, they what was fair to the process, and ultimately maintained, still read and enjoyed picture what was fair to one another. By raising and books. Other children had younger siblings who dealing with these concerns, we could hope that didn't. Some children correctly pointed out that children would vote their own minds, but there often the language and vocabulary in picture was no way we could assure it. A secret ballot books was more difficult than that in many be- would help to insure fairness in voting and the ginning chapter books, so most seven year olds children discussed strategies for dealing with probably couldn't even read many of these friends' questions about which books they had picture books themselves. voted for and why. We also talked about why it After much conversation about this might seem important to some children that a issue, it became clear that we had a dilemma. book they liked would win, and how children What could we do?The children who had might feel if a favorite of theirs did not even raised the original objection came up with the make it to the finals. Clearly, children invest a perfect solution. A delegation would go to the lot of themselves in the process of reading and sevens-eights classrooms and interview the evaluating books.And every contest carries children! They would ask them about the kinds with it the elements of winning and losing, no of books they liked to read and whether or not matter how you try to frame the discussion. they were still interested in picture books. And Another thing that we discussed in that is precisely what they did. Fortunately, the those preliminary sessions was how the child- sevens-eights agreed that they quite enjoyed ren might deal with the large number of books reading and hearing picture books. In fact, I to be read in addition to all the other things suspect that some of the older children might that were going on in the classroom. Since this have been responding to their own memories of had been a problem for the group that first when they first conquered chapter books. year, I was prepared for this very realistic con- Clearly their empathy with beginning readers cern. We talked about strategies the children wasstrong.To be perceived as still liking might employ from week to week.The only picture books at seven or eight, much less at limitation was that the books could not leave ten, held negative connotations for them which the classroom.It would be too disruptive if a might have been a prime factor in their raising child were to take a book home and then forget of this concern. it the next day, or lose it.The children The next issue raised was the fact that themselves had no real problem with that rule. different people like different things.How, While they might have preferred the extra time wondered the children, could they decide which that taking a book home would offer, there were of the books was the "best?" We talked about only eight or nine books in each set and twenty the meaning of the word subjective, and I eight children. The mathematics of that, and explained that most decisions about award the logistics necessary to ensure fairness, did books, even those made by adults, were ulti- not escape them. mately subjective.I pointed out that we could, The question of strategies for dealing and had, set objective criteria for the award, with all the books that must be read in only a but that conclusions about whether or not a week was first raised by a child in the eights- certain book met those criteria, by their very na- nines. Although I assumed it was an issue for ture, had to be subjective.That, I explained, the younger children only, it quickly became was why we would vote on the books and why a clear when I brought the question to the nines- majority of the votes would deter-mine the win- tens that although they might not have spon- ners at the various stages of the procedure. taneously raised it as a question them-selves, it This led to still a new concern being was indeed a matter of great concern. In one of raised--the issue of fairness in the voting. Might the eights-nines groups, it was suggested that

46 55 the pictures in the book could be looked at first. The children decided that you could also If they were not immediately appealing to the listen to some of your friends' conversations reader, the book could be put aside for later about some of the books.If someone really consideration. Another child in the class pro- liked a book, it would be fair for them torecom- tested that we had already said that how one mend that other children try to read it before liked illustrations was an individual decision other books.This would not be the same as and that sometimes even if we didn't think trying to influence a vote, the children argued. something was beautiful, it was still so perfect Rather, it was a way of insuring that enough for the story that it ought to be considered."I attention was paid to a particularly enjoyable didn't say eliminate it," the first child retorted. item.It did not mean that you had to vote for "I said put it aside for later, if you have time to it, just that it was a good idea to try to read it get to it."It was agreed by the group that it fully. was one possibility.Since you might not have One of the remarkable things about the time to fully read everything, it was fair to delay whole process is how similarly children think reading books you "felt" you might not vote for. about things, whether they are in the eights- Another strategy suggested was that of nines or nines-tens. Although the exact words asking the teacher to read aloud books that might not be the same from group to group, the looked most appealing at first glance by a broad concepts or strategies proposed were number of children.In that way, the whole much the same. Only rarely has it been neces- group would hear at least some of the prime sary for me to introduce an idea to one of the candidate. That would leave fewer of them to groups that has been raised by another. I have be read independently. found that if I am willing to wait and let the In the nines-tens group, the suggestion conversations proceed on their own, whatever was made to read the summary or blurb on the the point is that I hope they will consider, they book jacket first in order to eliminate a full will bring it up themselves. There have been reading of a story that was of no interest. This very few exceptions to this. led to a discussion of the purpose ofa book's One of the things that I enjoy most blurb, something that had been talked about about the whole process is hearing the child- with all the children as part of my regular ren's comments when they come in to the library library instruction program. We have examined once they have begun the process of reading and the parts of a book, of which the blurb is a very choosing the books. They very much want to important component, in library class. When talk to me about what they have liked and not children are trying to make a pleasure reading liked that week. Sometimes it is clear that they choice and ask me for some suggestions, Ius- would like to hear some validation of their ually hand them a number of items that fit the opinions. As the weeks wear on, the children parameters of what they have asked for and tell are curious about the number of votes a certain them to "read the blurbs." We have also talked book might be getting in other classrooms. about the job of the blurb, which the children Since I do not tell the children how the vote is are aware is to "sell" the book to a purchaser or going, other than in the most general of terms, a reader.This, the children agreed, made they want to know if other groups have reading the blurb a very appropriate strategy, responded as they did. When I am specifically for if the part of the book that is expressly asked about the vote, I try to make a general designed to make you want to buy it does not comment like "It's doing fairly well, " or "I'm not make the book sound appealing to a reader, it sure if it will make it into the top twelve." is unlikely that the book will win one of the While I would like to play down the contest reader's three votes for the week. aspect of the process, I also do want to give the Skimming the pages was another of the children a sense of how things are going. suggestions offered by the children. It would be Once the sets of books to be considered possible to glance through the pages, reada go into the classrooms, a lot depends on the little of the beginning to see if you were involvement of the classroom teacher. How a "grabbed," then readsome of some of the teacher shares a book with his or her students middle parts to further judge the language, and can affect how the students themselves feel if you liked what you read, you couldgo back about the book. If the teacher does not provide and read the whole thing more carefully. If not, time for the children to work with the books and you could just skip to the end to find out what a separate space to house them, the children happens. quickly forget about them as the crush of the

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56 week's schedule overwhelms them. balance the sets of books that go into the class- The first week of the first year I tried rooms.If possible, each set contains an equal this method, I walked into the classroom with number of fairy tales, folk tales and realistic ballots on Friday morning only to be greeted by stories.All children, it appears, enjoy a good, panicked looks in the eyes of some of the well-constructed story regardless of the genre. children who had not found time to look at Illustration is another matter entirely.It is al- more than half of the books. Would they be most impossible to make generalizations about allowed to vote anyway, they wondered.I the kinds of pictures to which kids willre- decided to leave the ballots and the books with spond. The only exception to that statement is them for the rest of the day and not pick them that subtlety, as expressed by fuzzy, non-dis- up until after morning meeting on Monday. tinct images, is not highly regarded by the eight This would give the children at least a little to ten set. Bold is better, whether represented time more to ready and review the set.I also by color or by detail. Even black and white line said that yes, they could vote even if they had drawings are admired if they are expressive. not read all of the books.I reasoned that the Humor is a characteristic that appears choices they were making about which books to to be universally enjoyed. But the humor has to look at first were in themselves significant.I be inherent in the character or the situation. also reminded them about the strategies we Kids have very little patience for a story that is had discussed for skimming through a book just plain silly.Frequently, something that when time was short. adults are highly amused by are little more In one case, a teacher remarked to me than groaners to many kids. That having been how fond he was of a particular book. He loved said, there have nevertheless been a number of the message it was sending to kids, the recent books that children seemed to greatly simplicity and yet rich complexity of the story, enjoy and laugh over together, pointing out par- and the wonderfulillustrations.It was not ticular funny passages or pictures, but which surprising to me when a the end of that week, received very few votes when the final decision that the book received a very large number of was made.I am not certain whether this is votes from the children in his group. But as the because the children somehow feel that the set of books traveled on to the other rooms, the award is serious business, and something too teachers there apparently did not feel quite the funny or silly just is not a suitable choice.If same way about the book, or at least did not that is how they feel, the message was not communicate their enthusiasm to their class. conveyed by me, nor do I believe it came from Very few other children gave it their vote. The the teachers.It might have been an instinctive book did not make it to the final twelve, much decision on their part. less the final four, that year. There are also some clear differences The Final Conversations among the age groups.The books that ulti- At the end of the four week period, the mately make it to the final discussion of twelve time comes for me to count all of the votes and were uniformly like by all ages. Nevertheless, identify the ten to twelve top choices. The num- many titles appeal more to older children than ber of semifinalist may vary, depending on the to younger ones, and vice versa. This appears balance of votes.I then meet with each group to be more an issue of theme than one of for- individually, either in the classroom or in the mat. It is not how many words the author uses library, for a minimum of one hour.In this to tell the story, but rather the story that is be- session, the children are asked to review for one ing told. Charlie Anderson, written by Barbara another the plot and positive characteristics of Abercrombie and illustrated by Mark Graham, each book, stressing why they believe it made it would appear on the surface to be much to this far, and why they feel it deserves to be one young for eight-, nine- and ten-year old readers. of the finalist. There are always some surprises There are very few lines of text on each page. at this point. Some of the titles in the batch Yet the message of the story being told clearly turn up because they received a large number of touched a chord in readers of all ages.Charlie votes from one or two of the other groups.In Anderson, the cat of the title, has two homes, many cases, this causes the children to look at much like the children in the story, whose the titles in a different way. Also, the balance parents are divorced. The reassurance children of the final set is quite different. Many of the found in this story made it the winner in 1991. strongest choices are now together, confronting As I have said earlier, I try very hard to one another as it were. There might be a sur-

48 5 7 feit of fairy tales, as there often is, and only a was different, special, distinctive, important, or few of the more realistic stories. The children unusual about the book. They must compare it are forced to regard the books in a different positively to other titles, either the titles in the light. What might have seemed special before, set or to previous award winners, or other fav- in a different context, now seems far more orite books. ordinary. Different kinds of comparisons must This is a very difficult thing for anybody be made. to do, adult or child. Very often we respond to At the beginning of each discussion ses- something on a level which is very hard to put sion I ask the children to review the criteria into words. Children, particularly younger chil- that they applied when considering each set of dren, fiendit extremely challenging to articu- books. What are the things they were thinking late exactly what it is they like or dislike about about when they were reading and voting on the a particular item. They often respond to this books? What are the things they are looking for challenge by employing a technique in which in a good book? Predictably, the first things the they have been well trained by their response children talk about are the qualities for which group literature experiences. They find a partic- the award is given.They will invariably say ular passage or illustration and share it with that they considered whether the illustrations the group as a way of concretely expressing why and text of each book were "excellent" and they enjoy the book. whether they went together well. It is an auto- The dynamics of the discussion are also matic, almost rote, response. interesting and sometimes surprising. Certain One of the most surprising aspects of books have an intense effect on some children. these final conversations, however, is that while More than once over the years I have held up a there might be clear differences of opinion over particular book and heard someone say "Oh, I particular books, children, regardless of their loved that book." Conversely, the presentation ages, appear to want the same general attri- of a book has also been greeted by groans of butes in a book, and they have no difficulty "How did that get in the final bunch?" Spon- articulating what they are.Children like a taneous negative comments of this nature can good, exciting story; they prefer that it have be very intimidating to those who liked the some humor in it; and they insist that it be book, especially if they are met with any kind of believable.Across the board, in all of the agreement by other children in the group. That discussions, these attributes emerge. enough other children felt as they did, or the When children insist that a story be book would not have made it to the final twelve, believable, they do not mean that they do not often is lost sight of in the heat of the moment. like fantasy.In fact, the opposite is true. A When this happens, I first remind them of the disproportionate number of the final choices, fact and then I will ask someone who might and previous years' winners, have been fan- have voted for the book to tell why they did so. tasies. What children expect is that the plot be Very often, the child who volunteers for the possible, if not probable.If there were really assignment is a very eloquent spokesperson for magic in the world, could the events in the story the book in question. More than once, the vol take place? That a particular situation may be unteer has been a surprise to me and to the unlikely is of little consequence. More impor- classroom teacher. A child who may be a poor tant is that the logic be acceptable and the or reluctant reader, who might have other learn- events exciting. ing or attention issues, will have been strongly Humor, while important, cannot exceed affected by a particular book. Maybe he or she the bounds of logic either.Children like the relates to the message of the story in a very story to be funny, but it cannot be ridiculous. personal way, or it might just be that this book The humor has to stem from the characters or was one which the child was able to come to the situations, but the rule of logic must apply successfully - -that the child was able to read and here too.It cannot be out of character or alien understand this title like few others. Whatever to the situation. he case, the advocate is usually able to make a One of the rules of the final discussion case for the book in a thoughtful and eloquent session is that it is never sufficient for the chil- manner. More than once over the years, a book dren to say that they liked a book, that it was that was greeted with load groans on its pre- nice, funny, pretty, or any of the usual bland tri- sentation to the group received among the lar- vialities. The child describing or advocating for gest number of votes at the end of that group's a books needs to find a way of expressing what session and ended up among the final four.

49 53 The effect of the final conversationon an earlier period in their lives. the vote varies with the sets of booksunder discussion in a particularyear as well as with The Award Winner Is Selected the group. Often books that have beenspoken After the votes are counted, copies of the about with great enthusiasm by a large number four top vote-getters are sent to severalcoop- of children in the group ultimately donot garner erating schools in the northeastas well as to the most votes.Yet the conversation itself the two sevens-eights classroomsat Bank seems to change very few minds. Childrenare Street. Teachers are asked to share thebooks able to advocate for a particular book,recog- with their children several timesover the next nizing its merits, without choosing itover the three weeks by reading them aloud andthen others. In these instances it wouldappear that making them available to the children forfur- the first impression is the most lasting.Some- ther examination on theirown. At the end of times the points raised in the discussionare so that period, the booksare reviewed and the compelling that opinionsare altered.Other children are asked to comment times, the entire group on the relative can agree on a point, merits of each book. Then they vote. Allof the seemingly a negative point, abouta book, and votes from all of the participating classrooms yet that book remains the winner. are counted, and the winner is announced. For example, when the book under Conversations with the teachers and discussion was The Enchanted Wood,the librarians who have participated in the final children pointed out the generic qualities ofthe selection this year have revealedsome inter- fairy tale: three brothers, failure of the firsttwo esting aspects of the classroom dynamic.One at the task at hand, an enchantment, magic teacher reported that in his classrooma few intercession, and so on.The familiarity and very powerful children dominated the final predictability of the tale was commentedon, discussion. agreed to by the whole They were extremely forceful in group, in all four ses- their advocacy for a certain book andthe sions, and yet it emerged the clear favoritein all teacher became concerned that theirprefer- of the voting. Perhaps the beauty of theillus- ences might overwhelm the rest of the class. He trations outweighed the familiarity of thestory decided to ask the children to vote fora first in the minds of children,or perhaps the famil- and second choiceamong the four finalists iarity of the story was thevery quality that instead of voting for just one bookso that those appealed to them. Whichever thecase, there who might have felt pressured couldvote for was no doubt about the final vote. T h e their true favorite as the first (or second)choice Enchanted Wood was the clear favorite in allof and perhaps a clear second choice would the groups. emer- ge.It didn't. The clear winner in thatclass- Sometimes a books will havea very room remained The Bracelet by Yoshiko Uchida, clear appeal for one agegroup, but not for an- the book which had been the favoriteof the other. A case in point in the lovely, nostalgic powerful students.This book had becomea tale, Roxaboxen, written by Alice McLerranand finalist because of the strong advocacy forit by illustrated by Barbara Cooney. Teacherspar- the children in one of the oldergroups who work ticularly loved this gentle story of childrenim- on stage one of the process. In this classroom mersed in imaginative play while creatingtheir the teacher had, coincidentally, devoteda great special work (a town they called Roxaboxen) deal of time during theyear to Asian American complete with such essentialsas jail and culture. The children in thisgroup, while wor- cemetery. Older children, too, found thestory ried that younger students might appealing. not under- During discussions, therewere stand all of the book, felt itnevertheless many comments such as "Oh, I used to do that, deserved to be a finalist.They believed that too," which suggested nostalgiawas at play for them as well. Very most teachers would be able to explain to their young children (four-, five- students anything that they might notunder- and six-year olds) whowere read the story also stand. enjoyed and related to it as a reflection of their In .yet another classroom that voted present lives. on However the seven- and eight- the finalist, issues of sexism dominatedthe year-olds were not as enchanted.For these discussions about the books. In thisroom the children, just beginning their climb out of child- teacher devotes a good deal of time andenergy hood, there seemed to bea reluctance to ac- seeing to it that her studentsare sensitive to knowledge behavior they perceivedas childish. concerns about fairness, racism and sexism. Nor were they old enough to be nostalgicabout Trained, therefore, to beaware of these things,

50 59 it was not surprising that it would influence the A Wrinkle in Time fantasy or science fiction? decision. The children in this room preferred What is the difference between an adventure Children of Lir by Shelia Mac Gill-Callahan and a mystery? Such concerns can help children because they felt, strongly that boys and girls to focus on the attributes of the various genres were portrayed as equally powerful in the story. in literature, giving them an excellent grounding The book that won the Irma S. and James H. for the future. Black Award this year, Three Sacks of Truth by Children could be asked to participate Eric A. Kimmel, was scorned by this group in setting the criteria for an in-house award, to because of what they saw as a stereotypical help determine the procedures involved in se- sexist interpretation of the queen and princess. lecting a winner, even to determine how to Most of the other voters were inclined to focus celebrate the choice.If the library's new ma- on the humor in both the story and the terials budget is small, this might become a illustrations by Robert Rayevsky. fundraising activity in which parents might be Children who participate in the selection encouraged to donate "contestant."Middle of the Irma S. and James H. Black Award seem school children might select several "best books" to have a real investment in the outcome. that they would then bring into classrooms of When the older children, those who participated younger children to share with them and solicit in their selection, are told the titles of the final their opinions.The issues are the same, re- four to be voted on by the younger participants, gardless of the scale of the undertaking. And the information is greeted with responses rang- the things that are learned, by both adults and ing from smiles of satisfaction to groans of children, are remarkable. disappointment.Then they ask almost daily whether the final winner has been selected yet. When the final winner is finally announced, it is generally greeted with smiles and nods of agreement and satisfaction, regardless of how they might have originally voted. It seems they believe that they "own" all of the finalists, hav- ing sent them on for consideration by others, and they take great pride in the process. Years later, when these children notice a previous winner, or even an contender, on a library table, they will comment to one another about it, remembering together an activity that obviously made a strong impression. Do It Yourself Although the process of selecting an award-wining book is clearly enhanced by the fact that there is a public culminating event supported by Bank Street College, it is possible to do many of the same things, and have many of the same kinds of conversations, on a smaller scale. Any school or classroom could select a "picture book of the year" or "best book" of any kind.The entries might be chosen from the new acquisitions for the year or from the entire collection. A particular genre might be selected, humor or fantasy for example, and the "best" or "favorite" title within that parameter named. When we prepare our summer reading sug- gestions together at the end of the year, the children and I have fascinating and intense discussions about the placement of certain books within the appropriate genre.Does Roald Dahl belong under humor or fantasy? Is

51 80 Libraries Alive Promoting Libraries and Literature - Practical Applications for the Teacher-Librarian. by Suzette Boyd Director of Library Services Methodist Ladies' College Melbourne, Australia Methodist Ladies' College isa a boarding and day three colleges and have been responsible for the school of over 2400 students from kindergarten to establishment of similar clubs throughout my Year 13. There is a staff of three hundred includ- home state of Victoria and Australia. ing one hundred eighty teachers. Aims For the purposes of this paper, I have assumed * To enable staff and students to share in the that as librarians and teachers we all love read- discovery of new books. ing and that we want to involve our students in the enriching, challenging and thought-provok- * To encourage students to be interested in ing world of books. An important factor in books and reading for pleasure, not just achieving our aims is that we have a captive something they have to do for school. audience of staff and students. Negative factors may be staffing and budgetary con-straints. The * To provide an opportunity for student latter is often perceived as a hurdle to program initiatives e.g. arranging for guest speakers, initiatives. participating in book buying, speaking at During this paperI hope to demon- school assemblies, developing goals. strate that enthusiasm for and a commitment to literature are the essential tools needed to * To enable students aged from 12-18 to meet successfully promote our product. It doesn't in a non-threatening, stimulating environ- matter how "well read" and knowledgeable we ment by coining together because of their love are about the world of books, without loads of of reading. enthusiasm and commitment it can be a difficult task to harness interest and excitement Once the aims are established, an ad- in students and sell reading to them. Reading, vertising blitz has been undertaken and there is not just as a classroom activity, but as an a core of interested members, we come together interest and pleasure that will last a lifetime. to decide on the logistics of meetings and the The aim of this seminar is to inspire partici- type of activities to be offered.It has been pants to inject renewed enthusiasm into the crucial to the success of these clubs to have promotion of literature in their colleges and clearly established goals and agendas. Lunch- libraries. time meetings, for instance,can be over without I will focus on the promotion of liter- any sense of achievement or fulfillment. ature inside the classroom, inside the library and in the wider community. My aim has Activities always been to work towards the recognition of Some of the wonderful activities possible my college as a literary school.All of the are "Book of the Year " committees, literature initiatives outlined today will contribute to that camps, author visits, performance of picture aim becoming a reality. books in local primary schools, Book Week dinners, excursions to plays, collaborating with Student Literature Clubs an illustrator to create a mural for the library, One of the most successful vehicles for buying original art work from children's' books promoting libraries and literature is the forma- and writing articles and reviews for local tion of co-curricula Student Literature Clubs. It papers. This list is not an exhaustive list; the is important to establish aims and rationale possibilities are limited only by one's imagi- early in the establishment process, so that nation. impetus and early excitementis not lost.I have established literature clubs in my last The importance of publicity.

52 If the types of activities listed above are promoted not only within your college com- * Each member brings their culinary contri- munity but also in the wider education and bution, the book they have read and their local community, all sorts of opportunities may review (on a system card) to the meeting. come your way . I have had requests from pub- lishers wanting feed-back from young readers * During the course of the evening (usually about a manuscript they're considering and 7:00p.m. - 10:00p.m. ), each member reviews from a company producing a video on author the book(s) they have read and makes recom- Robin Klein wanting student input. If your mendations ,for example, as to a book's suit- college is known as a literary institution and ability for class study or class set purchase . your students are known as readers and you The decision to include written reviews may are known as an energetic, enthusiastic teacher- be regarded negatively in these times of heavy librarian all these adventures can and do teacher workloads. However, these re-views happen for you, your students, your library and have been one of the most successful aspects of your college. the organization, resulting in the annual The literature Club will become an inte- publication of the pamphlet, "Best Books for gral part of the library's operation will be an Young People," thousands of which have been effective vehicle through which to promote liter- sold throughout Australia. ature and reading to the rest of the college and The establishment of Staff Book Clubs is an the wider community. With keen readers being acknowledgment of "teachers as learners". The given the opportunity for positive input and Teacher-Librarian is not only the facili-tator, contact with the library, an increase in discrim- but an initiator with skills and expertise, inating borrowing and discussion of books will enabling all staff to be learning for the future occur. and to participate together in the promotion of literature. Staff Book Club The library aims to promote literature Feedback from teachers and reading to all its users- -staff and students. Some of the many comments I have received Establishing a Staff Book Club is a positive and over the years include: effective way to give teachers the opportunity to " Reviews of books often lead on to the learn more about publishing for young people. discussion of other issues...and concerns about So often teachers only read what is on the individual students." curriculum or the books they are teaching this " ....as we have different reading tastes we year, which might well be the same titles they are becoming familiar with a wide range of taught the year before and the year before that books". as well. Coming together to explore and discuss social get-together of staff who don't new adolescent titles and authors in a social usually mix at school". situation and over a meal is a great way to " I have found a range of books suitable for forge strong links with classroom teaches. Not reluctant readers in my class". only English teachers, but all teachers should " Inow have moreconfidencein be targeted as possible members of a staff book recommending a variety of books to classes." group. It is in the interest of all of us to know " It's exciting to be offered twenty or so new what our students and children are reading. titles every month". The clubs I've established have had a strong social focus. We have had evenings when we Literature for Life have met in a member's home, over a meal I am convinced that there is a need and a which we have all helped to prepare. demand for students to be offered specialized literature studies as part of the education cur- Organization of the club riculum. Studies that teach them about the * A wide selection of new books must be world of literature and books and develop them available for members to borrow. as readers, rather than studies that focus on a set text and reader response. I will outline an * A reminder of the forthcoming meeting, with elective course that I have taught to both Year 9 address, location map and time is given to and Year 10 students(ages 14 -16). The course each member one week before the next runs for a full year. meeting.

53 62 Aims our discussions and have made friendships with * To foster reading for pleasure as an interest students that are often not possible in more that can be carried on beyond college. mainstream studies. Seeing these young people develop a commitment to reading and grow in * To develop in students the skills when their love and knowledge of literature has been reading, to form values and ideas. enlightening for me as an "old hand" at bringing books and young people together. * To expose students to a wide range of literature. "Reading for Pleasure" Classes I encourage students to read aloud in I conduct these classes as part of the class so that they can fully appreciate the power English curriculum, but very much as a teacher- of the written word and become confident in librarian and a literature specialist. They are their use and appreciation of language. I effective at reaching large numbers of students encourage them to read beyond their present across the college.Sessions take place in the level and to learn to discriminate between " reading area of the library, and are offered to all pulp" and quality literature. We work together English classes from Years 7 - 11. on improving their listening and oral skills. Students are introduced to the works of a wide Format range of authors and illustrators. In these classes I present 10-15 new high interest titles (not always fiction) and in- Focus troduce the characters, discuss the plot and how Student and teacher participation and I reacted to the book personally and what other involvement are closely aligned throughout the student's reactions have been (always favorable course. We come together to share our interest of course). Lots of enthusiasm is demonstrated in literature.The teacher should be a guide and I never introduce books that I have not and facilitator reflecting a wider experience of personally read.It is not my aim to discuss in the world of literature than the students. The detail the literary merits of each book, but students must be open to questions,sugges- rather to encourage the students to read them. I tions and new directions.They don't know also allow 10-15 minutes at the end of a 50 what to expect from the course. Their lack of minute period in which to read a short story, a preconceptions is probably one of the advan- picture book, or I may read a chapter from one tages of offering such a course of study.All of the books I introduced. This segment seems minds are open to new experiences and can to be a favorite with both the teachers and the. grow together. However, some guidance must students.I always make sure that I have mul- be presented to the students as topossible tiple copies of the titles being introduced, as areas of exploration. there is usually an immediate rush on them. If some students have to reserve a title or wait too Topics long they won't return...this is the big opportun- 1. Sharing the experience of reading ity to promote reading, so multiple copies are a 2. The skill of reading aloud and its effect on must. the listeners. 3. What is a "good" book? Benefits 4. The development of the technique of The students have a contact in the selecting a "good" book. library in whom they have confidence as a read- 5. Looking at literature from childhood. ers' adviser. 6. Analyzing and appreciating the experiences The students are much more involved we all bring to reading. and interested in the fiction collection and new 7. The significance of reading for enjoyment. titles. 8. Publishing - who decides what we'll read? The students will come and seek infor- 9. Marketing techniques and strategies of mation and advice regularly and are more likely publishers. to suggest titles that I should read. One of the privileges for me as a Enjoyment from hearing a teacher give teacher-librarian has been the chance to teach book reports. literature studies to students in the crucial The teachers are delighted to offer their middle years of schooling.I have become students the variety of a specialist teacher. familiar with new stories and new authors from These benefits take time to achieve, but

54

63 commitment and enthusiasm will eventually be rewarded with success and respect. Activites For Students * Reading Lists - updated and on display, Literatureas Part of the English given to class teachers. Curriculum * Student Networkers - a group of students As cooperative planning and teaching is who work in the library on displays, and an integral part of the education services of lunchtime promotions. most libraries now, there are opportunities * Displays - author profiles, Literature and aplenty as a teacher-librarian to become invol- Poetry Club information, Best Books, re- ved in the English curriculum. Specialist enrich- views, Best-seller Lists,themes and news ment units I have been involved in team- items. teaching have included: * Suggestion Book - very popular with the students. (Suggestions must be acted on Book of the Year - areas focussed on include promptly) the short-listed titles for that year, inviting a judge from our state to talk to our Activities for the School Community students,and looking at past winners of * A Library Expo-displays,speakers, awards. performers. * MLC READS! - to celebrate the Library Expo * Illustration- areas focussed on include, and the importance of reading the whole looking at the development of picture books school of 2500 came together for 50 minutes through the years, a visit to an Illustrators' for a period of private reading. To signal the gallery, and workshops with illustrators. end of the reading period a TigerMoth aeroplane circled the school towing a banner * Publishing - after visiting Penguin Books and which said MLC READS! All fully sponsored hearing many speakers there, students pub- by one of our suppliers. lished their own books. Activities for Parents * Folk Tales - areas focussed on included re- *Friends of the Library - an interest and writing traditional folk tales, dramatizing support group that assists with end- and reading aloud. processing of books, organizes information evenings and talks for parents. * Author Study - visiting authors who spoke to my students were interviewed,were *Literary Evenings - special evenings once a researched and then profiled for publication term promoting recent literature. in school papers and magazines. * Weekly column in the Principal's Newsletter At Methodist Ladies' College - news and reviews, services andfuture di- So far I have concentrated on fairly rections. structured programs that promote the library through literature. Most of the above programs Activities for the Wider Community involve the teacher -librarians. *Links with publishers - bringing students At Methodist Ladies' College in Mel- and literature together at the beginning of bourne, Australia, where I am the Director of the process. Library services I have established a manage- *Visitors Days(once a term) - where other ment structure that ensures all staff in the educators visit our library to discuss our library are involved in promoting their own innovative programs. area of responsibility. We are divided into five I cannot stress enough the importance of teams and a management team. All five groups marketing.It's no use having a good know- have a team leader who is also a member of ledge of children's' literature if you don't share the management team. The teams are Reader it, nor is the library going to be "alive" if you Services, Education Services, Collection Manage- don't market it and encourage others to take ment, Technology/Media Services and Market- advantage of all it has to offer.If you're doing ing.There would not be one member of the something new or exciting tell the staff at staff of ten who is not at some time bringing general staff meetings and tell the whole school literature and students together. at assemblies. Write reports for the school

55 64 newsletters, contact the print and electronic media, send information out on Bulletin Boards, use E-Mail and write articlesfor your professional journals. We all benefit by hearing of exciting or effective ways of marketing and promoting our product. If the school library program is seenas being innovative, effective, risk-taking,entre- preneurial and responsive to user needs, funding and staffing cease to become hurdles.

56 65 A Transformation in Teacher Education:or How Can Disadvantaged Teachers Become Information Literate?

by Dr Sandra Olen Department of Information Science University of South Africa

Introduction schooldays into more helpful ones". As a result of a literature survey and two Many students entering initial teacher empirical surveys, it has been found that sub- education have never had access to school ject teachers in secondary schools and lec- libraries. During the empirical surveys it was turers in tertiary institutions should be role found that even students who had hadaccess models for their pupils and students with to school libraries made little voluntary use of regard to reading and information literacy either the school library or the college-uni- development (Olen:1993).In a developing versity library. Their perception of the school country such as South Africa many teachers library is chiefly instrumental- a place to get enter initial teacher education with little or no teaching aids to make lessons more inter- experience of libraries and information sour- esting. Another problem is that the provision ces.These students need to become infor- of facilities, equipment and staff in the mation literate during their initial teacher colleges of education for African students is education, otherwise they will not have the often very poor and so many African students knowledge of information sources and skills leave college with a very limited knowledge of which they will need, if they are going to be information sources and children's literature, role models for their pupils and help them to and without having produced any materials become information literate. for classroom use. Their lecturers probably do not themselves know how to produce teaching Initial teacher education materials while there is usually also limited According to the National Education equipment available. Policy Investigation (NEPI) (1992:58) report The NEPI report on teacher education on teacher education, in certain African coun- suggests that teachers need to become tries, such as Mozambique, there is no, or competent, but also confident, resilient, self- hardly any, correspondence between what reflective, and develop "a range of pedagogical teachers learn during their initial education and classroom management skills, and an and what they are supposed to teach.Also appreciation of the central role of enquiry in very few of the new methodologies are imple- both teaching and learning".Surely this mented in practice, because teachers continue means that teachers also need to be made to dominate classroom instruction, while their aware of the role of the school library and pupils' activities are mostly limited to recep- become information literate during the period tion and reproduction.Assessment focuses of initial teacher education? narrowly on results and little attention is An increasing number of reports and paid to the process of learning.As this is articles published in the U.K. and U.S.A unsatisfactory the NEPI report suggests the stress that lecturers in colleges of education need for policy instruments to support the and in faculties of education at universities implementation of change in practice. must promote reading and information liter- Sieberger and Kenyon (1992:153) be- acy in the teaching and learning process. lieve that if schools are going to provide pupils Information literacy is regarded as a critical with more relevant education, which will literacy for an educated person who will be better equip them with the attitudes and living and working in the 21st century. The understanding of people and the world, the literature also suggests that the students' task of initial teacher education is vital.It information literacy should be assessed at the should ensure "the transformation of the end of their teacher education as part of their unhelpful experiences and models which stu- accreditation. dent teachers bring with them from theirown How can this be achieved? Although some

57 66 authors, notably Hall (1986), Hallein (1988), assignments. Irving (1980) and Unesco (South Pacific In Marland's (1992:23) view there is a Region Pilot Project...1983), have suggested temptation for some teachers to set too large that all teachers should have to take a an assignment too early.He suggests that specialized course in Information studies/ pupils might be given an assignment requir- skills.I personally do not believe this is the ing them to locate five sources and not have to solution as students would probably resent do anything with them, or they may be given having to take such a course.If we want to five sources and asked to write a short report make every teacher aware of the important synthesizing certain information contained in role of the school library then education and them.According to Waterhouse (1988:74) the school library must become relevant to there is nothing wrong with starting in a fairly each other. It is for this reason that authors, prescriptive way.As pupils learn to work such as Bodi (1990), Miner (1989), Naito independently they can be given greater free- (1991), Tierney (1992), Wen-ell and Wesley dom to select topics which are of particular (1990) and Wilke (1991), believe that for interest to them and also greater choice with information literacy programs at the tertiary regard to forms of presentation.Marland level to be effective they must, just as in pri- (1987:13) has also suggested that assign- mary and secondary school, be integrated into ments can be broken down into stages. Jay courses and relevant to students' needs. (1986:32) points out that a number of short Information literacy programs are intensely projects may result in greater learning than dependent on faculty.So lecturers need to one lengthy project. make the use of the library an inherent part However assignments should sometimes of their teaching and include it as a compon- include project work which has been defined ent from the first year through to the final as "an activity in which the learner acquires year when students can be surveyed to assess and applies knowledge and skills through the extent to which they are information practical involvement in an actual or sim- literate. ulated real-life problem or task" (Irving & An increasing number of sources Snape 1979:101). A project may be cross- suggest methods for librarians to collaborate curricular and pupils are given more time for with lecturers in developing integrated cour- its completion, because they are expected to ses.Although such integrated courses to consult a number of sources. develop information literacy have to be design- ed with the specific needs of the students and Problems with projects course objectives in mind, assignments, and Projects have often been severely criti- in particular projects could be an ideal means cized, because too often pupils copy informa- for such collaboration. tion verbatim from textbooks or reference works (Edwards 1976:3; Great Britain Theory on projects 1975:94; Wray 1985:3). Other problem areas The theory on projects is vast and I are that pupils may not know: intend to highlight only a few of those aspects * what information to look for which I consider to be particularly relevant to * where to find the information or books that the situation in a developing country. they could cope with Malley (1984:43) points out that one * how much information is required of the most enduring tasks which school * how to organize the information collected pupils have is the completion of assignments. * what illustrations are required The assignment technique is valid in all the * where to find illustrations school and tertiary education phases. "Assign- * how to present their findings ment" has a broad meaning and can include * how to make posters any tasks which the teacher gives a pupil to * how to make models do, for example, consulting a dictionary to find * how to set out or layout their presentation the meaning of a word or reading a paragraph * why they are doing the project in order to extract the key sentence (Informa- tion Skills in the Secondary Curriculum It is thus obvious that at the outset 1981:13).Jay (1983:15) suggests teachers teachers must give pupils very clear and se- can begin with smaller assignments leading quenced written instructions. into and providing experience for larger Teachers may also have problems with

58 projects as they may think of them as none of the other frameworks or models have additional work. Many do not know been empirically derived nor tested in any formal field or laboratory study. They further what they are expected to achieve by set- point out that there is a need to verify process ting projects for their pupils frameworks in real settings and that it would what skills they are supposed to be devel- also be desirable to base process frameworks oping on empirically derived models of cognition. how to go about preparing a project The integrated approach to information skills how to evaluate a project teaching in the context of a subject curriculum also suffers from this same lack of empirical This means that teachers need a better substantiation (Eisenberg & Brown 1990: understanding of the different types of project 104). which can be set, the information skills The independent information skills pro- required for the effective completion of each ject, which will now be described, provided the (Irving 1980:17). opportunity to verify both the process and Other problems may be the availability of integrated approaches. resources. Books containing information rele- vant to the topic, as well as the reading The independent information skills ability of the pupils is a huge problem. More project harm than good is done if pupils are expected In 1987 and 1988 a consultant (Potgieter to find information for which books may not 1993) from the Shell Education Service ran a be available.In many schools and homes, grassroots developmental workshop, for the especially in poorer, rural areas, there is just READ organization. It was held for English no access to the information required. Linked second language teachers to teach them how to this is the problem of materials to use for to use projects at three different levels in the recording and presenting information. Simple senior primary phase, that is, in Standards 3, things like paper and cardboard, pens, pencils 4 and 5 (Grades 5, 6 and 7). and crayons can be very costly and difficult to Teachers had to learn to set projects with obtain especially in rural areas. the following aims: This is an area where commercial organ- izations or schools in more affluent countries * to interest pupils in finding out more about could come to the assistance of the poorer the subjects that were taught in school and schools in developing countries by providing found in the real world project packs containing paper with lines for * to expand and enrich the pupils' knowledge writing, blank paper for illustrations, pens, so that they would have dearer insight and pencils and other stationery. Shell Education better understanding of what information Service is one organization which makes they could obtain in books, periodicals, packs available to schools in disadvantaged newspapers, radio and other media communities in South Africa. * to develop a positive attitude towards In countries where school libraries and working independently their collections are small, inadequate or even * to enable the pupils to reason and think non-existent it is essential that teachers be- for themselves and express themselves come aware of appropriate information clearly with guidance from the teacher sources and services that are available in the *to develop the information skills necessary community or "real world".Often printed to locate, select, organize and present infor- information sources are available in the com- mation in a systematic way munity or they could be collected by the * to learn to use a variety of media teacher from urban communities. Examples (especially print media). are Bibles, old newspapers or periodicals, free pamphlets and information and advertising The teacher could achieve these aims in the leaflets, and even old telephone directories. following manner Eisenberg and Brown (1990:102) have pointed out that the new approach to infor- (1)By choosing a topic from the curriculum mation skills instruction centers on a process and using it to teach certain information approach and that with the exception of skills (the skills are more important then Kuhlthau's information search process model the topic).

59 68 (2) Starting with a textbook (each pupil has same pro-cess. Workshops were held for each the same one) and introducing reference of the three levels, but teachers had to return books and other media gradually. to school to put into practice what they had (3) Being very specific about pictures and learnt before attending the following work- illustrations which should only be used shop.Eventually teachers, who had partic- for a reason. Pupils need to be taught ipated in this research project, displayed their when to use different types of illus- pupils' projects. The pupils had produceda tration, for example, a graph, a map,a variety of pamphlets, booklets, posters, picture, a diagram. They need to learn models and maps which were of a high stan- how to draw them or where to find them dard. when required. (4) Avoiding verbal instructions, but using Observations and findings clear, sequenced written instructions While much has been written on problems which if followed carefully will help surrounding school projects, teachers still guide the pupils through the project and have a problem when it comes to putting this ensure a successful result. theory into practice in the classroom.Al- (5) Especially in the beginning, keeping the though this independent information skills project short and working in stages. project does not profess to be a perfect model Completing one stage at a time and or formula for project work, it enabled a group evaluating as the project progresses. of teachers to facilitate a process for thesucc- This will ensure a series of smallsuc- essful development and implementation of cesses which promote enthusiasm and information skills using projects in the enjoyment. primary school. This project also addresseda (6) By giving the pupils regular guidance, number of practical problems while several support and encouragement to maintain theoreticalfindingsweresuccessfully their enthusiasm. The teacher needs to implemented in it. They are the following: be very involved in the project,espec- ially in the early stages. Training the teachers to set theirown (7) Using visual media to demonstrate project topics based on their subject various skills and techniques. Having curricula. these available for pupils to refer back The workshopping process where teach- to on their own. ers actually followed the same process as (8) Providing for differentiation so that the pupils would be expected to follow and pupils who work more quickly are kept gained a better understanding of the in- purposefully occupied whilst slower pu- formation skills which their pupils would pils can receive more assistance. need to acquire. (9) Introducing a loose page system, be- Working from simple information skills to cause then the pupils are not confronted more complex, and dividing each level in- with an intimidating book which has to to more manageable stages. be filled with information. This system Using a variety of media. allows an project to be completed in Teaching and encouraging the use ofa stages and the more able pupils can do variety of presentation techniques. more if they wish.Also it creates an Training the teachers to make theirown opportunity to teach both presentation resources, for example posters, based on and bookbinding skills. the workshop models. (10) Assessment (evaluation) throughout the The focus was on the how (process) of process is important and should take project work and not on the "why" or into account the variety of abilities of a "what". class of pupils.It should be positive and encourage pupils to develop their By working together and exchanging ideas informationskills and their own the teachers are encouraged to developa more talents. reflective, self-evaluative mindset. Improving During the workshops teachers had to their competence in the classroom produces do projects and follow the same steps, results and enables the teachers to teach with described above, as pupils would be expected confidence and authority. Pupils will benefit to follow. They could therefore experience the in the following ways:

60 69 described was based on didactic principles, Pupils will enjoy doing projects if theoretical and empirical research and could teachers are able to give them the cor- therefore be implemented either with stu- rect direction and guidance, in order to dents coming from disadvantaged back- produce an end result which is accept- grounds, or those from more privileged back- able or good. grounds. Teachers can help pupils achieve this by It is important for pupils to become working with them and guiding them information literate, but before this can hap- through a process that helps them ac- pen their teachers must themselves become quire and develop skills which will lead information literate.Teachers in particular to independent learning. need to acquire the skills inherent in under- It is not the topic or the availability of standing subjects like Geography, Mathe- media which determine the success of matics and Science. Lecturers' teaching styles the project, but the methods, prepar- exert an influence on their students, but these ation and style of the teacher who is in cannot be left to chance, but must follow a control. clearly formulated process, such as that de- By working in easily manageable stages scribed above.This is one way to help or steps the pupils progress through a transform the prevailing teacher-centered and continuum of information skills, and textbook-centered teaching style to an inter- build up confidence and knowledge of active teaching and learning process based on different strategies which they can draw available information sources. upon when required to work indepen- dently. Financial assistance from the Centre for This in turn leads to independence and Science Development, HSRC, Pretoria, South increased pupil learning, through a Africa is acknowledged. creative, participative and enjoyable classroom experience and improves crit- ical thinking and information literacy. The project products, that is the pamphlets and collated books produced Bibliography by the pupils, can be kept in the class- room collection. This serves as a moti- Bodi, S. 1990. "Through a glass darkly: crit- vation for pupils whose work then ical thinking and bibliographic instruc- serves a useful purpose.It provides tion" Catholic library world, 61 (6):252 - reading material for the pupils and 256. models for future project work. Edwards, R. P. A. 1976. Topic work. London: An observation made by the consultant Evans. (Potgieter 1993) was that the process could be started at a lower level- in Standards 1 and Eisenberg, M. B. & Brown, M. K. 1990. 2 (Grades 3 and 4) using shared reading and "Current themes regarding library and writing techniques. The teacher could intro- information skills instruction," in The duce pupils to project work by making "big Research of school library media centers: books".The pupils could supply the infor- papers of the Treasure Mountain research mation and illustrations which initially could retreat, Park City, Utah, October 17-18, be used as reference books by the pupils in 1989, edited by B. Woolls. Castle Rock, the classroom. Colo.: Hi Willow Research :99-110. Conclusion Great Britain. Department of Education and Although the project described and dis- Science. 1975. A Language for life: report of cussed in this paper was used to improve the the Committee of Inquiry appointed by the media and information skills of under- Secretary of State for Education and qualified teachers by means of in-service Science under the Chairmanship of Sir workshops, it is believed that the process Alan Bullock. London: HMSO. Known as could be adapted and used as a model for the Bullock report. initial teacher education. The project

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70 Hall, N. 1986. Teachers, information and nating Committee. Cape Town: Oxford school libraries; prepared for IFLA Section U.P. on School Libraries Working Group. Paris: Unesco. Olen, S. 1993. The school media centre in the curricula for initial teachers' training. Ha llein, J. 1988. "Information skills in preser- D.Bibl. thesis, University of South Africa, vice teacher education," Access, 2 (3): 23. Pretoria. Unpublished. Information skills in the secondary curriculum: Potgieter, D. 1993. "Written communication." the recommendations of a working group Sieberger, R. & Kenyon, A. 1992. "Initial sponsored by the British Library and the teacher education," in McGregor's Schools Council. 1981. Edited by M. Educational alternatives, edited by R. and Marland. London: Methuen Educational. A McGregor. Kenwyn: Juta:145-166. Irving, A. 1980. Promoting voluntary reading South Pacific Region pilot project on school for children and young people: guidelines for library development: training programs: teacher-training courses. Paris: Unesco. course proposal no. 1: course for all teachers on the use of information resources and Irving, A. & Snape, W.H. 1979. Educating libraries by teachers. 1983. Paris: Unesco. library users in secondary schools. London: British Library, Research & Development Tierney, J. 1992. "Information literacy and a Dept. college library: a continuing experiment," in Information literacy: developing students Jay, H.L. 1983. Stimulating student search: as independent learners, D.W. Farmer, library media /classroom teacher tech- T.F.Mech,editors.San Francisco: niques. Hamden, Conn.: Library Profes- Jossey-Bass:63-71. sional Publications. Waterhouse, P. 1988. Supported self-study: an Jay, M.E. 1986."The Elementary school introduction for teachers. London: Council library media teacher's role in educating for Educational Technology. students to think," School library media quarterly, 15 (1): 28-32. Werrell, E.L. & Wesley, T.L. 1990. "Promot- ing information literacy through a faculty Malley, I. 1984. The basics of information workshop," Research strategies,8(4): skills teaching. London: Bingley. 172-180. Marland, M. 1987. "Libraries, learning and Wilke, J.S. 1991. "Information literacy and the whole school" Emergency librarian, 15 education students: the planning stage at (2): 9-14. Kearney State College, Kearney, Nebras- ka," in Nebraska Library Association, Marland, M. 1992. "The curriculum, the College and University Section, in Infor- library and the librarian," Education li- mation literacy: Nebraska responds: pro- braries journal, 35 (2): 9-27. ceedings from the 1991 spring meeting... held at Nebraska Wesleyan University Miner, AM. 1989. "Impact and implications Lincoln, Nebraska, Joan Giesecke editor. of a library-use integrated education pro- Lincoln: The Association: 33-59. gram," Reference librarian, 24: 257-267. Wray, D. 1985. Teaching information skills Naito, M. 1991. "An information literacy cur- through project work. Sevenoaks, Kent: Hod- riculum: a proposal," College & research li- der & Stoughton. braries news, 52 (5): 293-296. National Education Policy Investigation. 1992. Teacher education: report of the KEPI Teacher Education Research group: a project of the National Education Coordi-

62 71 Using Editorial Cartoons in the Curriculum to Enhance Visual (and Political) Literacy by Susan Steinfirst, Professor University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill This paper on using political cartoons We know that imagery is based on right brain with children and young adults to teach visual functioning, and that the right braincan be literacy is divided into two parts: an intro- manipulated to stir and arouse creative imag- ductory part and a final section with anoppor- ination. The right brain excels at holistic and tunity to interpret a political cartoon. spatial learning and has been describedas the By way of introductory material, I metaphoric mind. And we also know forsure would like to define what we mean by visual now that visual literacy meaning precedes literacy; then I would like to synopsize the verbal learning.Piaget's statement that current research on political awareness among "sources of thought are not to be found in today's youth, and show how using political language, but in the nonverbal. Visual-motion cartoons with children and adolescents will reconstruction performed by the very young enhance their political cognition. Finally, I will child" is absolutely true. The first state of lit- introduce the political cartoon, define it, and eracy development is that of visual literacy. describe what makes a political cartoon Recent definitions of visual literacy focus particularly effective in terms of teaching visual almost exclusively on the imagistic aspect of literacy. thinking. A 1982 definition says that visual literacy is "the ability to understand anduse Visual Literacy images and to think and learn in terms of The concept of visual literacy is credited images, i.e., to think visually." Also stressed to one John Debes, who, at a meeting in today in the new definition of visual literacy is Rochester, NY, in 1969, defined visual literacy nonverbal, communicative techniques and as skills--the graphic experience, visual literacyas a group of vision competencies a a means to communicate with each other in human being can develop by nonverbal ways. The stress then today ison seeing and at the same time the communication process. "Visual literacy is having and integrating other fundamental to human thinking and develops sensory experiences. . .these competencies, when developed, through the interaction of three basiccom- enable a visually literate person ponents," reads one definition, whichare to discriminate and interpret the viewing, exploration, and nonverbal represen- visible actions, objects, and/or tation. Visual literacy today is defined as the symbols, natural or man-made, active reconstruction of past visual experiences that he encounters in his envir- with incoming visual information to obtain onment. meaning. In effect, visual communication has This definition, which surfaced widely replaced the concept we once called visual and enjoyed a vogue in the early 1970s, when literacy. the impact of television viewingon the U.S. To summarize, visual literacy nowgoes young was beginning to be a national concern, beyond critical viewing skills, andencom- stressed picture comprehension. Early visual passes, as David Considine has said, "the literacy experts stressed critical viewing skills ability to analyze, understand, and appreciate and used picture book or films to help children visual messages." Visually literate students, be more critical in their viewing. he said, "should be able to produce and In the past 20 years, however, a shift interpret visual images and messages." Cur- has occurred in visual literacy research. In the rent researchers are convinced that the right 1970s, we found out, for example, that visual hemisphere of the brain can be trained. One messages are processed by the brain's right way of doing this might be to study paintings, hemisphere, while traditional language arts where parts acquire meaning through their "stuff'--spelling, writing, phonemic discrimi- relationship to the whole.Another means nations, for example, are processed by the left. might be the study of imagery--images that present ideas.One researcher, for example,

63 72 Edward Fry, works with graphs, because they of Congress, and Supreme Court, and the role communicate a concept often better than of the senators. In terms of law and morality, words; "the basic transmission [of graphs] is they know what a judge does, though only 20 nonverbal and graphs," he says, "pack a high percent associate judges with trials, and, for density of information into a small area." The the most part, they believe that anyone picture book is also a good means to use to brought before a court has ipso facto violated train youngsters to interpret images, and so, I the law. Most young children view law as the will argue, is the political cartoon. institutions that protect people from danger and harm. The Political Cognition and Socialization In terms of political affect, data suggest the of Children and Adolescents presence among elementary school children of a Several major studies have been high level of support for the political system: published in the mid-1980s concerning child- 90 percent think policemen are their friends; hood and adolescent political socialization and 85 percent say the government "cares about cognition, one done with children from K-4, and ordinary people like us," and 2/3 say the gov- one done with adolescents, both longitudinal ernment would "help us if we needed it." studies, conducted during the politically vola- Among elementary school children there is a tile mid-1970s. Both maintain that "the truly general optimism about our government, a informative years of the maturing members of tendency to feel increasingly positive toward it. a political system would seem to be in the However, thought they are optimistic and years between 3 and 13, but that the most idealistic, they are realistic about the fallibility significant changes take place between 12 and of government and realize that the government 16." and president can make mistakes. They an- One of the earliest signs of political swer the question, "Is America the best country awareness is symbol recognition. By the 4th in the world?" by saying they don't know a grade, virtually all children can recognize pic- better one. Elementary school children are tures of the American flag, George Washington, rule-and-law oriented.People need to obey Abraham Lincoln, the Statue of Liberty, the laws; it is essential for the good of the entire Liberty Bell, those symbols which have been society, and their vision of a lawless society is called "unifying symbols," though they cannot a chaotic society. then recognize the symbols representing par- Among elementary children, there is a wide- tisan institutions (those representing the spread perception of presidential and govern- national parties, the White House, the Nation- mental benevolence; actually 40 percent of al Capitol).By the end of the 4th grade, kindergartners believe God or Jesus is "the although 90 percent of the students know their boss of our country", and this is a feeling that own state, only 70 percent know their own they will later transfer to the president, when country (this after five years of flag saluting). they become aware of him as a secular author- Issue awareness among fourth graders is also ity.By the fifth grade, they can distinguish fairly low (this was a period of Watergate, between an occupant of the presidency and the Nixon, the energy crisis, and the end of the institution. Vietnam War), and there is limited ability of Elementary school children idealistically all children through fourth garde to distinguish believe the primary purpose of government is to governmental from nongovernmental roles (75 help those in need. They object to protest; a percent say that television news commentators good citizen is one who obeys laws, not a are government employees; they think teachers person who votes issues to effect change. Ego- are privately paid).In the fourth grade, only centric children see government as helping ten percent of the children can define politician, them and those they love. only 41 percent know what a political party is, The elementary school child is quite naive and, though 86 percent of them had heard of politically.It takes skill and persistence on the Republicans and 79 percent of the Demo- the part of parents and teachers to increase crats, few, of course, had made any party iden- substantive awareness before a child has tification. By the time they are in fifth grade, matured to the point where abstract under- children appear only to have gained "an standing such as the various levels of gov- extensive acquaintance with politics"; they ernment and the distinction between public know what the President does, about taxes, and private functions are possible. Obviously, about the electoral process, a bit about the role it would be nice if elementary school curricula

64 73 could be strengthened to facilitate both faster the child is capable of abstract thinking, also, learning and more functional and realistic before the age of fifteen, children have trouble perceptions of political phenomena. One of the conceiving of the community as a whole. Be- problems seems to be that our children are not cause they can't imagine an abstract collec- taught dissention or diversion; they are only tivity, they can't take into account the present being taught the authoritativeness of our insti- or future needs of government of the community tutions. They aren't being taught conflicting and can't grasp the institutions of government values or the competitive side of U.S. politics. and the concept of representation.Also, by They need to learn to identify public issues. fifteen, the youngster adopts a functional view They have an exaggerated belief in the efficacy of law as an experiment that can be amended, of their ability to influence government and or, if ineffectual, can be abandoned or revised, they don't understand that conflict, compe- this due to the fact that the capacity to think tition, and compromise are essential in govern- in terms of "what if' only occurs in adolescence. ment. Furthermore, researchers believe teach- It has been bandied about in the literature ers can and should take a much more active that adolescents are political idealists at the role in promoting the elementary school child's age of fifteen or sixteen. But recent research appreciation for the competitive side of dem- indicates that they are really political realists, ocratic politics and the benefits of diversity, and, in fact, a recent study suggests that late pragmatism, and change.They should be adolescents are currently cynical and are be- helped to identify public issues and to develop coming more so. Unlike younger children, they the young child's participation skills. "Overem- don't idealize authority, and generally speak- phasis on unifying or consensual symbols" and ing, they are highly critical of the way gov- overlooking "symbols which represent disagree- ernment is performing.Unfortunately, even ment, conflict, and debate, with a more rea- though adolescence is a period of vast growth listic understanding of pluralism and diversity, in terms of the acquisition of political infor- and internal conflict, would prepare children to mation (they understand about consensus, play a more vigorous role in the political they have a feeling for the common and pre- process in later life." vailing ways of looking a political issues, they Preadolescents, children in the middle have the cognitive capacity that allows for the school, are very aware of the political birth of ideology, and they no longer believe in phenomena but they also have an exaggerated the omnipresence of authoritarianism). Few belief in the efficacy of individuals to influence adolescents care about politics, and, like most government and unrealistic beliefs about adults in this country, unless they personally equality of political opportunity, moreover, they feel threatened (or unless they come from a still fail to understand that conflict and com- politically active and aware family, they will promise are basic elements of the political never become active political thinkers. By the process in the U.S. Seventh and eighth grad- time the adolescent is a high school senior, "the ers, in fact, view conflicts between Democrats ability to process political information, acquire and Republicans as disruptive and dysfunc- knowledge of current events, and comprehend tional, and also view criticism of public officials fairly complex political concepts is about on a during political campaigns as undesirably par with most adults." divisive. The adolescent period is when democratic The most significant changes in beliefs must become firmly anchored, when political thinking take place between the ages political awareness must acquire structure and of eleven and fifteen, when the change is made when political preferences must be born to from concrete to formal operations. "The ado- enhance the likelihood of active, informed lescent years see sweeping changes in the com- adults.It is, said one researcher, a "period of prehension of the political order."Though great political potential." young adolescents have only a dim recognition As just mentioned, the politically active fam- of politics and government and their under- ily is the prime source of political awareness. standing of these topics is diffuse, personalized Although studies in the 1960s indicated that and concrete, by the end of adolescence, the the "public school," as one study put it, "was young person has invariably achieved an the most important and effective instrument of abstract, undifferentiated and functional view political socialization in the U.S.," today the of the political scene. The reasons are plen- bulk of data indicate that, although the school tiful: Piaget says adolescence is the first time environment has the "potential to stimulate

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74 future political involvement," the school has and ideal, between what is and should be. only marginal influence, especially at the high The hallmark of the political cartoon and its school level. The curriculum today is so bland differentiating feature is that it is usually that its content is highly unlikely to induce partisan.{I've heard cartoonists called "opin- interest in politics, and, although most re- ion hustlers.")Political cartoons seek to do searchers believe the teacher could be an im- more than amuse, though satire and ridicule portant figure for politicalization, most teach- are certainly tricks of their trade. In fact, they ers shy away from political issues. As a con- attempt to influence the viewer to a particular clusion to their four year study of 1,000 viewpoint, to their creator's way of thinking. Pennsylvania high school students, Roberta Because of this, the political cartoon puts Sigel and Marilyn Hoskin write in The Political more stress on ideas being presented in a strik- Involvement of Adolescents (1981): ing way than on the artistry.Although the political cartoon has always been an aesthetic From the evidence we have achievement only by accident.(Its purpose is gathered,itappears that propaganda not art.)I would like to stress traditional teachers--the family, that I feel strongly that the political cartoon is the schools, the media have not an art fonn. effectively conveyed a message The subject of the cartoon should have that politics is relevant to the lasting importance. A great cartoonist cannot average citizen . . ." Commen- be trite, even when inspired by a trite event. ting on the inadequate ways in He has to somehow twist his subject matter which newspapers and tele- into a statement that lasts beyond the event, vision inform the public on such to generalize or universalize from it into com- questions, Walter Cronkite ment applicable to many time and seasons. stressed the need to engage the Most cartoons have a basis in truth, and public more in its own affairs. include recognizable characters and events "The continuation of our demo- from reality. In fact, most cartoons center on cracy demands no less, and yet events, ideas or concepts, or a personality of . . . surveys indicate that the recent interest. job isn't getting done." Cartoons are interpretive.They serve to make sense of political things that are and will A similar charge could be made be important to us. The cartoonist/critic pro- against the public schools and other institu- vides information selectively, winnowing out, tions commonly believed to involve youth in the attempting to asses what is important, focus- life of the polity. For those of us who believe ing our attention, interpreting policies and poli- that an involved citizenry is still an important ticians and projecting judgment about the democratic goal, the questions of how to raise system itself. the relevance level of politics may well be the Cartoons have three elements: most important we have posed in this book. * It is a picture of reality. The cartoonist The Political Cartoon deals with assumptions about reality. It is my contention that the political It is a message about what the car- cartoon may well be one means by which we toonist thinks ought to be done on be- could raise the "relevance level" of politics half of the deserving.The cartoonist among the young. The political cartoon, or vis- takes a protection of the larger commun- ual editorial as it is sometimes called, is an ity stance. interpretive picture which makes use of sym- It tells us about how we should feel bolism and, most often, bold and humorous about what is happening. exaggeration to present a message or point of The political cartoon is supposed to beam view concerning people, events or situations. out a specific message that political leaders or All forms of graphic art that contain government officials can do something about--a critical commentary (Think of the New Yorker message about intolerance, injustice, political cartoons as well as the political cartoon.), are corruption, various other social evils. The mes- alike in that they muse upon the ridiculous sage, as I just said, grows out of concern for and incongruous in life, and they all have the what one writer called "the cherished com- repeated theme of the contrast between reality munity" and therefore becomes the moral justification of the cartoon production.

66 75 The cartoonist has to put his message * to help youth better understand about across in some way that will be striking, conflict, dissent and criticism in politics, forceful, amusing, or all three. His message is and clothed in images, which have to be fresh, to help make youngsters more realistic original, and comprehensible- -they shouldn't be consumers of U.S. politics. too complex, elaborate, obscure, involved or Finally, to understand what the cartoonist complicated. The meaning and mood of a car- is portraying, the young people will have to toon is projected through several means: the learn the following skills: use of imagery: the choice of setting, charac- * to infer, ters, costume used, the situation portrayed, to interpret symbolism, e.g., Nixon as a hobo, and the use of symbols to recognize the use of pictorial, graphic and caricature.As we heard when I talked conventions, about the political cognition of the elementary to understand subtle visual clues, school child, there are unifying, national to recognizer analogies, and symbols, which are idealistic and uplifting, and to understand the politic or social events which present the moral aspects of the nation. with which the cartoon deals. Symbols are a form of shorthand, a conven- ience, not only for the artist, but for the viewer as well. To summarize, the political cartoon, a signed visual editorial, is inherently critical and often satirical.It contains exaggerated ridicule, emphasizes more negative than positive, contains allegorical imagery, and is timely. The cartoonist acts as a critic or keeper of the ideals of the community, serves as a communication link between the governed and the governors, and is a keen critic and shaper of public opinion. Using the Political Cartoon Based on what I said earlier is needed to help children become better and wiser poli- tical consumers, it is our belief that the political cartoon can be used with young people in the following ways for education purposes: to teach visual literacy, * to train the right hemisphere of the brain, to train for familiarity of conven- tions, to help children understand about abstractness and symbolism, to teach decoding strategies, to help children learn to glean abstract meaning from visual liter- acy, to teach about ridicule, satire, and parody, to is children to communicate in nonverbal ways, to help children operate at higher cognitive levels through creative and critical thinking, to enhance the political cognition of the young,

67 76 APPENDIX THE EDITORIAL CARTOON Definition: An interpretive picture which makes use of symbolism, and, most often, bold and humorous exaggeration to present a message or point of view concerning people, events, or situations. (William Ray Heitzmann) A graphic way of expressing an idea/opinion relative to an event, person, or another idea or concept. Qualities of 1. Wit or humor, often obtained by exaggeration, satire, or parody, is a Good Cartoon: is present. 2. Has a basis in truth, including recognizable characters from reality. 3. Possesses a moral purpose/earnestness, leading to universality or permanence. 4. Reflects organic/artistic unit. 5. Quarrels with the status quo of society. Content: 1. An issue related to an event, or an idea or concept 2. A personality 3. Combination of an issue and a personality. Purposes of 1. To criticize intolerance, injustice, political corruption/actions, Editorial social evils, etc. Cartoons: 2. To express an opinion, point of view, or reaction. 3. To prick the conscience of the reader. 4. To prod us to laugh at ourselves, our bungling, our biases, our banality, our blindness, or bigotry. Uses of Editorial 1. To educate Cartoons: A. To help individuals become visually literate. B. To help individuals operate at higher cognitive levels through and critical thinking. C. To teach values clarification. 2. To motivate 3. To entertain Some Skills Needed for Understanding What the Cartoonist Is Portraying: 1. Ability to infer. 2. Ability to interpret symbolism embedded therein. 3. Ability to recognize use of pictorial/graphic conventions (visual language). 4. Sensitivity to subtle clues inherent in pictorial embellishments. 5. Ability to recognize analogies.

68 77 A MODEL FOR INTERPRETING EDITORIAL CARTOONS An Exercise in Visual Literacy (copyrighted) An interpretation requires that one: A. Determine the reality to which the cartoon relates, e.g., person(s), event or happening, place and time. B. Note pictorial embellishments, considering choices which have been made by the creator and reasons why the choices were made, i.e., their role in the interpretation. C. Detect and consider the purpose(s) of any pictorial objects/symbols. D. Recognize and understand the use of any graphic/pictorial conventions used by the cartoonist. E. Consider how pictorial elements relate to each other and form a relationship which gives meaning to an outside event.

1. Determine the reality to which the cartoon relates.

2. Identify each detail in the cartoon and consider other options which were not chosen by the cartoonist, e.g., rear view rather than a frontal view.

3. What can be inferred from each detail used by the cartoonist?

4. Identify pictorial objects/symbols used and discuss the purpose of each.

5. What cultural/social values are reflected in this cartoon? Or, what opinion is expressed through this cartoon?

6. Are any caricatures or stereotypes present? If so, what are their purposes?

7. If a title has been used, why was it necessary?

8. If there are any legends, why have they been used?

9. What is your personal reaction to the idea/opinion expressed by the cartoonist about the person, event, or happening.

69 7 3 Preschool Partnerships: Schooland Public Library Cooperation to Facilitate SchoolReadiness by Barbara Immroth and Viki Ash-Geisler The University of Texas at Austin Graduate School of Library andInformation Science The National Education Goalswere estab- Education Goals panel has identified lished by the President of the United five States critical dimensions that define schoolread- and theGovernors of the fifty states in iness. These dimension include: 1989 and enacted into federal lawin March o Physical Well-Beingand Motor 1994 as the "Goals 2000: EducateAmerica Development Act" Public Law 103-227. In May of 1994 Health and physical growth, rangingfrom the Graduate School of Libraryand Infor- being rested, fed, properly immunized, mation Science at the University ofTexas and healthy to at Austin held a five day Institute having such abilitiesas funded running, jumping, and usingcrayons and by the US Department of Educationentitled puzzles. "Achieving School Readiness: PublicLi- o Social and Emotional Development braries and the First of the NationalEduca- tion Goals." The sense of personal well-beingthat The first of the National allows a child to participate fullyand Education Goals is:By the year 2000, all constructively in classroom activities. children will enter school readyto learn. o Approaches Toward Learning The purpose of thispaper is to The curiosity, creativity, motivation,inde- illuminate the need for qualityservices to pendence, cooperativeness, interest,and preschool children in order to achievethe persistence that enable children from all first national education goal andto identify cultures to maximize their learning. ways in which school and public libraries o Language Usage can work together to provide such services. As a means of establishing the The talking, listening, scribbling,and educational corn- posing that enable children tocom- context, the paper will first describe the five municate effectively andexpress thoughts, critical dimensions that define schoolreadi- feel-ings, and experiences. ness in preschool children.Second, the o Cognition and General Knowledge paper will offer a summary report of the Familiarity with basic information-- "Achieving School Readiness Institute"and includ-ing patterns and relationships, the prototype thatwas developed by the and participants. cause and effect -- needed to solve prob- Finally, the prototype will be lems in everyday life. (NationalEducation considered in light of the mission andser- Goals Report, 1992, p. 9). vices of school libraries, highlightingareas where cooperation between schooland Achieving School Readiness Institute public libraries can furtherenhance the and Prototype achievement of school readiness. These five critical dimensions ofreadi- ness were used as the organizing structure The Five Critical Dimensionsof for the "Achieving SchoolReadiness School Readiness Institute." Experts froma variety of aca- According to the National Education demic disciplines other thanlibrary and Goals Report (1992), "being readyto learn information science were invitedto address means more than having the ability to count each of the criticalareas with the intent of and recognize letters in the alphabet. broadening understanding of theissues Children need to be healthy, andsocially surrounding school readiness. and emotionally ready for school"(p. 8). Dr. Stuart Reifel, Professor inEarly While there are no specific, objectivemea- Childhood Education at the University sures of "readiness to learn" the National of Texas at Austin, addressed physicalwell-

70 79 being and motor development in his lecture: Nelson emphasized that the literature "Preschool Play: Some Roots for Literacy." argues that we must accept diversity in Drawing upon the work ofPiaget and style, with no single style model purported Vygotaky, and citing current research stu- to explain broad individual differences in dies, Reifel suggested that the physical learning; that style is being examined in activities identified as play are the "context relation to a)temperament; b) intellectual within which children learn, explore, and ability; c) developmental status. In regard acquire foundations that they will draw to the delivery of library programs to upon later in school."Reifel maintained preschool children, Nelson suggested, that that play is a significant means for devel- librarians increase their sensitivity to the oping cognitive structures, enhancing social variety of learning styles their audiences development, and exploring symbolic may seem to display, while avoiding efforts thought. In relating play specifically to the to assess or labelchildren according to library and literacy, Reifel said, "Hearing style.Rather than "worrying about the stories (a social activity) gives us something child's style,"Nelson recommends, "think to play about. Playing (frequently a social instead about the ways in which you can activity) allows us to create stories."He use diverse styles in your presentations in concluded with the suggestion that libraries hopes that once in a while a child whose develop "playful, welcoming environments parent or teacher has a different style may where children can explore and imagine discover that there is a style that affirms with books" and that librarians help child- who she is." ren to "play appropriately in libraries." Dr. Sarah Hudelson, a professor at The dimension of social and emo- Arizona State University's Division of tional development was considered by Dr. Curriculum and Instruction, addressed lan- Alice Honig, a Professor at Syracuse Univer- guage usage in her lecture: "Preschool Child- sity in the Department of Child and Family ren's Oral and Written Language: Issues Studies, College of Human Development. and Challenges." She summarized current Dr. Honig's presentation, entitled "Child- research on young children's oral and writ- ren's Socioemotional Development: Implica- ten language acquisition, emphasizing that tions for School Readiness," began with the children coming to school have already ac- premise that "intellectual abilities of child- quired a high degree of linguistic competence ren and their potential for school readiness that reflects the values and culture of the and early learning can be optimized only speech communities in which they live. when their emotional security, self-esteem, Even among native speakers of English, and social supports from intimate others Hudelson maintains that there is "signif- are nurtured as well as their cognitive icant variation in the ways in which families competence."Although children, from and communities use oral and written lan- infancy, exhibit certain temperament types guage."It is the responsibility of the and patterns of emotional response, their teacher, and the librarian then, to ack- understanding of the range and complexity nowledge what children already know about of emotions is not quick to develop and can language, and to understand and respect be enhanced or hampered by their adult the diversity of language and language style caregivers For this reason, Honig suggested that children bring to the preschool setting. that libraries can be invaluable resources In addressing general knowledge and both in terms of materials and programs, cognition, Dr. William Teale, of the Univer- for promoting "effective parenting and thus sity of Texas at San Antonio, Division of children's positive socioemotional develop- Education, College of Behavioral Science ment." lectured on "Early Language and Literacy Austin College's Professor of Psy- Development: Foundations for School Suc- chology Dr. Karen Nelson explored ap- cess." He focused on the characteristics of proaches to learning in her lecture: "Learn- positive literacy environments for young ing Styles in Preschool Children."She children in home, community, and library stressed that contemporary research is settings.Highlighting storybook reading, utilizing sophisticated techniques for asses- exploratory writing and invented spelling, sing the physiological reality of learning "environmental print," and literacy play style and its behavioral implications. activities, Teale suggested that each con-

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80 tribute to children's knowledge and cognitive Services development and to their success in school. Library services for young children and "The key," he claimed, "lies in children see- their families must be responsive to the ing literacy as an enjoyable and valued part whole child, his or her family, and care- of their lives. We help them see this not be givers.Services must address the child devising literacy lessons but by helping to prenatally through age eight. Services must create contexts in which children experience be developed in consultation and collab- the power and joy of reading and writing." oration with the early care and education These lectures, which affirmed in community. many ways the role of young children as active and engaged learners from earliest Skills and Attitudes infancy, were delivered over a period of five Library staff must embrace the belief days to the "Achieving School Readiness" that all children and their families are participants.The fifty participants, who library customers of primary importance came to the Institute from twenty three and that librarians share responsibility for states in the US, included library school ensuring that children succeed in school and educators, state library youth consultants, become life long learners. Librarians must youth services coordinators from regional form partnerships with parents, early care library systems, and practicing children's and education providers, and other com- librarians, as well as members of the early munity-based, youth serving agencies to childhood care and education communities. provide appropriate services and support for Working in small groups, the participants young children and their families. discussed the presentations in light of their own knowledge and experience, ultimately Organizational Structures developing a prototype for public library Realizing the vision of service and service to young children. support for young children and their fam- The prototype begins with a mission ilies will require new organizational struc- statement, and continues with four sections tures within individual libraries as well as addressing the services, skills and atti- in the broader library community. Changes tudes, organizational structures, and re- will be required in library policies, in per- sources that will be required for public sonnel deployment, in facilities design and libraries to actively engage in the national utilization, in patterns of communication, call for school readiness for all children by and in education for librarianship. the year 2000. While it is beyond the scope of this paper to provide a full description of Resources the prototype, it is appropriate however, to Library resources are the basis for the share the mission statement, as well as the delivery of service and must be equitably introductory remarks for each of the four distributed to ensure the attainment of the sections. library's mission.In order to serve and support young children and their families, Mission funding must be secured through public and An essential mission of public private sources. Grant funding for youth libraries is to ensure that young children services projects must be pursued. Govern- receive services and support that help pre- mental support must be sought through the pare them for success in school and to establishment of a LSCA Title dedicated to become life long learners. This mission is early childhood and through specified accomplished by: funding in every child care or related bill "' adopting the role of "Preschoolers Door to presented to state legislatures or the US Learning" as a national priority in public Congress with libraries named as recip- libraries; ients. ocentering children's services around the developmental needs of children and their Partnerships for Enhancing School families; Readiness o building coalitions and developing a While the prototype was developed to shared vision with the early care and define early childhood services in public education community. libraries, there are elements that are

72 equally appropriate for school library media educational and learning theories, and centers.In considering the Institute as a library materials.School librarians, with whole, three important concepts emerged. their background training from colleges of emphasis on the child, and the education and years of classroom exper- family, rather than on library ience, may have substantial expertise to materials, share with pubic librarians in this regard. emphasisondevelopmentally Similarly, public librarians, may enjoy a appropri-ate practice, wide range of experience with children from emphasison partnerships-- this younger age group, and a concentrated partnerships with parents, with knowledge of the books and library mater- early childhood edu-cators and ials designed for them.Sharing of such caregivers, and with childhood knowledge and experience between library health care providers. professionals in school and public library The first question to consider is why settings, can only increase the quality of should school media specialists be con- the programs offered and materials avail- cerned with the young child? Services to this able. clientele are traditionally the responsibility Partnerships between librarians are of public libraries through storytime pro- only the first of the cooperative under- grams for toddlers and preschoolers. While takings that can and should be pursued. this is true, it is also true that young The speakers at the Institute and partic- children are involved in more formal edu- ipants working on the prototype, empha- cation programs at earlier and earlier ages. sized again and again the need for a Public school kindergarten for five year olds "shared vision" in regard to services for and an increasing number of pre-kinder- young children. Parents, preschool teachers, garten programs for four, and even three child care providers, and health care pro- year olds, make this a patron group that fessionals are all concerned with the growth, schools and public libraries are both development, and ultimate success of young serving. Additionally, the National Associ- children. Learning is an interactive process. ation for the Education of Young Children Children must interact with their environ- (NAEYC) identifies the period of young ments, their peers, and caring adults in childhood as extending from birth through order to learn. Similar interaction between age eight.With this definition in mind, all those who seek to aid young children school and public librarians share an early can lead to similar learning.School and childhood clientele that extends through the public librarians, as an established team, third grade.At the other end of the must approach parent groups, child care spectrum, high school librarians may find advocates, health clinic personnel, and early an early childhood client group in the early childhood educators, not just as library childhood and family studies programs promoters and materials experts, but as offered through their home economics de- active and involved learners, seeking to partments, and in the child care programs enhance and coordinate efforts on behalf of that high schools are now offering to the young children. A shared vision begins with teen parents among their student bodies. shared concerns and shared knowledge. Given then, that school librarians Lasting and profitable partnerships are not have an early childhood population to serve, based on the question "what can you do for how can services best be offered?The us?" but on the question "what can we do NAEYC suggests that children are best for you?" and more importantly, "what can served through developmentally appropriate we do together, for young children?" practices.Such practices "reflect what is known about how children develop and Conclusion learn (what is age appropriate) and...are Early childhood is a time of tremen- sensitive to individual and cultural vari- dous growth and development. According to ation (what is individually appropriate)" US Surgeon General Dr. Joycelyn Elders, (Bredekamp & Rosegrant, 1992, p. 3).To "Children know half as much as they will effectively implement developmentally ap- ever know by the time they are four years propriate practice in library programming old." With this is mind, young childhood takes a knowledge of child development, can be seen as a period of tremendous po-

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82 tential.The work that librarians do with Editions early in 1995.For additional young children, with families, with each information regarding the Institute or the other, and with other child advocates, can expected publication,please contact the assist in maximizing that potential. authors at the Graduate School of Library Dr.Judith Lindfors offers an and Information Science, University of interes-ting distinction between teaching Texas, Austin, TX 78712-1276.Fax:512- and learn-ing. She suggests that the efforts 471 -3971 of one individual, through planning, conducting ac-tivities, talking, to increase another's know-ledge or skill can be called teaching. Learn-ing however,is an "individual's own sense-making activity" (Lindfors, 1984, p. 600). While some librarians, either in school or in public libraries, may not comfortably accept the role of teacher, certainly we can all support the idea that libraries are institu-tions of learning. Libraries are places where people of all ages, can find help for "making sense of things." Young children need experiences, not just to make sense about what books are and how stories work. They need experiences that address their widest range of interests, that engage them in making sense of the whole of life. Many such experiences can and should be offered in libraries. References Bredekamp, S., & Rosegrant, T.(Eds.). (1992). Reaching potentials: Appropri- ate curriculum and assessment for young children,(Vol.1) Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. *Im.mroth, B., & Ash-Geisler, V. (Eds.). (in press).Achieving School Readiness: Public Libraries and the First of the National Education Goals. Chicago: American Library Association. Lindfors, J. W. (1984). How children learn or how teachers teach? A profound con- fusion. Language Arts, 61, 600-606. National education goals report, 1992: Exec- utive summary.Washington, DC: National Education Goals Committee.

*The text of the papers delivered at the "Achieving School Readiness" Institute, as well as the complete Prototype of Public Library Services for Young Children and Their Families will be published by ALA

74 83 Enhancing Information Literacy Skills Across the Curriculum

by Marlene Giguere, Anne M. Caller, and Joanne Locke Concordia University Montreal Canada

Introduction tion access at all levels of society. Information The primary objective of this paper is to present retrieval skills acquired at an early age will an innovative model that will assist both stu- have lifelong benefits in terms of learning. dents and teacher-librarians with research tech- Background to Model Development niques. The model strives to improve the level Before discussing the model currently in of information literacy of users, in particular development, an explanation of how and why it students at the elementary, high school and evolved is in order.Concordia University in post-secondary levels. This model has been de- Montreal offers both an undergraduate B.A. veloped within the context of an information with a major in library studies and a graduate literacy research project. After a brief review of diploma the field.In the undergraduate pro- the history and development of the project, the gram, there is an introductory course which is paper describes the resource-based approach compulsory for all students enrolled in the that the model has adopted. Library Studies Programme. This course, orig- inally called "Introduction to Library Science," Definition of Information Literacy progressed through several stages of evolution Information literacy is a set of skills and spanning a period of approximately twenty strategies which encompass the abilities to rec- years.Initially the course was structured in a ognize a need for information, to retrieve the traditional lecture format and introduced the required information, and to evaluate and basic principles involved in library studies. utilize it effectively. The ALA Presidential Com- How-ever, because many of the students mittee on Information Literacy further elab- enrolled in this course were either working in orated in the following manner. "Information libraries, or had previous library experience, literacy is a survival skill in the Information much of the material was familiar to them. Age. Instead of drowning in the abundance of Therefore, as a first step towards remedying the information that floods their lives, information situation, the Personalized System of Instruc- literate people know how to find, evaluate and tion (PSI) method of teaching and learning was use information effectively, to solve a particular implemented.This system recognizes that problem or ;make a decision -- whether the infor- individuals have differing levels of knowledge mation they select comes from a computer, a and progress through the material at different book, a government agency, a film or any num- rates. ber of other possible sources." Once the PSI method of teaching was Information literacy is, in fact, an en- adopted, both students and lecturers found it semble of skills which must be acquired. One of very attractive. Students could work indepen- the early conclusions emanating from this dently and progress through the course at their research project is that teaching students how own pace. Unfortunately, this method of teach- to structure, acquire, analyze and synthesize ing requires a high ratio of monitors to students information must start much earlier that at the which makes it expensive to manage. There- post-secondary level.His is the main reason fore, even though this formula met with success that the scope of the original project was for a number of years was eventually aban- extended to include elementary and high school doned due to financial cutbacks. libraries. It is our responsibility, as library pro- As the profiles of the students enrolled fessionals, to begin in elementary school to in the course were investigated, it was noted introduce students to the concept of information that many of the students were not library literacy, and never to relax our vigilance in this studies majors. They were students from other respect. This is also the moment in time when disciplines who had elected to take this school librarians have the opportunity to take introductory course to enhance their research charge and become the facilitators of informa- skills.Further analysis revealed that these

75 84 students preferred the "research" component of age, and who for decades have been trying to the course and were not as interested in impart these skills.Rather it is indicative of "library" topics, such as organization and func- the failure of a school system that while tions of the library. preaching resource-based learning bypasses the Based on these observations, the Pro- essential catalyst in the process, namely the gramme decided to continue its basiclibrary school librarian. course for students enrolled in the major and to introduce a new course specifically designed for non-library studies majors entitled "introduction The Seagram Research Grant to Library Research Practices." Its objectives The research course for non-library were essentially threefold. First, it providesthe studies students is currently offered both day student with an understanding of the research and evening each semester. While the course is process and the variety of information sources popular and fills to capacity, it can at best at their disposition. Second, it assists the stu- accommodate one hundred and twenty students dent in formulating appropriate search strate- per year. In order to reach a larger student pop- gies for different types of research requirements. ulation and to extend the project beyond the Finally, it assists students in evaluating and Programme, the faculty team of Joanne Locke, organizing information retrieved. Anne Caller, and Marlene Giguere submitted a The final stage in the evolution of these proposal to enhance the level of student infor- courses involved the development of information mation literacy across the curriculum. The pro- courses geared to the needs of specificdisci- ject received funding from the Seagram Fund for plines The first course developed in this vein Academic Innovation, a grant offered by the was a reference course for science students.Its Seagram Company to Concordia faculty for inn- objectiire was to provide students in the fields of ovative projects. chemistry and physics with an introduction to The project is founded on a resource- the tools in their discipline.The Programme based approach to information retrieval which hopes to pursue this avenue and to offer an assumes that research must begin with thede- increasing number of courses geared to research termination of the type of information required in other disciplines, such as fine arts, econom- to meet a given research need. First year devel- ics, and engineering. These developments will opment was focused on the creation of a be pursued when the appropriate funding is in comprehensive, inclusive model of all potential place. resources. Second year development is sched- Several conclusions were drawn based uled to include an electronic version of the model on these developments. First, researchoriented available for student consultation. courses do meet the needs of undergraduate students.Despite the fact that students are The Information Literacy Model obliged to conduct research, many do not have The information literacy model strives to the necessary skills to access the wealth of be an effective tool designed to help students in material at their disposal. The course teaches elaborating their research paths. Because of its them to expand their research skills beyond the resource-based approach, it makes users more rudimentary search in the library catalog or the aware of the variety of resources available to cursory scanning of encyclopedias. Onestudy them and provides them with succinct infor- discusses the attitude of faculty vis-a-vis stu- mation about the utility of each resource, dents' abilities to find information. According to thereby facilitating their choices. Furthermore, the findings, "seventy percent of faculty sur- once the user has made an informed selection veyed believed that incoming freshmen to not among the potential resources available, the have the necessary skills to use a research model then supplies a research path to assist library. Eighty-eight percent of faculty believed the user in locating these resources. A funda- that it is important for college students to know mental assumption upon which the model is how to use the library."2 While faculty members based is that the presentation of a rich variety generally do not feel they should be responsible of information resources as well as suggested for teaching these skills, they obviously feel that paths to retrieve these resources will improve they are essential to succeed in university. the quality of search strategies used and as a This unfortunate lack of research skills consequence, the research produced. is not the fault of school librarians who have In their document Preparing Students been entrusted with the students at the earliest for Information Literacy: School Library Pro-

76 grams and the Cooperative Planning Process, be depicted in a number of ways.When Barry Eshpeter and Judy Gray break down the presented as a wheel,5 the spokes represent the development of research strategies into five research path, emanating from the center which main phases which represent the Information is the research question or need (Level 1). Once Cycle.3 As illustrated in Figure 1, the categories that information need has been identified (or are: pre-research, information retrieval, infor- clarified), the path to the end material which mation processing, information organizing and will satisfy the information need (Level 6) is creating, and information sharing. The infor- illustrated through the spokes. Figure 3 traces mation literacy model contributes to the in- and defines the process from Level 1 through formation retrieval category, which is the second Level 8. step in the process following the pre-research phase.The student enters the information retrieval stage with a topic which has been Use of the Model generated and clarified.This stage is defined Use of the model by the student re- by the authors as the "application of differenti- quires that each student have access to a ated strategies in locating resources relevant to number of different elements. They are the list the information needed."4 The literacy model is of categories of resources available, a definition the framework which helps to organize and of the benefits of using each of these categories, illustrate the steps involved in the retrieval which includes an explanation of the kinds of process of a type of resource.It is founded on information to be found within that category, a the belief that research should begin with a de- path or strategy for retrieving the specified termination of the type(s) of information re- resource, and a flowchart depicting the structure quired to meet a particular research need. of that category. With this knowledge base, the The model is comprised of two major student has the opportunity to work more components. The first is an inventory and anal- autonomously from an early age. The student ysis of identified categories of resources.It is is encouraged to decide on a category of resource important to note that a category of resource based on an analysis of its utility and subse- can be the item that contains the desired quently explore the selected category of resource. information (such as a directory) or it can be the In order for this to work effectively, students item that refers the user to the desired infor- should be introduced to the process at an early mation (such as a periodical index). Resources age. If for example, at the primary school level, can be available in print, nonprint, or electronic students learn about dictionaries and encyclo- formats. To date, approximately fifty-five cate- pedias, they will assimilate this information gories of resources have been identified with and use it on a lifelong basis. This is a progres- some analysis having been completed on the sive and cumulative process. majority. The analysis of a category includes a For the teacher-librarian the use of the variety of different kinds of information as model provides apparent benefits.First, the illustrated in Figure 2. teacher-librarian can scan and select the cate- In reality, the identification and analy- gories to which the student should be intro- sis of each category of resource is a task which duced and locate a basic description and librarians engage in regularly. However, to this analysis about the selected categories. The ini- point, our research reveals that style manuals, tial guidance offered to the student for finding guides to writing research papers, resource the resource is mapped out.In this manner, handbooks within the various disciplines, and the student can work more independently, free- the literature of bibliographic instruction and ing the teacher-librarian for other tasks.In school librarianship have fallen short of addition, the generic nature of the model means providing this level of detail in their suggested it can be adapted to any aca-demic library be it strategies. school, college, or university. Finally, this pro- The second component of the model is cess fosters independent, cooperative, and re- comprised of the individual research paths source based learning. designed for each category. These paths clearly outline the process which one might follow in End Notes order to rapidly and efficiently utilize a resource. 1 American Library Association Presidential These paths clearly outline the process which Committee on Information Literacy. Final Re- one might follow in order to rapidly and port. January 1989, p.6. efficiently utilize a resource. These paths can

77 86 2 Rae Haws and Lorna Peterson."Survey of Faculty Attitudes Towards a Basic Library Skills Course," C&RL News, 52 (March 1989): 38. 3 Barry Eshpeter & Judy Gray. Preparing Stu- dents for Information Literacy: School Library Programs and the Cooperative Planning Process. Calgary Board of Education, 1989, P. 30. 4 Ibid., p. 38. 5 The idea of representing the model as a wheel was proposed by Catherine Wilkins, Librarian with the Peel Board of Education, Toronto Canada.

78 87 Curriculum-Enhanced MARC (CEMARC): A NewCataloging Format for School Librarians by Catherine Murphy, D.L.S. Assistant Professor University of North Texas Denton, TX Some Problems with USMARC 300 a Pagination Users of school libraries and teacher resource 520 a Descriptive tag centers have had significant problems in 852 a Library name (where the item is located) accessing curriculum materials in card cata-logs The optional recommendations in CE- (Wehmeyer 1976) as well as in online catalogs MARC create a new standard because they go (Murphy 1987).Curriculum materials, which beyond the requirements for a standard US- may include juvenile literatureand audio-visual MARC record. Curriculum-related information materials, as well as curriculum guides and is essentially accommodated in three tags, 520 textbooks, are not adequately described in (the notes field that is required at Level 1 but catalog records, particularly by the traditional often missing or less than satisfactory in these Library of Congress subject headings assigned. records), 521 (which incorporates new indicators Other problems with traditional cataloging of for special learner characteristics and motiva- children's materials include a lack of descriptive tion/interest level), and 658 (a new index term detail such as a summary note, reading level of heading for curriculum objectives). Local subject the item, book pagination or film naming time, headings that are not curriculum terms may be or name of illustrator.Even catalog records placed in 690 as usual.Local library infor- that are considered "full MARC" and there is a mation may be expanded in the 852 tag; great deal of confusion aboutwhat constitutes 950-969 are reserved for any local and state "brief' and "full" MARC records, often do not level project data. provide enough information to link curriculum Input for the 520 tag is the usual materials to the appropriate learning environ- unformatted note that describes the scope and ment. CEMARC addresses these problemsby general contents of the described materials. it (1) offering data entry guidelines for a minimum can be a summary, abstract,annotation or even USMARC standard (in order to clarify inconsis- just a phrase. CEMARC guidelines include the tencies in application) and (2) suggesting enhan- addition of published reviews of educational cements that go beyond the USMARC stan- materials. The 521 (subfield a) is used to record dard. information about the target audience.The Curriculum-Enhanced MARC (CEMARC) agency assigning the information(source) is in- Guidelines dicated in subfield b). Examples follow: The Northwest Ohio Educational Tech- 521 Ob=a5. (Reading level grade 5) nology Foundation (NWOET) is the primary 521 lb=a009-012 (Interest level ages 9-12) agency responsible for developingthe CEMARC 521 2b=a9-12.=bFollett Library Book Co. (In- format.The NWOET office (Miniere 1993) terest level grades 9-12, source) developed interim guidelines for school library 521 3b=aVisually impaired= bLENOCA. (Spe- media specialists submitting catalog records to cial learner characterist. ,source) the InfoOhio database.These interim guide- 521 4b=aModerately motivated (Motivationlev- lines contain recommendations for a minimum el) format for "Brief USMARC" records in a union A new 658 tag has been designated for catalog database.The required tags for the curriculum objectives.Subfield a contains na- minimum record are: tional, state or local curriculum objectives, tak- 008Fixed Data Elements en from published lists ordirectories. Subfield 040 Cataloging source (LC, vendor, local) b contains subordinate objectives, if relevant; 245a Title (245 h Materials designator for subfield c will list a coded representation of the type of media) curriculum objective and subfield d may contain 260 b Publisher/producer a correlation factor (of themotivation level of the

79 88 user).The source of the term(s) is noted in Discussion paper at the MAchine Readable subfield 2. See example: Bibliographic Information (MARBI) Commit- tee meeting at the American Library Associ- 658 b7=Reading objective 1=bidentify, locate ation Midwinter Conference, January 1993. and use information=cNRP01-1991=21enoca. Miniere, Roger (NWOET), author's notes of a Implementing CEMARC telephone conversation, November 1993. The NWOET project has demonstrated the feasibility of developing CEMARC records at Murphy, Catherine. The Microcomputer Stand- the statelevel.Roger Miniere (1993), the Alone Online Public Access Catalog in School prime mover in developing CEMARC, reports Library Media Centers: Practices and Atti- that the initial catalog of 1000 records (mostly tudes Toward Standardization.Ph.D. dis- nonprint media) has grown to 15,000 contri- sertation, Columbia University, 1987. buted records and is increasingly responsive to requests from teachers for special biblio- Proposal No. 93-12 Additions to Accommodate graphies. Each catalog record is submitted in Curriculum Information in USMARC Biblio- paper form by a school library media specialist, graphic Records, April 1993, distributed by working from the material in hand, and using Northwest Ohio Education Technology NWOET guidelines for "brief' and CEMARC Foundation. records. South Carolina Education Department Wehmeyer, Lillian. "Cataloging the School Med- and the Southern Educational Communications ia Center as a Specialized Collection," Li- Association are other state agencies cited in the brary Resources & Technical Services 20 development of CEMARC (NWOET 1993). CE- (Fall 1976): 315-325. MARC records can be developed at the national as well as the state level if the 520 and 521 tags are included in LC and Cataloging in Publication (CIP). Some vendors, e.g., National Instructional Television Utilization Center, are also expressing interest in developing enhanced records by including grade and reading levels, full annotations, and special learner character- istics as they are available. Local school systems can enhance cata- log records with local curriculum objectives and special learner needs. Mitinet, the cataloging software distributed by Information Transform, now conforms to the CEMARC standard. School librarians need to encourage pub- lishers of textbook and nonprint materials to participate in the CIP program. All publishers should be lobbied to provide not only "full MARC" records but Curriculum-Enhanced re- cords. Vendors of automated systems will need to design systems that access the enhanced fields in the database. The automation age has brought school librarians into the mainstream of adherence to cataloging standards. CEMARC offers the best of both worlds, adherence and enhancement. References Miniere, Roger.National Curriculum Enhanced USMARC Standard or What Infor-mation Shoulda MARC RecordCon-tain?.

80 69 Emerging Technologies: Applications and Implications for School Library Media Centers By Kathleen W. Craver Head Librarian National Cathedral School for Girls Washington, D.C.

Almost daily,school library media specialists quickly and inexpensively transmitted through are faced with emerging technologies that help fiber optic networks to schools and homes. to promote library services and concomitant pressure to utilize these new technologies to Cable and Satellite Resources enhance programs andservices.' The speed As a result of the fiber optic networking with which they appear on the market makes of the country, school library media centers predictions of dominant electronicdevelop- (SLMC) will also be deluged with an increase in ments rather difficult.Given this rapidly cabling andsatellite resources.Up to now, fluctuating situation, the subsequent discussion most schools have been restricted to selecting of emerging technologies is confined to those from relatively few cable-supplied educational which most specialists believe will occur within television programs such as Newsroom, the the next five to ten years. Discovery Channel, the Learning Channel and C-Span.4 The potential for proliferation of Digital Electronic Medium educational channels is substantial. School Before examining individual emerging library media centers will soon have greater technologies, it is important to understand and selections at more competitive costs. evaluate them within an overall framework. For SLMCs without access to fiber optic This integrated communications infrastructure cabling, satellite technology will expand and is referred to as digital electronic medium improve. Hughes Communications, for example, (DEM).2 Information, regardless of its original is expected to introduce "Direc TV" which can format, is stored as electronic charges in digital transmit 150 television channels through a form. Once information is stored in this form, it $700 rooftop disk the size of a large pizza pie.5 becomes machine readable, inexpensive and With the predicted increase in programs and highly transmittable.Its universal effect is to channels, various companies will specialize in permit the creation of an electronic database educational programming. School library containing all of the print and nonprint mater- media centers will become the beneficiaries of ials in a particular library plus providing access this expansion. to other electronic libraries via a wide-area net- work. Although DEM is not yet a reality, rapid Integrated Services Digital Network advances in the following technologies will make Accelerating the digitalization of all it a salient characteristic of electronic systems forms of information is the development of an by the year 2000. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN). Using the combined resources of AT&T, NCR, Telecommunications Siemiens, Hitachi, Telecom and all of the U.S. The major thrust for DEM will be regional Bell Operating Companies, the ISDN precipitated by the nationwide installation ofprogram enables nonfiber optic telephone fiber optic cabling (slender glass rods a fraction circuitry toconvert analog signals to digital of the size of copper wire cables bundled signals. Users can then connect their PC's or together)."A single strand, for example, can any digital hardware to a data wall outlet. transmit the contents of the entire Encyclopedia ISDN is designed to facilitate the networking of Britannica every second".3This telecommun- computers and more importantly to further their ications backbone will serve as the engine that electronic connection to larger computer systems will drive every type of information whether it such as minis and mainframes. The ability of be a book, recording or video to become SLMCs to utilize existing telephone circuitry to digitized.Once digitized, information is no access databases, electronic mail and thecol- longer bound by time orplace.It can be lections of other libraries is unprecedented.6

81 90 Advances in this area mean that SLMCs will no MacIntosh computers thus enabling studentsto longer be excluded from the world of information obtain additional information and/orintegrate because they lack the funds topay for hardware their work with existing data.12 once required for electronic access. A second enhancement involvesconnec- tivity. The large storage and processingpower contained in a portable computermeans that Telecomputer Technologies students may use them toaccess the SLMCs Although the telepower revolution is online catalog, other networks, CD-ROMfiles going to blur the distinctionsamong televisions, and even commercial databases. Whilein the computers, CD-ROMs, video disks and other SLMC, they can download research forms of technological hardware, advancements from a database directly into their portablecomputers, are also occurring separately within these slip them into backpacks and complete therest areas. of the assignment at home.13 It is this combination of portabilityin Computer Hardware computers, coupled with advancements in tele- The capabilities of computers continue communications link ups, that will produce to expand almost exponentially each year. Com- what is called the "telecomputer". Thisdevice puters initially designed to manipulatenum- will possess the attributes ofa powerful bers, then text, symbols and graphics,have palmtop computer and a cellular telephonein finally evolved into "information integrators".7 one. Recently the FCC approved experimental Since the power of the computer is dependent trial applications from three cableTV com- upon itsabilitytostore and process panies to test a wireless localarea network. information, computer hardware specialistsare One of them, termed Altair, permits laptopand competing to increase machine proficienciesin other portable computers independentmove- these two areas.8 ment within a building while accessing infor- The result of these achievements is the mation from a central network.14 marketing of desktop microcomputers thatare as powerful as mainframes. The most recent Scanners advancement is the development by Intel ofthe Optical Character Readers (OCR's)or Pentium chip. Described as "almostas fast as scanners are another form of hardware that will a supercomputer," the Pentium chip is available alter information search and retrieval in PCs priced as low as $4,000.9 and aid in the creation of full text databases inSLMCs. These hardware advancementscom- Prices for 24 bit, 300 dots-per-inch color plete another stage in the computer'sevolution. scanners have dropped from approximately They facilitate dramatic changes in theform $8,000 in 1990 to about $900 today.15 and function of computers.The first change Scanners are not difficult touse once caused by more efficient chips isto permit software setups are selected.Basically the computers to shrink in size so that theyare machine reads in pages of hardcopy and con- truly portable. As such, they will replacethe verts a document into either ASCI II filesor into ubiquitous pencil and notebooksseen on all a field format used by wordprocessorsor classroom desks.10Students will be using spreadsheets.18 Once the text is in machine something similar to Apple's Newton PDA (Per- readable form, it can be incorporated intoa re- sonal Digital Assistant)or Tandy's Zoomer. search assignment or added toa full text data- Both devices are digital note pads thatemploy base. a stylus for handwriting on a screen. The PDA Current advancements in thescanner then converts the handwritten notes intocom- and the software permitusers to scan color puter files which in turn can be transferredto images. One product called TWAIN (developed networks, fax machines or cellularconnec- by Hewlett-Packard, Caere, Aldus, Logitechand tions.11 Eastman Kodak) is designed to permitan Another portable advancement that will image to be inserted directly intoany DOS or be in widespread use by theyear 2000 is the MaC application, given TWAIN's compatibility notebook computer. Currently the best selling with the program and hardware.17 notebook is Apple's, Powerbook. It containsan OCRs are now cost effective and bene- 85 mg hard disk drive, a 386SL microprocessor ficial for SLMCs to purchase. Asa means to and a color display and weighs onlyone pound. construct specialized in-house full text data- Powerbooks can be connected to desktop bases or provide students with increased

82 91 research and report presentation capabilities, Software Developments they are a computer related technology that will Thedevelopmental gap that usually have important future applications. exists between software and hardware is swift- ly being closed by the design of new software CD-ROM Technologies operating systems. As more mainframes are Of all the recent computer related tech- replaced with personal computers comparable nologies to appear on the market, none has or in storage capacity and microprocessing speed, will continue to affect SLMCs as much as CD- they require software operating systems equal ROMs. The first improvement concerns storage to the hardware power. To meet this challenge, capacity. With the increased storage capacity several large technology companies such as created by more efficient computer chips, the Microsoft, IBM, Novell and Apple are racing to space for locally mounted CD-ROM databases create software operating systems that can turn will increase and the costs for CD-ROMs as the personal computers into supercomputers. market expands should decrease.Increased Microsoft's creation, Windows NT, storage capacity makes larger full text data- claims to be the solution to harnessing the bases feasible. Software will also provide better hardware power resident in new desktop com- methods for compressing the data, so that a puters.With Windows NT, users can work larger database can be stored in the same with specialized software only available on amount of space. The faster processing speed mainframes and minicomputers and with the expected with a new computer chip will facil- click of a mouse, switch to writing a letter using itate the search and retrieval of lengthy articles Wordperfect. Windows NT is slated to sell for on CD-ROM.A third trend concerns the $300 to $500 thus making it affordable even for networking of CD-ROMs. With the development SLMCs facing financial constraints.19 For Apple of new networking software such as Novell users, Taligent, an IBM-Apple cooperative pro- 4.11, Optinet and stackable CD-ROM network ject is also working on a similar operating players, the same database can be accessible system which is presently under the code name from many terminals thus reducing a class "Pink" 20 queuing problem and permitting large group instruction. Specialized Software A fourth trend relating to the increase in The creation of new operating software the number of databases corresponds to the systems for PC's so that they can function as demand that they be full text.For SLMCs mainframes is an exciting development for whose users require almost instantaneous infor- SLMCs. They will become the heirs to new spe- mation gratification, these changes will be cialized software packages that permit greater heartily welcomed. Many students in a individuation, easier access and more options. structured situation such as school cannot New online catalog software will allow more always find the time or transportation to idiosyncratic access that is more likely to mimic retrieve materials cited in other remote the way children seek information. It will also libraries.They need timely, local access to permit access to materials via table of contents information that only full text databases can or chapter headings.21 provide. Another form of specialized software The last and most important trend called front end software will also permit more regarding CD-ROM technology concerns its options. The emergence of super PCs will allow potential for interactivity. CD-ROM is consid- for more user-friendly menu and help screens ered by most technologists to be an inexpensive, that can be designed for an individual user or multimedia medium With the creation of CD-I local SLMCs. Front end software will be (Compact Disk Interactive) by Sony and Philips, particularly helpful to SLMCs as they access a special purpose player enables the user to remote, fee-based or free commercial databases access a thousand video stills, six hours of high or libraries.Instructions, for example, can be quality sound, ten thousand pages of text in simplified. Natural language queries could be conjunction with a computer software program translated into formal searches.22 that renders it totally interactive with the The ability to load front-end software to user.'8 In the case of CD-I, new developments interface with larger and more sophisticated in software are equally related to developments software modules will make it possible to in hardware. permanently integrate what are now termed user-selected software options into larger

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92 options.Students, for example, will switch knowledge. Instructors report an improvement back and forth from accessing online databases in student essays and class discussions to scanning and integrating paragraphs from through this type of Hypertext access. reference books into their assignments via a The last application relates to the wordprocessing format.23 power of Hypercard as a user-friendly program- ming language.School library media centers Hypertechnologies can use Hypercard to design interfaces to more Striving to integrate multiple technol- complicated software systems such as large ogies continues to be an ongoing goal in academic online systems or commercial data- software as well as hardware development. bases.More importantly though, Hypercard The increasing hypertechnologies (Hypercard, can be used to retrieve text and pictures from Hypertext and Hypermedia) in SLMCs are large databases and systematically form them directly related to the hardware proliferation of into suitable classroom units.For example, CD-ROMs. Both will have a major impact on Harvard University's Perseus database contains SLMC programs and services and will continue five to ten thousand pictures and fifty million to do so in the coming years. characters of text and commentary about the Current hypertechnologies empower ancient Greek world.It is so large that it computer users to organize and manage mater- cannot be entirely viewed or read in a semester ial without having to be fluent in the cryptic course. Hypercard is used as a tool to permit syntax of a computer programming language.% the user to access specific pictures, maps and They permit users to connect pieces of infor- commentary so that a cohesive presentation is mation, to forge branches through a body of ma- available on a certain topic for use by stu- terial and to edit or add to existing texts.25 dents.26 The potential use of hypertechnologies in SLMCs is tremendous. School library media Interactive Media specialists and school library related businesses Interactive media means the blending of can design online systems, and bibliographic hypermedia, videodiscs, and/or CD-ROMS or instruction units that cater to a user's level of CDIs. A more apt term for this merging of knowledge or experience. Students may select broadcast telecommunications and processing the topic and information level to request infor- communications has been termed "compun- mation. At any point, they may stop when they ications."27Combining specialized software have acquired sufficient information or gone (Hypertext/Hypermedia) with videodiscs or beyond their level of expertise. CD-ROMs has created an interactive system Future hypertechnology applications will with potential for revolutionizing current edu- be just as exciting for SLMCs as the currently cational programs and methods. The individ- emerging ones are.The first area concerns " ualization of instruction with the use of published compilations of information" such as interactive media will finally become a reality encyclopedias, census data and other reference not only in students' classrooms but also their works. In this scenario, all links or connections homes. are created by the author, and students use Despite rapid progress in interactive the marketed product as they would a printed media, it isstill not synthesized into a text. Candidates for this type of Hypertext use seamlessly integrated technology. As such, it is would be reference books with a great deal of somewhat defined by "levels of interactivity."28 indexing and cross references. These levels relate to such things as the use of A second application concerns the ability particular hardware, program software and to create active hypermedia. At Brown Uni- design, and the information furnished to the versity's Institute for Research in Information user and instructor. The highest level of inter- and Scholarship, for example, a series of activity entails using the computer (with its networked stations are used to provide specialized hypermedia software), and the vid- shamble access to two sets of course materials. eodisc to create teaching units by selecting In English Literature and Plant Cell Biology portions of commentary/text or individual ima- courses, students can contribute their own ges.Interactivity increases appreciable at this additions and personal links to the original level because the user is actually engaged in programs.Thus they become active partici- interpreting, analyzing, comparing synthesizing pants in further developing the course materials and evaluating the information. A final step by inputting their own ideas, findings and permits users to impose their own voices and

84 93 video images over the material and save their consisting of lecture notes, answer sheets and created programs onto floppy diskettes.29 practice exams. A third trend concerns the ability of net- National and International Networking works to put images online. At MIT, the library With the previously described advances has succeeded in developing a collection of 7,000 in computer technologies and telecommuni- slides that are used in conjunction with an cations, the installation of even one computer, a architectural course. The last trend and one of telephone line and a fax machine in a SLMC the most important for SLMCs deals with the can substantially improve bibliographic access. creation of full text online catalogs. Currently Through locally integrated online systems, available full text databases are not for general SLMCs can access a wide array of nonbib- reading.Their new features, however, will liographic and bibliographic databases through- provide the foundation for future enhancements out the world. that will create full text online databases on a One of the most exciting new develop- major scale.One of these as example is the ments to occur in networking concerns the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (TLG), a Greek generational advancements of online catalogs. text database available through the University Third generation online catalogs in addition to a of california's Irvine campus to scholars in the full MARC record, boolean logic and keyword humanities.Access is provided by keyword searching feature help screens, menus, ab- and line number. stracts and limited full text searching.30 It is As more of these specialized databases this generation of online or aupercatalog that are developed and made available to a broader also extends networking beyond local and state population, features such as structural brow- boundaries to include the globe.Improved sing will be introduced that permit users to networking software has enabled this gener- view an outline of the topic, appropriate chapter ation of online catalogs to serve as gateways to headings or paragraphs. OCLC has designed even more databases and networks. software called GraphText that supports this Academic libraries are now loading type of full text searching. Other companies are commercial or proprietary databases such as expected to develop similar software.33 ERIC, PSYCH Abstracts and Infotrac onto their online catalogs. These databases become part Internet of the library's online catalog through a menu A fifth trend in networking which is screen thus permitting students to search the unrelated to future software enhancements or local academic library database for materials database contents but is vital for SLMC parti- and, when necessary, other subject specific cipation concerns access to Internet. Internet is commercial databases.31 a constantly growing and mutating combi- Most of the technological advances nation of approximately 280 academic and predicted for electronic networks will be research center networks that permit users to extremely advantageous for SLMCs.Overall search the catalogs of more than 60 research they serve to increase access, streamline search institutions. More than half a dozen inter- commands, reduce the need for intermediary national connections have been established assistance and facilitate use by secondary with networks in Canada, Europe, Mexico and school students. The first development concerns other parts of the world. an increasing trend by large library systems to Local and regional library consortia, use similar software. Libraries in large regional such as the CARL system in Colorado and the consortia such as CARL (Colorado Alliance Melvyl system in California make their catalogs Research Libraries) and Melvyl (University of and even special in-house databases available California Libraries) have a much easier time through Internet. Some systems such as Melvyl searching because the search commands are the limit searching to their catalog and restrict same regardless of what database or librarysearching of commercial databases such as they are accessing.32 Medline to University of California patrons. A second trend relates to the develop- Even though Internet consists of various ment of online systems that can manage networks administered by different institutions, numeric data and text of variable length. it appears as an integrated entity to the user. SPIRES (Stanford Public Information System), Internet supports an increasing variety of other for example, has a component in their online services such as electronic mail, file transfers catalog which supports a homework database among member Internet computers andlinkage

85 94 to remote computers that emulate directhave many useful applications to school connections. Full-text files may even be libraries and education.35 downloaded from Internet host computers. Most library expert systems Examples include the Bible, Koran, Shakes- have been designed to help users navigate pearean works, Peter Pan and Hardy's, Far through fairly complicated databases such as from the Maddening Crowd. Song lyrics, news the National Agriculture Library's online cata- articles, recent Supreme Court opinions, census log.Their expert system called Answerman data, the CIA World Fact Book and a wealth of assists users in finding information in various government information are searchable through agricultural reference books and guides them to Internet.The contents change regularly as more specific information by searching CD-ROM more resources are added to the network. databases and remote online systems.CITE, Equipment requirements are minimal. Users an expert system at the National Library of simply need a telephone line, a modem, a Medicine, serves as an interface to the online computer and communications software. catalog permitting the user to query the data- base in natural English.36 NREN (National Research and Education Both of these library related expert Network) systems improve the ability of a user to find As a response to the increasing flow of information.The use of CITE, for example, data over Internet, plans are underway to which allows natural English to access the upgrade the major network Internet backbone catalog would be very helpful in school online to a 3 gigabit per second level by 1996.This catalogs.Most students experience difficulty communication upgrade is part of the imple- searching databases that require knowledge of mentation of an even larger network called the Library of Congress or Sears subject headings. National Research and education Network. While these types of knowledge systems (NREN) will establish fiber optic cabling and are not yet available for SLMCs, these features digital communications links in every U.S. will probably be incorporated into future school thus enabling the rapid transfer ofgenerations of online catalogs.In the mean- textual information as well as video and audio. time, school library media specialists should Each school will have a computer that performs become acquainted with other educational as a local file distributor of NREN information expert systems designed for various curriculum to other terminals within the school's local area areas such as Dr. Know (Ventura Educational network. Systems, Newbury Park, CA), A.I.: An Exper- Separate communications links can be ience with Artificial Intelligence (Scholastic, N.Y.), established between different or like schools for World Builder (Silicon Beach Software) and such purposes as foreign language and cultural Course Builder (Telebotics Informational).37 exchanges. Collaborative teaching units can be designed among schools that permit them to Neural Networking share resources.34 The SLMC will serve as an A.I.:An Experience with Artificial electronic navigator linking students and faculty Intelligence is an expert system whereby the to a truly global information network. computer learns from student strategies and makes it more difficult for them to pose Expert/Knowledge Systems successful ones.It also illustrates a second Expert or knowledge systems are type of "smart technology" called neural net- computer programs created to perform like a working. Neural networks are considered human expert in a defined area of knowledge. another step in the development of artificial Most expert systems have four components: the intelligence because they permit computers to knowledge base, the inference engine, the solve problems rather than crunch information knowledge acquisition interface, and the user or data in their usual hierarchical way. Neural interface. Once designed, the program functions networks employ a series of processors func- as a "highly-informed insider" within its area oftioning in a fluid, parallel networking archi- expertise. Users then interact with the tecture that simulates the networks of neurons knowledge to reach a conclusion. Expert sys- forming the human brain. Similar to the brain tems, in addition to requiring the knowledge in function, they can recognize patterns of base of a subject expert, need to follow a information and delegate various functions to complex set of rules involving decision trees, other network parts. They can also "learn" from flow charts and inferential reasoning.They failure in some aspects of the network.

86 The rapid development of neural net- main street in Birmingham, Alabama or in works has exciting applications for not only another direction see policemen moving towards artificial intelligence but also for increased use them as protestors did during the 1960s' civil of expert systems, computer assisted instruc- rights struggles. tion, and simplifying software.All of these In place of a keyboard that interfaces improvements can be expected to positively with the computer, participants move through- affect the future programs and services of out the space by using a dataglove. The glove is SLMCs. Nippon Electric, for example, is attached through fiber optic cable to the com- designing a four-processor neural network PC puter and is equipped with sensors that react capable of solving problems, reading text and to hand and finger manipulation.Using the voice inputs, using expert systems and learning glove, users can grasp objects, turndown from use patterns.38Researchers at Johns streets, and by pointing the glove move forward Hopkins University, for example, have con- within the computer-generated environment.41 structed a neural network that learned to read Currently virtual reality systems are in English by decoding series of printed symbols a developmental phase for technologies.The into words and sentences.The process is MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) similar to the method a human would use to Media Lab, the Human Interface Technology learn to read.Although neural networks are Lab at the University of Washington and the still considered somewhat on the cutting edge, Computer Science department at the University software has already been produced that of North Carolina are the most frequently cited permits users, to install a primitive neural educational institutions conducting research in network on a PC for less than $200.39 this area.Auto Desk and VPL Research, Inc. The promise that neural networks hold are two private companies also pursuing work for capturing visual images, sound and in this field.42 recognizing complex patterns cause some computer experts to envision them as "smart" Virtual Reality and Education interfaces for other computers or complicated Researchers in this area envision three online systems.Termed "knowledge assis- main applications for virtual reality in edu- tants" or "intellectual robots", they will be cation. The first is "visualization." Virtual real- stored in portable student PCs and will learn ity enables a student to literally see "connec- student information seeking behavior patterns. tions and relationships" that are difficult to pic- Once learned, they will shortcut routine tasks ture either as a concept or in a dimensional and respond to queries and search for infor- capacity. mation.40 A second application of virtual reality concerns its improved capacity as a simulator of Virtual Reality processes, procedures and environments. For As researchers continue to search for the years, inflight simulators have been used to "holy grail" of artificial intelligence--namely the train pilots to fly before actually operating ability to simulate the human brain in a expensive airplanes.Virtual reality systems computer--they discover other valid learning can improve on simulators by increasing technologies that are relevant to SLMCs and sensation and dimensions through a more the educational process. The most futuristic of sophisticated technological approach. these is virtual reality. The third application lies with its Virtual reality involves one or more constructive qualities.At this level, SLMCs users experiencing a computer-generated simu- house virtual library work stations that enable lation.Usually participants don a head- users to move through a knowledge database mounted display system that is equipped with comprised of text, sound, diagrams, moving stereo LCD video goggles and headphones. The images and three dimensional datafields and system simulates a three dimensional visual objects. Using an electronic tutor or personal and aural sensory experience. A tiny trans- digital assistant device to select and save mitter attached to the headgear permits information from the work stations, the stu- sensors to determine the location of the dents can construct their own virtual reality participant.These signals are relayed to the programs or use the information from the computer which correspondingly alters the virtual library work station to solve problems, user's point of view.Looking in different finish homework or complete research assign- directions, for example, participants might see a ments.43

87

96 Digiatl Electronic Medium," 20. Conclusions School library media centers are at a 8William E. Halal, "The Information Techno- crossroad.Over the next decade, our insti- logy Revolution," The Futurist 26 (July-August tutions will face fundamental technological 1992): 10. changes. In an increasingly competitive global economy, it will border on negligence if SLMCs 9"A Chip with Zip," Time 141 (April 3, 1993): fail to provide electronic information tech- 18. nologies. With improvements in telecommun- ications, access to multitype networks, declining 10 Ruth V. Curtis, "The Contribution of Tech- costs in computers and the availability of fax nology to Instruction and Learning," in School machines, school media specialists in even the Library Media Annual 1990 Vol. 8, ed. By smallest SLMCs should be able to provide users Jane Bandy Smith (Englewood, CO: Libraries with some form of expanded access and Unlimited, 1990), 59-66. document delivery. Never before have SLMCs been so 11 Richard J. Newman, "Your Digital Future," essential to their parent institutions.Our U.S. News & World Report 114 (April 5, media center programs and serviceare 1993): 55. educationally imperative if schools are to supply students with theskills,training and 12Peter H. Lewis, "Computer-to-Go Generation," knowledge they must have to prosper in an New York Times Education Life Section A electronic world environment. (April 4, 1993): 12-13.

Refereces 13Curtis, "The Contributions of Technology to Instruction and Learning," 61. 1 Kathleen W. Craver, "The Future of School Library Media Centers," School Library Media 14Lewis, J. Perelman, School's Out Hyper- Quarterly 12 (Summer 1984): 266-284. learning, the New Technology and the End of Education (N.Y.: William Morrow and Co., 1992), 35. 2Lauren H. Seilor, "The Concept of the Book in the Age of the Digital Electronic Medium," Library Software Review 11 (January-Feb- ]5 James A. Martin, "All About Scanners," ruary 1992): 19-29. MACWORLD 9 (October 1992): 150-155.

3Philip Elmer-Dewitt, "Take a Step into the 16 "How Optical Character Recognition Works," Future on the Electronic Highway," Time 141 PC-Computing 6 (February 1993): 299-300. (April 12, 1993): 53. 17James A. Martin, "All About Scanners," 154- 4Sayan W. Wilson, "Television is for Learning 155. a New Agenda," in School Library Media Annual 1990 Vol. 8, ed. by Jane Bandy Smith Is Roxanne Baxter Mendrinos, "CD-ROM Tech- (Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1990), nology for Referecne in Secondary School 104-105. Library Media Centers," in School Library Media Annual Vol. 10, ed. By Jane Bandy 5Richard Loglin, "When the Revolution Comes Smith and J. Gordon Coleman, Jr. (Engle- What Will Happen to...," Time 141 (April 12, wood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1992), 159- 1993): 56-58. 163.

6 Robert Swisher, Kathleen L. Spitzer, Barbara 19William J. Cook, "The Next Test for Bill Spriesterbach, Tim Markus and Jerry M. Gates," U.S. News & World Report 114 (Feb- Burns, "Telecommunicatons for School Li- ruary 15, 1993): 70-72. brary Media Centers," School Library Media Quarterly 19 (Spring 1991): 153-160. 2DWilliam J. Cook, "The New Rockefeller," U.S News & World Report 114 (February 15, 7Seilor, "The Concept of the Book in the Age of 1993): 67.

88 97 Louanna Furbee, Expert Systems (Newbury 21 Pat Molholt, "Libraries and the New Technol- Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1991): 1. ogies: Courting the Cheshire Cat," Library Journal 113 (November 15, 1988): 39. 36 Anna, Campus Strategies for Libraries and Elecaronic Information, 323. %Caroline Arms, ed., Campus Strategies for Li- braries and Electronic Information (Rockport, 37 Ibid., 24-25. MA: Digital Press, 1990), 321-332. %Halal, "The Information Technology Revo- 23 "Grammar Checkers," PC World 11 (April lution," 11-12. 1993): 103. 39 Perelman, School's Out, 32-33. % Perelman, School's Out, 43/. 40 Halal, "The Information Technology Revo- %i Arms, Campus Strategies forLibraries and lution," 12. Electronic Informtion, 363. 41 Gary Errington and Kenneth Loge, "Virtual % Arms, Campus Strategies for Libraries and Reality: A New Learning Environment," The Electronic Information, 319-321. Computing Teacher 19 (April 1992): 16. 27 Ibid., 7, 227. 42 Scott S. Fisher, "Virtual Environments: Per- sonal Simulations & Telepresence," in Virtual 23 Ibid., 120-121. Reality, Theory, Practice and Promise, 101- 109 and Gary Ferrington and Kenneth Loge, 23 Mary Ellen McDonnell, "San Francisco GTV," "Virtual Reality:- A new Learning Environ- The Computing Teacher 19 (February 1992): ment," 16. 37-38. 43 Ferrington and Loge, "Virtual Reality: A New 33 Patricia A. Hooten, "Online Catalogs: Will Learning Environment," 16. They Improve Chidren's Access?" Journal of Youth Services in Libraries 2 (Spring 1989): 267-272.

31 George S. Mahovec and Dennis R.Brunning, "Decision 2000: Moving Beyond Boundaries," Contributed papers presented at the joint conference of the Arizona Sate Library Associ- ation and the Arizona Educational Media Association (Phoenix, AZ: Arizona State Library Association, Novermber 13-17, 1990) ERIC Document ED 332 705, 12-13. 32 Mahovec and Brunning, "Decision 2000," 19. 31 Arms, "CAMpus Strategies for Libraries and Electronic Information, 312-316.

34 Machovec and Brunning, "Decision 2000," 16; Marchionini, "Tomorrow's Media Center: A Look into the Future," 12 and Jean Armour Polly, "NREN for ALL: Insurmountable Op- portunity," Library Journal 118 (February 1, 1993): 38 -41.

35 Robert A. Benfer, Edward E. Brent, Jr.And

89 98 Students Becoming Life-Long Users: Vision Becoming Reality

by Judith A. Garlow School Library Media Specialist Syracuse City School District, New York Our world is exploding!It's exploding with in- to the structure of the high school, skills were formation. Just look around: instant commun- integrated and students used the library ma- ication, interactive technology, networking with terials according to assignment.It was a re- the world and more print material avail-able warding experience because I was assured that than is imaginable. How can the students of to- these young people were learning skills that day possibly learn all of this information? Obvi- could be used during their entire lives. ously, they cannot. But, by becoming life long In 1988, I accepted a position as an learners, all of this remarkable information can elementary school library media specialist in be available for them to use. the Syracuse School District in New York State. It is essential for all students to become Previously, I had worked as a teacher and li- life long information users in order to become brarian in a small city, rural area and subur- quality citizens in today's information world. ban district, all in New York. The city of Syra- We, as school librarians, are capable of ensur- cuse is located in Central New York, actually ing this possibility for each student at all grade right in the middle.The area is known for levels.I consider this our utmost responsibility. beautiful lakes such as: The Finger Lakes & Achieving this goal, however, may require the Lake Ontario, and the mountainous scenery redesign of a school library facility and a change which is beautiful, especially in the autumn. in the library program. But our real claim to fame is the snow and the When I began teaching in New York clouds. We are always on national TV and I state in 1964, there were some school libraries suspect international TV, for the most snow and in some cases school librarians but the and cloudiest conditions. possibilities for use were limited.During the As of November, 1993, the population of 1970s, students in elementary school were often Syracuse was 163,860 of which 75% is non- scheduled into blocks of time for stories or the minority and 68% of this population is below teaching of isolated library skills.I was very the poverty level. The rate of unemployment is fortunate to work with a school librarian who 8.8% and the median salary is $28,012. There saw a need for integrating skills into the cur- have been 487 business failures during the last riculum. Together, we made plans and imple- four years, not including 1993 and only one of mented them in our school library and in my five major department stores chains is still classroom. We even designed a mini-research operating. It is a difficult time for our people. paper for sixth graders. Not only was this inter- The Syracuse City School District edu- esting and fun, but the students remem-bered cates 22,275 students within forty buildings. how to locate and use information the next time There are approximately eighteen hundred it was needed.It was, however, not the teachers, one hundred three administrators and accepted practice at that time. seven administrative interns. Most employees In 1980, as a second year school li- have been a part of this system for fifteen years. brarian, I was assigned to a high school of 1500 Presently, there are thirty one school libraries, students.It was working with ninth through all with professional librarians and some assis- twelfth graders that convinced me that inte- tants. The school media specialists have con- grating curriculum was imperative to learning. cluded that with so many young people facing a I realized that becoming life long learners was a dark future something must be done in order to necessity, not a frill.There were incredible assure that each will become a life long learner amounts of information available in the library offering the possibility of a successful life. and it was easy to access.With instruction It was in 1989 that I set my goals for based upon need, thestudents were able to change. My decision was to turn vision into use information to write reports, choose colleges reality.This decision was shared by the other or a career and enjoy the leisure reading. Due school librarians in the district and together we

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9 9 planned a new library program that was adop- be designed to meet the needs of all patrons. ted by the board of Education in 1993. At this This does not require money, but rather plan- time, I will introduce the plan and then show ning. Then, goals can be devised for the future, how it is being implemented. including securing better furniture, more tech- During 1988 and 1989 the school librar- nology and the best materials available. This ians discussed issues, researched, attended can be accomplished if the school librarian be- workshops, conferences and meetings all con- comes a part of the school team making the cerned with making changes.In 1990, the library program an integral part of the whole district adopted the planning process for a school program. strategic plan to redefine and restructure the Planning the individual school library district.This plan is based on learner out- program and implementing it is difficult, but comes. Simultaneously, the library media spec- very possible.If there is a district program in ialists began to plan the new library program place it is an excellent tool for planning and which has direct impact on the strategies and promoted a program. It should be presented to action plans. the faculty, parents and students. Collabora- The Library Steering Curriculum Com- tively, the group can design a workable, flexible mittee under the auspices of The Professional program meeting the needs of the specific Responsibilities Committee drafted the final school, keeping in mind that each program will plan. It was a collaborative effort based on the be unique in accordance with the total school New York State Media Skills Curriculum and curriculum. the new Compact for learning. In order to fulfill A valuable professional tool that will these objectives, students must be able to use help in planning is Information Power: Guide- information properly throughout their lives. The lines for Media Programs, which was published Syracuse City School District Library Program in 1988 by the American Library Association. for K-12 includes a philosophy statement which The book was prepared by the American Assoc- clearly states the necessary components re- iation of School Librarians (AASL) and the quired if students are to become life long learn- Association for Educational Communications ers.This statement dearly states that unless and Technology (AECT) for the purpose of students are able to cope with a rapidly chang- providing specific guidelines for designing library ing world, their education and skills will become facilities, building collections, planning pro- obsolete. Continuous learning throughout their grams and staffing libraries. The Follett Soft- lives is the only way students will adapt to this ware Company and AASL created a video Kalei- new world. doscope based on this book. It shares the vision In order for our young people to achieve of schools librarians, that is the school library the school district's learner outcomes the steer- being the center of learning where students ing committee developed enablers. The skills grow and become life long learners. There are included an increase in levels of development two parts to the video, first the overview and and sophistication as the student grows. Next, the vignettes of how programs are being imple- the components of a successful library program mented throughout the United States. I which are the keys to meeting individual needs strongly believe that this vision can become of all the library users in a school district were reality. It is in the Syracuse City school district. listed. In September of 1993 one or two elementary The school librarians are very proud of schools began flexible scheduled library pro- this impressive document especially the fact grams.The four high schools have flexible that the Board of Education adopted it in July, scheduled programs as do most of the middle 1993.But, how does the school librarian and schools, but once the new program was officially staff ensure that students become lifelong learn- adopted, the Coordinator of Instructional Re- ers? How does the school librarians and staff sources instructed elementary librarians to im- turn vision into reality? plement the entire program as soon as possible. First, one must take a good look at the At least six elementary schools have adopted library facility.Is it designed to promote indi- the entire library program to be used beginning vidual and small group learning? Are resources in September, 1994. and services accessible? Is the library designed I am the school media specialist at for a flexible program with up to date technology Bellevue Elementary School on the West side of available for use by patrons? Within the con- Syracuse where 500 students including pre-K straints of the environment, the facility should through grade five attend from September

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1 0 (' through June.The school was built twenty This library program supports the Bellevue years ago and is open, which means that there School Curriculum program. are very few walls. There is one full day kinder- The library program at Bellevue is garten, one 1/2 day with morning and afternoon scheduled by the teachers and me.Teachers classes of approximately twenty five students. consult a weekly calendar and can sign up by Our grades one through three are educated in class group or individuals for a week, two weeks large instruction areas called houses with fifty or up to a month.Sometimes I meet with a students, or in team teaching situations. Our group for three days in a row.Individual or fourth and fifth graders are in selfcontained small groups of children are welcome at any rooms or in teamed areas. Most of our classes time to sign out materials, read or work quietly. are inclusive, which means children with special The school media center is always open. needs are learning in regular classroom Teachers and I plan research projects, settings, but there is one exclusive special edu- booktalks, story time and thematic units to- cation room. gether. If a teacher does not come to me about The staff at Bellevue is creative, inno- using the library, I go to the teacher.I do not vative and positive. Our classes often have up teach any skills that are not integrated into the to three teachers and three assistants, which curriculum because students remember what is means people must be willing to work as a taught if it meets a need.I keep a log of the team. Due to the willingness on the part of the activities and projects planned and I include staff to try what is needed for children to learn, news about ongoing projects in the school and changing the library facility and program was district newsletters. Teachers really like having readily accepted.These educators want stu- their class activities in the news and it provides dents to become quality citizens in our chang- advertising for the library. ing world. The district's library program booklet First,I decided to make sure that includes a possible plan for collaborative plan- resources and services will always be accessible ning as a model. At Bellevue, we plan formally to all patrons.Using what was available, I re- by meeting as teams and planning projects. arranged the entire facility.There is now a Sometimes, however, we plan informally, think- story area, references area, a large group and ing about ideas that later become plans.Usu- small group instruction area. Several activities ally part of a project is completed in the library can be conducted at once, plus individuals can and part in the classroom. browse, choose materials and sign them out An outstanding article that explains during this same time period. The materials this type of program appeared in School Library are organized by the Dewey Decimal Clas- Journal in May 1992, and is titled, "Flexible sification System and are close to the desig- Scheduling: the Dream vs. Reality." This arti- nated areas. cle summarizes the program in Ms. Karen One way to guarantee access is by pro- Ohlrich's library in Columbia, Maryland, but it viding technology such as circulation and on-line is very similar to the program at Bellevue catalog systems. Our district has circulation School.I have prepared a short video showing systems in all schools and on-line catalogs in the library program at Bellevue. the high schools. Soon we will all have catalogs The most difficult part of any library and are planning to network within our district program is evaluation, because achievement of in the near future.All schools have CD Roms certain skills is not immediate, although worth and writing programs on Apple Computers for the wait. As students grow, they use the skills students to use.Today's students must use taught within thecurriculum independently technology proficiently in order to become a suc- and they also help other students.Projects cessful citizen. completed are a good indicator of learning, plus Next, I presented the new library pro- the processes used can be utilized throughout gram to the staff.I explained the entire con- their lives. tents of the booklet emphasizing the program. The program must be monitored on an The faculty agreed with the statement on flex- ongoing basis.The Syracuse City School Li- ible scheduling and we adopted this type of brary Program suggests a variety of assess- scheduling in September, 1993.Flexible indi- ment tools.I continuously evaluate the facil- cates scheduling according to the patron's needs ities and program.I work each day to improve and promotes integration of curriculum, which the program in order to provide the best for is accomplished through collaborative planning. patrons.

92 10 During May and June of 1994, our coordinator and a group of librarians have been meeting with elementary school facilities. We have been presenting the new program and en- couraging them to open up the school libraries. I am pleased to report that teachers of the 90s are ready for change. They do have the best interest of children in mind and are willing to take a chance on a new approach.Teachers, librarians, administrators and parents do want young people to become life long learners. In the city of Syracuse vision is becoming reality!

93 102 Research in Teacher-Librarianship and the Institutionalization of Change by Ken Haycock, Professor and Director School of Library Archival and Information Studies The University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC Canada One often hears the refrain that there is no re- ianship. The teacher-librarian performs a uni- search in teacher-librarianship, no proof of ef- fied role, uniquely combining teacher and librar- fect on student achievement, no concrete evi- ian, and may work full-time or part-time in the dence of value for money: if only there was some school resource center. The term resource center strong justification for school libraries and is similarly used for consistency; the resource school librarians, there would be no need to ad- center houses the school's collection of curricu- vocate and lobby for adequate staff, collections lum resources, including information books and and facilities.However, there is a strong re- other media and imaginative liter-ature; these search base for teacher-librarianship, there is are coherently and consistently or-ganized for evidence of effect on student achievement and physical access and the teacher-librarian plans there is ample justification for the presence and with classroom teachers to develop and imple- effective use of teacher-librarians and school ment programs which assure intellectual access library resource centers. Why then are there on- by increasingly independent student learners. going problems of support? First, the research is not as well known Research in Teacher-librarianship to the profession as it should be and resear- The research in teacher-librarianship is chers and practitioners alike criticize when it rich and diverse and recent publications pro- took place, where it took place and with whom vide useful guides to the research and scholarly it took place.If we accepted our own research literature (see Haycock, 1990; Krashen, 1993; and built on it we would progress far beyond Lance et al., 1993). This review is delimited to the generalization of a single experience and the the characteristics of effective programs which intuition alone of the principal, teacher and affect student achievement in a. significant way teacher-librarian. Nothing is ever certain in a and which have the support of educational complex world but research which is reliable, decision-makers like school principals and sup- valid and replicated has value and worth. erintendents. It therefore does not include fac- Second, even with what we do know tors related to the selection and management of about effective school library programs and ser- resources, to facilities or to general school and vices, we find it difficult to put them in place. classroom practice. Principals and teachers can be convinced of the There is a positive relationship between value of the teacher-librarian and school re- the level of resource center service available and source center and hold an image of the appro- student scholastic achievement. In schools with priate and effective role of the principal, teacher good resource centers and the services of a and teacher-librarian as partners in the educa- teacher-librarian (TL), students perform signif- tional enterprise but the implementation still icantly better on tests for basic research skills, does not occur, and does not reach a stage of including locational skills, outlining and note- institutionalization, of becoming an integral, es- taking, and the knowledge and use of reference sential part of the fabric of the school. In this materials, including the use of a dictionary and case the research in curriculum implementation an encyclopedia (Becker, 1970; Callison, 1979; and staff development can provide guidance for Greve, 1974; McMillen, 1965; Nolan, 1989; the successful initiation, implementation and Yarling, 1968); they also perform significantly institutionalization of school library programs. better in the area of reading comprehension and The terms teacher-librarian and re- in their ability to express ideas effectively con- source center are used here as these are com- cerning their readings (Yarling, 1968). Indeed, mon in many parts of the world. A teacher- among school and community predictors of aca- librarian is a qualified teacher with successful demic achievement, the size of the resource classroom teaching experience and additional center staff and collection is second only to the post-baccalaureate education in teacher-librar- absence of at-risk conditions, particularly pov-

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103 erty and low educational attainment among further education and training as a TL in order adults (Lance, Welborn & Hamilton-Pennell, to be effective. Prior successful teaching exper- 1993), and of four other factors that predict stu- ience is necessary for TLs to perceive and solve dent achievementschool resource center col- instructional problems (Van Dreser, 1971). lection size; school resource center expenditure; Exemplary teacher-librarians, as identified in public library collection size; public library ex- the professional literature and by exemplary penditurethe greatest predictor is school principals, display the traits of exemplary resource center collection size (Greve, 1974). teachersas well, they plan with teachers, use The evidence is similarly dear that more flexible and innovative teaching and public reading is done where there is a school library relations approaches, teach well, provide con- and a teacher-librarian; children also read more tinuous access, design flexible policies, and de- where they live dose to a public library (Krash- velop collections which support the curriculum en, 1993). Students in schools with centralized (Alexander, 1992). More years of classroom resource centers and teacher-librarians not only teaching experience and more preparation in read more, they enjoy reading more (Lowe, curriculum development and implementation 1984). A print-rich environment, including larger are needed than is currently the case (Corr, library collections, and a good reading environ- 1979).Superintendents, principals and teach- ment, including comfort and quiet, affect read- ers consistently point to the need for teacher- ing, literacy development and reading scores librarians to have more classroom teaching (Krashen, 1993).Further, providing time for experience if programs are to develop in a free voluntary reading in schools has a positive credible and successful way (Wilson, 1972). impact on reading comprehension, vocabulary The development of student competence development, spelling, written style, oral/aural is most effective when integrated with class- language and control of grammar (Krashen, room instruction through cooperative program 1993). planning and team teaching by two equal teach- School resource centers with full-time ing partnersthe classroom teacher and the teacher-librarians even contribute to the devel- teacher-librarian (Callison, 1979).Minimal opment of positive self-concepts (McAfee, 1981). gains in research and study skills can be Why are these gains not realized in all achieved through instruction by the classroom situations and circumstances? First, the role of teacher or the teacher-librarian alone (Nolan, the teacher-librarian requires clarification if 1989).Effective instruction depends on the there is to be any improvement in existing re- cooperative effort of both teacher and TL; stated source center programs (Charter, 1982).Prin- another way, scheduled library skills classes cipals, teachers and teacher-librarians them- taught solely by the TL are not as effective as selves have many misconceptions about the role integrated, cooperatively planned and taught of the TL in the instructional program (Bias, programs (Smith, 1978).Indeed, not only do 1979; Burcham, 1989; Hambleton, 1980; Hod- flexibly scheduled resource centers provide son, 1978; Jones, 1977; Kerr, 1973; Kim, 1981; greater academic benefits, but students them- Olson, 1966) such that school districts need to selves believe that the resource center is more provide a clearer definition of the role of the TL useful in their school work than students in (Markle, 1982).TLs need to take an active scheduled schools (Hodson, 1978; Nolan, 1989). part in defining their role, particularly in coop- When flexibly scheduled, the TL and resource erative program planning and teaching and center can have a significant effect on student need to communicate their role more effectively achievement in information handling and use to principals and teachers, through in-service and in content areas. Indeed, the most sig- programs and through an emphasis on work nificant changes in library programs occur when with people more than management and pro- the teacher-librarian moves to flexible sched- duction processes (Bechtel, 1975; Bias, 1979; uling and curriculum-integrated instruction; pos- Pichette,1975; Sullivan, 1979).In fact, TLs itive cooperative relations with teachers, admin- who place a higher priority on personal relations istrators and students contribute to this suc- offer more services to teachers and students; cess (Bishop, 1992). TLs who rate personal relations as a lower It is difficult to imagine why teacher- priority spend more time on circulation and librarians are not involved in cooperative pro- related tasks (Adams, 1973). gram planning and team teaching with class- Teacher-librarians require teaching room colleagues as equal teaching partners to qualifications and classroom experience prior to the extent that principals, teachers and teacher-

95 104 librarians themselves believe that they should educators of TLs need to revise programs to be (Corr, 1979; Johnson, 1975; Kerr, 1975; include courses which foster cooperation and Stanwich, 1982).If the teacher uses the understanding between teachers and TLs (Roy- resource center and consults with the TL about al, 1981). planning student work, then the use of the There is also evidence that there are resource center is greater (Hartley, 1980).In benefits to students when school and public fact, students rate schools more highly when libraries cooperate yet public librarians and there is agreement and communication among teacher-librarians communicate very little with principals, teachers and TLs regarding pro- each other (Woolls, 1973) even though students gram objectives, and where there is planned, who use school resource centers are more likely consistent and integrated instruction in resource to have positive attitudes toward public li- center use (Scott, 1982).Important factors braries and to use those libraries (Ekechukwu, which affect TL involvement in curricular issues 1972). While duplication of services between include the principal's attitude towards the school and public libraries may be lamented, it TL's role, teacher preference for TLs with suc- will not be rectified by administrators or cessful teaching experience and a teacher's practitioners in either institution: practitioners frame of reference, the number of support staff, even question the motives behind overt sugges- and degree of teacher understanding of the role tions for cooperationself-preservation and pro- of the TL and the potential of the resource tection of territory override the ideal of coop- center (Corr, 1979). Perhaps most importantly, eration (Dyer, 1976). Adequate funding, staf- teacher-librarians require extensive training in fing and "personality" most positively affect cooperative program planning and teaching cooperation, while funding, staffing, governance which builds on prior successful classroom at the state level and work schedules most teaching experience. Programs which educate adversely affect cooperation (Kelley, 1992). teacher-librarians would do well to structure programs around cooperative program planning Institutionalization of Change and teaching and the skills necessary to con- The research literature provides consid- vince educators that TLs are vital partners in erable evidence and guidance as to what consti- instruction (Royal, 1981). These competencies, tutes effectiveness in the implementation of any however, tend not to be supervised in practica desired change (Fullan & Stiegelbauer, 1991). to the extent that other competencies are. While this overview cannot do justice to the Cooperative program planning and extent of research in this field sufficient conc- teaching as an instructional development activ- lusions can be drawn which can impact on the ity requires more social interaction with other effective implementation of cooperative program teachers than is required of other roles of the planning and teaching, and flexible scheduling, TL yet there is a low level of communication be- across a school district. tween teachers and TLs (Urbanik, 1984). The content of effective staff develop- Teacher-librarians may also need education and ment is research-based (Cawelti, 1989; Griffin, training in social interaction skills.Teach- 1987; Howey & Vaughan, 1983), proven effec- er-librarians in exemplary resource centers are tive (Hunter, 1986), practical (Guskey, 1986; extroverted and independent: as leaders they Hunter, 1986;Nevi, 1986), and relevant to have "tough poise" (Charter, 1982).Teacher- identified needs and problems faced in the librarians who are less cautious and more classroom (Daresh, 1987; Elam et al., 1986; extroverted than their colleagues tend to be Howey & Vaughan, 1983; Orlich, 1989; Pa- more successful; the best pair of predictors of quette, 1987; Rubin, 1987); these are all evi- high circulation of materials in the resource cen- dent in the effective use of the teacher-librarian ter is high extroversion and a high degree ofthrough cooperative program planning and curriculum involvement by the TL (Madaus, teaching and flexible scheduling.Successful 1974). implementation requires that this new program Since principals, teachers and teacher- have clear goals (Cato, 1990), that the nature of librarians all agree on the importance of coop- the change be explicit and realistic (British erative program planning and teaching, all Columbia Ministry of Education, 1989b; Pratt, three should be involved in resolving issues mit- 1980) and pay particular attention to the igating against substantial involvement. TLs contexts, the schools and classrooms, in which need to organize more inservice training for teachers work (Griffin, 1987). colleagues (Callison, 1979; Hartley, 1980) and An effective implementation plan is

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105 based on an understanding of the development- courage both peer pressure and peer support to al aspects of change (Fullan, 1985; Fullan et change. al., 1986), sets clear expectations and manage- Teacher-librarians and their advocates able objectives (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988), will need to work more effectively with senior incorporates realistic time lines (British Colum- education staff. School superintendents support bia Ministry of Education, 1989a; Dow et al., the need for professional teacher-librarians and 1984; Loucks & Lieberman, 1983; Pratt, 1980), generally understand the potential impact of a allocation of resources and monitoring and feed- teacher-librarian but they nevertheless often set back procedures (Fullan & Park, 1981), and other priorities (Lowden, 1980). Many superin- incorporates the professional development of tendents believe that a teacher-librarian is an consultants, principals and resource teachers as absolute necessity and few would staff a well as classroom teachers (British Columbia resource center with only an aide, but a sizable Ministry of Education, 1982; British Columbia minority still see the TL as a luxury (Connors, Ministry of Education, 1989b; Fullan et al., 1984). While sometimes skeptical about the 1986). In other words, change is a process, not TL's and resource center's influence on teaching an event like one workshop, and requires the in the school, superintendents nevertheless be- understanding of all "stakeholders". lieve that teachers would notice if the resource A district policy to guide and support center was closed and teachers would have to implementation and a district plan for a struc- teach differently (Connors, 1984).Superinten- tured implementation process will prove helpful dents also believe that the teaching back- (British Columbia Ministry of Education, 1989b; ground and experience of the TL may be too Dow et al., 1984; Fullan & Park, 1981; Lee & limited to support a significant impact on the Wong, 1985; Mooradian, 1985; Ornstein & school (Connors, 1984). Clearly, TLs and their Hunkins, 1988).Priorities will need to be es- superintendents need to communicate more tablished among competing demands if a dis- often and more effectively if successful imple- trict is facing several curricula changes at once mentation is to take place (Payne, 1967). (British Columbia Ministry of Education, 1989b; Implementation requires the involve- Dow et al., 1984); too often a district library ment and support of the right people and media coordinator will lead a change effort in groups within the district at the right time; both school library programs while other district and educational and political criteria should be used school administrators are leading changes in to select a district planning committee to ensure other areas which are competing for the same the quality of the plan and its acceptability time, attention and resourcesthe response of (British Columbia Ministry of Education, the school is, understandably, to set its own 1989b).One goal is the creation of a well- priorities or to ignore them all. informed group of teachers with a clear sense of The importance of the new approach, mission and the confidence that can bring about expectations for its use (British Columbia Min- change (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988); an internal istry of Education, 1982; Fullan & Park, 1981; advocacy group improves the chances for change Loucks & Lieberman, 1983), and implemen- by putting pressure on the people and the tation plans should be communicated widely organization (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988). throughout the system (Lee & Wong, 1985; The implementation of change requires Romberg & Price, 1983). Significant changes in persistent advocacy and continual leadership behavior, roles and responsibilities expected of and school support (British Columbia Ministry teachers need to be described in detail, clari- of Education, 1989b).Program leaders, like fying both the similarities and differences with district coordinatOrs, need to anticipate initial what they are already doing (British Columbia resistance to change, need to deal with how Ministry of Education, 1982; Fullan et al., people feel about change, need to deal with 1986), and teachers need the opportunity to conflicts, need to know what can be done to discuss the implications and adaptation with lessen anxiety and need to know how to colleagues (British Columbia Ministry of Edu- facilitate the change process (Ornstein & Hun- cation, 1989b). Effective change procedures also kins, 1988). The school library media coor- require some pressure to change (Fullan, 1990) dinator can have a positive effect on school as well as a support system (British Columbia resource center program development in the Ministry of Education, 1989a); this is often done school district (Coleman, 1982); even the exis- by working with a school staff rather than tence of a coordinator seems to result in through cross-district workshops in order to en- significantly higher implementation of guiding

97 106 principles for personnel, budget, purchasing, plary resource center programs integrate the production, access and delivery systems, pro- resource center in instructional programs, en- gram evaluation, collections and facilities (Cole- courage student and teacher use and provide man, 1982), and the higher the coordinator's flexible scheduling (He llene, 1973). position is placed in the hierarchy, the wider the Plans for effective staff development range of activities that can be performed in the recognize that change is a gradual and difficult development and regulation of school resource process (Guskey, 1986), provide sufficient time center programs and services (Carter, 1971). to produce demonstrable results (Hunter, 1986; The coordinator must be more involved in Rubin, 1987) and demonstrate that the strat- curriculum and public relations work, however. egies will bring about short and long term The role of the principal is the key factor benefits to students (Rubin, 1987).Short in the development of an effective school presentations can be invaluable as awareness resource center program. The principal is the sessions and in helping people to make single most important player in the change decisions about those areas where extended process and plays a direct and active role in workshops would be beneficial (Nevi, 1986) but leading any process of change by becoming they will not result in changed practice. The familiar with the nature of the change and by steps in effective staff development indude the working with staff to develop, execute and moni- presentation of information or theory, modeling tor a school implementation plan (British Co- or demonstration of the change, an opportunity lumbia Ministry of Education, 1982; Fullan & to practice, feedback (British Columbia Minis- Park, 1981).Principals are in the strongest try of Education, 1985; British Columbia position to conduct personal advocacy of inno- Ministry of Education, 1989), and on-site assis- vations in the schools (Pratt, 1980)through tance to staff in the form of technical assistance, visible and clear support the principal can coaching and/or peer support (Cawelti, 1989; significantly affect the implementation and Hunter, 1986; Kent,1985; Rubin, 1987; institutionalization of educational change (Ger- Showers et al., 1987; Sparks & Bruder, 1987; sten, Carnine & Green, 1989).The district Van Sant, 1988). This is particularly effective needs to provide training and follow-up for through a collegial support system that values principals to take responsibility for facilitating growth activities, provides moral support and implementation in their schools (Fullan & Park, facilitates small group interaction (McGiffin, 1981). 1990; Paquette, 1987). Successful implementation requires Building on the research in teacher- principal support both substantively (by ensur- librarianship through role clarification, coop- ing resources are available and schedules are erative program planning and teaching and accommodating) and psychologically (by encour- flexible scheduling and in curriculum imple- aging teachers, acknowledging their concerns, mentation and staff developmentthrough providing personal time and assistance, reward- careful planning, effective leadership, credible ing their efforts, and communicating that the in-service and coaching, with both pressure and implementation is a school priority) (Cato, supportteacher-librarians and other educators 1990; Cox, 1989; Fullan & Park, 1981; Hord & can implement the major changes required for Hu ling-Austin, 1986; Loucks & Lieberman, TLs and resource centers to become effective 1983; Virgilio & Virgilio, 1984).Successful agents for student achievement. Too often we implementation requires that principals create believe so much in the value of our programs the climate (collegiality, communication and that we think that a "one-shot" workshop will trust) (Fullan et al., 1986) and the mechanisms change the way principals schedule, the way (time and opportunity, interaction, technical teachers teach and the way teacher-librarians sharing and assistance, and ongoing staffplan with colleagues, and then we are dis- development) to support the implementation of appointed when these changes do not occur. innovation (Cox, 1989; Fullan, 1985; Fullan et The implementation of a change as significant al., 1986; Pratt, 1980). Even the attitude of the as cooperative program planning and teaching principal toward the role of the teacher- and flexible scheduling, however, requires the librarian affects the TL's involvement in curric- invol-vement of all the partners and systematic ular issues (Corr, 1979). Indeed, exemplary and ongoing training, pressure and support. school resource centers are characterized by With successful programs in place, strong administrative support (Charter, 1982; teacher-librarians can then assume more re- Shields, 1977). Principals in schools with exem- sponsibility for writing about their role and

98 107 about collaboratively planned programs for pro- teachers, and media specialists in elementary fessional journals read by teachers and admin- schools in Montgomery County, Maryland. istrators (Mack, 1957). This accepted means of Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer- communication is not being used to its fullest sity of Maryland. potential in communicating the contribution of teacher-librarians and school resource centers Bishop, K. (1992). The roles of the school library and the curricular role of the TL (Van Orden, media specialist in an elementary school us- 1970), and this can be done effectively only by ing a literature-based reading program: An TLs themselves (Holzberlein, 1971).It is criti- ethnographic case study. Unpublished doc- cal that principals and teachers read about toral dissertation, The Florida State Uni- exciting approaches such as resource-based versity. teaching and learning in the journals that they read since they are not going to read ours. The British Columbia Ministry of Education. (1982). successes of cooperatively planned and taught Guidelines for planning program implemen- units of study need to be celebrated not only in tation. Victoria, BC: Author. our publications but also in the publications of our teacher partners and in the publications of British Columbia Ministry of Education. (1985). principal leaders. Research update: Effective staff development. For an information profession, we need Victoria, BC: Author. only learn from our research and build on its precepts in order to become that force for British Columbia Ministry of Education. excellence that is within our grasp. We have (1989a). The principal as instructional leader: the evidence that we can make a difference Facilitating Ministry of Education program through cooperative program planning and changes [Workshop booklet]. Victoria, BC: teaching and flexible scheduling; we have the Author. principles for the effective initiation, imple- mentation and institutionalization of change. British Columbia Ministry of Education. Now we need only do it. (1989b). School district planning of cur- riculum implementation.Victoria, BC: References Author. Adams, E.P.(1973). An analysis of the Burcham, C. V. (1989). The perceptions and relationship of certain personality factors to beliefs of principals, teachers, and media the amount of timeallotted to specified specialists regardingthe role of media public service tasks by selected school specialists in the public schools of Georgia. librarians. Unpublished doctoral disserta- Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer- tion, University of Southern California. sity of Georgia. Alexander, K. G.(1992). Profiles of four Callison, H. L. 1979. The impact of the school exemplary elementary school media special- media specialist on curriculum design and ists.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, implementation. Unpublished doctoral dis- University of Miami sertation, University of South Carolina. Bechtel, D. D. (1975). Media specialist compe- Carter, E. M. (1971). The organizational tency and inservice evaluation preferences in structure for state school library supervision the junior high and middle schools of South and the functions, duties, and activities of Dakota. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, state school library supervisors. Unpublished University of South Dakota. doctoral dissertation, Indiana University. Becker, D. E. (1970). Social studies achievement Cato, J.(1990). "Principals: Key in school of pupils in schools with libraries and schools improvement." Educational Leader, 3(10), 1, without libraries. Unpublished doctoral dis- 16. sertation, University of Pennsylvania. Cawelti, G: (1989). "Designing high schools for Bias, L. V. (1979). The role and function of the the future." Educational Leadership, 17(1), media specialist as perceived by principals, 30-35.

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BEST COPY AVAILABLE strategies at the local level." The Ele- Charter, J. B. (1982). Case study profiles of six mentary School Journal, 85(3), 391-420. exemplary public high school library media programs. Unpublished doctoral disserta- Fullan, M. G., Anderson, S. & Newton, E. tion, Florida State University. (1986). Support systems for implementing curriculum in school boards. Toronto: OISE Coleman, J. G., Jr. (1982). Perceptions of Press and Ontario Government Bookstore. "guiding principles" in "Mediaprograms: District and school." Unpublished doctoral Fullan, M. G. & Park, P. (1981). Curriculum dissertation, University of Virginia. implementation: A resource booklet. Toronto: Ontario Ministry of Education. Connors, M.(1984).The superintendent's perception of the school library media center. Fullan, M. G. & Stiegelbauer, S. (1991). The Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Boston new meaning of educational change (2nd University. ed.). New York: Teachers College Press. Corr, G. P. (1979). Factors that affect the school Gersten, R., Carnine, D. & Green, S. (1989). library media specialist's involvement in "The principal as instructional leader: A curriculum planning and implementation in second look." In R. S. Brandt (Ed.), Effective small high schools in Oregon. Unpublished schools and school improvement: Readings doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon. from Educational Leadership (pp.127-130). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision Cox, P. L. (1989). "Complementary roles in and Curriculum Development. successful change." In R. S. Brandt (Ed.), Effective schools and school improvement: Greve, C. L. (1974). The relationship between the Readings from Educational Leadership (pp. availability of libraries to the academic 131-134). Alexandria, VA: Association for achievement of Iowa high school seniors. Supervision and Curriculum Development. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer- sity of Denver. Daresh, J. C. (1987). "Staff development guidelines for the principal." NAS SP Griffin, G. A. (1987). "The school in society and Bulletin, 71(497), 20-23. social organization of the school." In M. F. Wideen & I. Andrews (Eds.), Staff develop- Dow, I. I., Whitehead, R. Y. & Wright, R. L. ment for school improvement (pp. 16-37). (1984). Curriculum implementation: A Philadelphia: Falmer. framework for action.Toronto: Ontario Public School Teachers' Federation. Guskey, T. R. (1986). "Staff development and the process of teacher change." Educational Dyer, E. R. (1976). Cooperation in library Researcher, 15(5), 5-12. services to children: A fifteen year forecast of alternatives usingthe Delphi technique. Hambleton, A. E. L. (1980). The elementary Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Colum- school librarian in Ontario: A study of role bia University. perception, role conflict and effectiveness. Un- published doctoral dissertation, University Ekechukwu, M. R. G. (1972). Characteristics of of Toronto. users and nonusers of elementary school library services and public library services for Hartley, N. B. T. (1980). Faculty utilization of children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, the high school library.Unpublished University of Washington. doctoral dissertation, George Peabody Col- lege for Teachers of Vanderbilt University. Elam, S. M., Cramer, J. & Brodinsky, B. (1986). Staff development: problems and solutions. Haycock, K. (1992). What works: Research about Arlington: American Association of School teaching and learning through the school's Administrators. library resource center. Seattle. WA/Van- couver, BC: Rockland Press. Fullan, M. G. (1985). "Change processes and

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10D He llene, D. L. I. (1973). The relationships of the behaviors of principals in the state of Wash- Kerr, S. T. (1975). The diffusion and imple- ington to the development of school library mentation of an instructional-developmental media programs. Unpublished doc-toral function for learning resources specialists in dissertation, University of Wash-ington. public schools: A study in role consensus. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer- Hodson, Y. D. (1978). Values and functions of sity of Washington. the school media center as perceived by fourth and sixth grade students and their teachers Kim, J. S. (1981). The role of the library media in compared school settings. Unpublished specialist in curriculum development and doctoral dissertation, State University of instructional design. Unpublished doctoral New York at Buffalo. dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers of Vanderbilt University. Holzberlein, D. B. (1971). The contribution of school media programs to elementary and Krashen, S.(1993). The power of reading: secondary education as portrayed in profes- Insights from the research. Englewood, CO: sional journals available to school admin- Libraries Unlimited. istrators from 1960 to 1969. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Mich- Lance, K. C., Welborn, L. & Hamilton-Pennell, igan. C. (1993). The impact of school library media centers on academic achievement. Cas- Hord, S. M. & Huling-Austn, L. (1986). "Effective tle Rock, CO: Hi Willow Research and curriculum implementation: Some promising Publishing. new insights." Elementary School Journal, 87(1), 97-115. Lee, L. E. & Wong, K. (1985). Curriculum implementation: Results, issues, and strat- Howey, K. R. & Vaughan, J. C. (1983)." Current egies (Research report 84-03a). Winnipeg, patterns of staff development." In G. A. MB: Manitoba Education, Planning and Re- Griffin (Ed.), Staff development (82nd Year- search Branch. book of the National Society for the Study of Education, pp. 92-117). Chicago: University Loucks,S.F. & Lieberman, A.(1983). of Chicago Press. "Curriculum implementation." In F. W. English (Ed.), Fundamental curriculum de- Hunter, S. M. (1986). The school makes the cisions (pp.126-141). Alexandria, VA: difference: What the research says about Association for Supervision and Curriculum staff development (Bulletin Number 5). Development. Vancouver, BC: Vancouver School Board. Lowden, E. G. (1980). Level of sophistication of Johnson, H. R. (1975). Teacher utilization of instructional media /learning resource center libraries in the secondary schools of Tucson programs in area vocational-technical schools District No. 1. Unpublished doctoral disser- in the state of Oklahoma as perceived by tation, University of Arizona. superintendents and instructors as compared to their preferences for these programs. Jones, C. A. (1977). The Georgia public school Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Okla- library media program, 1965-1975. Unpub- homa State University. lished doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia. Lowe, J. L. (1984). A comparative analysis of reading habits and abilities of students in Kelley, I. G. (1992). Cooperation between public selected elementary schools in North libraries and public school library /media Louisiana with and without centralized centers in Massachusetts. Unpublished libraries. Unpub-lished doctoral disserta- doctoral disser-tation, Boston University. tion, North Texas State University. Kent, K. (1985). "A successful program ofMack, E. B. (1957). The school library's teachers assisting teachers." Educational contribution to the total educational pro- Leadership, 43(3), 30-33. gram of the school: A content analysis of

101 110 selected periodicals in the field of education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer- Ornstein, A. C. & Hunkins, F. P. (1988). Imple- sity of Michigan. menting curriculum changes: Guidelines for principals. NASSP Bulletin, 72(511), 67-72. Madaus, J. R. (1974). Curriculum involvement: Teacher structures, and personality factors of Pichette, W. H. (1975). The role of the IMC librarians in school media programs. Unpub- director in two types of elementary school lished doctoral dissertation, University of organizational structures. Unpublished doct- Texas. oral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Mad- ison. Markle, A. B. (1982). Defining the roles of library I media personnel in a large school Paquette, M. (1987). Voluntary collegial support district. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, groups for teachers. Educational Leadership, George Peabody College for Teachers of 45(3), 36-39. Vanderbilt University. Payne, D. L. (1967). The superintendent's McAfee, D. T. (1981). A study to determine the perception of selected library practices in the presence of observable conditions of positive public schools of thestate of Mississippi. self-concept in elementary school media cen- Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of ters. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Southern Mississippi. University of WisconsinMadison. Pratt, D. (1980). Curriculum: Design and McGiffin, P. A. (1990). The school library media development. New York: Harcourt, Brace Jovan- specialist as a resource person: A descriptive ovich. study.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts. Romberg, T.A. & Price,G.G.(1983). Curriculum implementation and staff devel- McMillen, R. D. (1965). An analysis of library opment as cultural change.In G. A. Griffin programs and a determination of educational (Ed.), Staff development (82nd Yearbook of the justification ofthese programs in selected National Society for the Study of Education, pp. elementary schools of Ohio. Unpublished 154-184). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. doctoraldissertation,Western Reserve University. Royal, S. W. (1981). An investigation of the relationships between the educational level of Mooradian, E. D. (1985). Curriculum planning school library media personnel and perceived in a selected school district that lacks competencies needed to develop instructional curriculum staff workers. Unpublished doctoral activities. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, dissertation, State University of New York at Florida State University. Buffalo. Rubin,L.(1987).Curriculum and staff Nevi; C. (1986). Against the grain: Half truths development. In M. F. Wideen & I. Andrews that hinder staff development. Principal, 65(3), (Eds.), Staff development for school improve- 44-46. ment (pp. 172-181). Philadelphia: Falmer. Nolan, J. P. (1989). A comparison of two Scott, M. S. (1982). School library media center methods of instruction in library research skills programs: Student perceptions as criteria for for elementary school students. Unpublished library media program funding. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Temple University. doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California. Olson, L. E. (1966). Teachers', principals', and librarians' perceptions of the school librarian's Shields, D. M. (1977). A fault tree approach to role.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, analyzing school library media services. Unpub- University of Minnesota. lished doctoral dissertation, Brigham Young University. Orlich, D. C. (1989). Staff development: Enhan- cing human potential. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Showers, B., Joyce, B. & Bennett, B. (1987).

102 1 1 1 Synthesis of research on staff development: A framework for future study and a state-of-the- Yarling, J. R. (1968). Children's understandings art analysis. Educational Leadership, 45(3), and use of selected library-related skills in two 77-87. elementary schools, one with and one without a centralized library.Unpublished doctoral dis- Smith, J. B. (1978). An exploratory study of the sertation, Ball State University. effectiveness of an innovative process designed to integrate library skills into the curriculum. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, George Pea- body College for Teachers of Vanderbilt University. Sparks, G. M. & Bruder, S. (1987). Before and after peer coaching. Educational Leadership, 45(3), 54-57. Stanwich, E. E. (1982). School library media specialist's involvement in curriculum planning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, State Uni- versity of New York at Buffalo. Sullivan,J.S.(1977). The role of the elementary school media director as viewed by media center directors and principals. Unpub- lished doctoral dissertation, Northern Illinois University. Van Dreser, R. J. (1971). A survey related to job competencies of the instructional media spec- ialist.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Uni- versity of Nebraska. Van Orden, P. J. (1970). Use of media and the media center, as reflected in professional journals forelementary school teachers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University. Van Sant, R. (1988). Staff development in the 1980s. Wingspan, 4(1), 11-13. Virgilio, S. J. & Virgilio, I. R. (1984) The role of the principal in curriculum implementation. Education,104(4), 346-350. Wilson, L. W. (1972). The role of the media specialist as perceived by public elementary school mediaspecialists and principals in North Carolina. Unpublished doctoral disser- tation, George Washington University. Woolls, E. B. S. (1973). Cooperative library services to children in public libraries and public school systems in selected communities in Indiana. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1973.

103 112 Children's Literature and the Holocaust by Martin Goldberg Head Librarian Penn State University--Beaver Campus Monaca, Pennsylvania In a world of racism, "ethnic cleansing," and the scheme of things and how can they be never ending battles of hate, educators at all innovators and facilitators in enriching our levels need to teach the lessons of the Holo- curriculum, our collections, and thereby our pa- caust. The tragedy of the Holocaust can well trons? demonstrate the consequences of racism carried Despite the popularity of Spielberg's Schindler's to its most frightful extreme. List and the book by Thomas Keneally (that The purpose of this session is to high- has sold well over half-million copies), Lois Low- light the use of autobiographies, diaries, jour- ry's award-winning Number the Stars (over nals, and first person narratives in elementary 160,000 copies), and the ever-popular and bril- through young adult school libraries. Diaries liant Anne Frank: Diary of a Young Girl (16 and other such writings capture the routines, million copies in over 50 languages), revisionists events, and powerful feelings that textbooks, gain notoriety and credence through advertise- biographies, and other nonfiction often exclude. ments, publications, and lecture programs. In Children need to feel secure in their response, the Nation-al Council of Teachers of world and have hope; not frightened by graphic English passed a resolution in 1993 affirming descriptions of brutality. Stories of children who "that students should read and discuss liter- were hidden, those who managed to escape to ature on genocide and intolerance within an relative freedom, those who lived through years historically accurate framework with special of suffering, those who lived by their own wits, emphasis on primary source material."1 and the children who perished are the titles They noted that in a world of that will be highlighted. Examples of librarian- increasing racial, ethnic and religious hostility, teacher cooperative strategies, suggested sour- education was the most powerful tool to help ces of resource materials, and interchange with students perceive victimization and to fight the audience will be encouraged. intolerance. Countless communities 1995 will be the year to commemorate throughout the world are planning commem- the end of World War II. Librarians need to be orative activities in observance of the end of prepared to participate in the anticipated new World War II. How can librarians fit into these interest in this event. This session will enable activities and approach the topic we all would school librarians to have the necessary re- like to avoid--the Holocaust? sources to meet patrons' needs. "Tell your children of it and let Present Environment your children tell their children Our curriculums are still dominated and their children another gener- by basal readers and textbooks.The basal ation." readers are highly structured and offer self- Book of Joel, Chapter 1, Verse 3 control-led vocabularies by writers who have Introduction presup-posed their intended audiences' know- Teaching and reading about the Holo- ledge, interests and backgrounds. caust are among the most difficult responsi- Some basals have increased selections bilities that we as educators face. The unmen- from the best of contemporary children's liter- tionables and unexplainables are troublesome ature; "however the selections are often treated for adults to make some sense of; yet how do we as a minor component of the program, a chance approach this delicate issue in our public to practice the skills taught in the workbooks schools and libraries? Can we teach this horrific and skill exercises."2The homogenizing and event without frightening our students, or do we editing of the material often results in little pass over it and hope the subject will be covered resemblance to the original source. And, their at some later time by some other teacher at treatment of the Holocaust is virtually ignored. some other school? Where do librarians fit into Our textbooks on all levels of instruction from

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113 elementary through high school offer little more torical setting can provide a unifying structure than a brief touching on this subject. One study that is both developmentally appropriate and of forty three American history textbooks of intellectually invigorating. "3 major publishers found none adequately covered When selecting children's literature titles for an the Holocaust. elementary history unit, librarians should Only four devoted forty to consider: seventy- lines to the Holocaust, thirty four titles (1) Select as many titles as possible that provided one to forty lines, twenty six failed to are primary source (autobiographies, devote even a separate paragraph on the diaries) or are well written materials subject, and five did not contain a single line.3 based on primary sources (biographies Another study exam -fined nine popular and other non-fiction narratives). elementary textbooks and found: (1) there was (2) All perspectives during the period are a total of nine sentences that dealtdirectly represented. with the Holocaust, (2) only one book included a (3) In addition to historical fiction, pro- separate paragraph on the topic, (3) there were vide a good collection of nonfiction, no references to non-Jewish victims, (4) only one such as songs, poetry, speeches, let- book used the word Holocaust, and (5) none had ters, diaries, etc. suggested reading titles.4 The coverage in high (4) A careful balance between enjoying school history, sociology and geography texts literature in-and-of-itself vs. using the was not encour-agingeither.Not even the material for data on the historical Anne Frank diary made it into the suggested period must be found."The process reading lists in many of the texts since no should never be so onerous that the Holocaust titles were included.Of seventeen joy of reading is diminished. "9 major history titles examined for grades seven So much of what students use from our libraries to twelve, only five had more than thirty one is based on the recognition that reading original lines, with eighty five being the most generous. source material is available for most any read- None attempted to describe the concentration ing ability and that reading literature can cross camps and consis-tently ignored any aspect ofthrough many curriculums. The whole language the survivors.5 approach (often referred to as literature-based Textbooks used in American schools are learning) which is gaining popularity throughout faulted on three major counts: (1) the Holocaust public schools, challenges libraries to provide a is not given the treatment it deserves in its wealth of appropriate materials that can be own right, (2) students are not provided with read by a wide variety of students. Personally, lessons from the Holocaust, and (3) "they do not I am happy to see that my own children are draw upon examples...which would enhance the often supplied with book lists prepared by instruction in concepts of the various disciplines teacher-librarian teams. Library materials are they are attempting to teach."6 now central to instructional goals. The whole language movement is Using Literature based on three blocks:that reading is learned We know how meaningless memoriza- by using actual texts in full, that reading is a tion of facts and events are, yet most textbooks part of learning language, and learning about offer little more than that. Using literature in language is multifaceted. "Children learn best the history curriculum, as pointed out by Brown when language is whole, meaningful and func- and Abel, can serve several important purposes tional. The language of literature becomes the of interest to librarians: heart of reading and writing programs; thus, (1) To present a broad historical context, whole language and literature are insepar- rather than just the facts. able."10 (2) To provide students with insights (daily The American Association of Pub- life patterns, attitudes, values, etc.) of lishers' (AAP) Reading Initiative Program has those who lived during that era. gained popularity and success as interest in (3) To get students to empathize with the literature-based programs increases. Their re- literary characters. cent survey of over 5,000 elementaryschool (4) To havestudents compare their principals in twenty one states indicates that personal societal values to those in the schools are moving away from skill-based read- literature they are reading.? ing programs and 60% of principals viewed their "Social science concepts placed within an his- reading programs as "literature-based, inte-

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114 grated language arts or whole languagepro - schools, libraries, parks, etc.; and ultimately for grams. "11 most, death."It is from the children...that we In June 1993, the American can learn how they, without experience and Associ-ation of School Librarians issueda perspective, understood and operated within statement on the role of school library media this new and bizarre world with itsnew and specialists in the whole language approach. bizarre rules."16 They noted the following points as essential to Perhaps a sixth grader's written report abouta an effective program: Holocaust narrative said it best: "I loved this (1) The schedule of the library media center book because it sees through theeyes of this be flexible. person.I never knew how hard peo-ple had it. (2) Students not be limited to only teacher- The book is so real." 17 selected materials. (3) Students should choose from anon- Library Activites and Strategies graded, wide collection in a variety of Staff development programson any formats that reflects personal interests. thematic unit should include teacher-librarian 4) Multidisciplinary approaches are encour- book discussiongroups.The Association of aged. American Publishers Reading Initiative and the (5) Teacher and librarians share respon- Virginia State Reading Association cosponsored sibility for reading and information a Teachers as Readers Project in thirty six skills instruction. sites. Funds were provided to purchase child- (6) Teacher and librarians cooperateon ren's books and professional literature which selecting materials and collaborateon ultimately were added to school library collec- learning activities. tions. Each group agreed to read and discuss (7) On-going staff development is critical to at least four children's books andone profes- whole language instruction.12 sional book within six months. All participants kept a log of their reactions. In describing the Autobiographies success of the programs, it was noted that par- Children are fascinated about the past. ticipants indicated in their journals their "Primary sources constitute the richest vein ofthoughts, issues, and discussion questions. all materials on thehistory of childhood. "That's really what we want children to do Perhaps the most valuable primary mater- with literature in the classroom. We want them ials...are children's diaries.The best of them to bring their thoughts asa reader to the reveal the secret thoughts, frustrations, likes text."18 and dislikes, aspirations and fears that illum- Professor Barbara Lassman described inate the character of the diary writer." 13 a seven part Holocaust program for school child- Autobiographies (and biographies) allow ren: the reader to form a bond with the author. "You (1) Without prior notice about the Holo- watch the person grow, learn, achieve,or even caust being the next study unit, the fail. And because what you're dealing with is class was divided in half: those with real, there's a special weight to it."14 The recent blue eyes and all others. Onegroup popularity of Zalata's Diary: A Child's Life in received cookies. Discussion followed Sarajevo (Viking, 1994) indicates that first- about their feelings and deft-nitions of person accounts of horrendous situations writ- discrimination.Students were en- ten by youngsters can have an impacton the couraged to discuss with fam-ily their reading world. views on prejudice and discrimination. In an article about holocaust books in (2) The second class began with students the classroom, it is noted that what occurred sharing their family discussions from must be experienced by the reader, not taught. the previous night. All then drew and This means abandoning the history textbooks wore Star of David arm bands. The and embracing children's authors who share the meanings of curfews, ghettos, etc. stories of 1933 to 1945.15 As Deborah Dwork were discussed, culminating with reac- in Children With A Star points out, children tions about being singled outas a with far less maturity and self esteem than particular group. adults had to deal with the policy of differen- (3) Next was a study of the economic,soc- tiation, such as wearing the yellow star; the ial and political environment in Ger- segregation from other Germans; isolation from many.

106 115 (4) Class time was devoted to Hitler's life meaningful results. and how he gained the support to carry The Jewish Labor Committee cospon-sors a out his programs. Holocaust and Jewish Resistance Teach-er (5) Concentration camps were covered, Training Program, now in its tenth year. keeping in mind the sensitivity of the Cosponsored with the American Gatherin students.Emphasized were stories of /Federation of Jewish Holocaust Survivors bravery and resistance. (which provides scholarships for teachers) and (6) A class was spent huddled together in a the American Federation of Teachers (which closet while excerpts from Anne Frank's recruits teachers), this three-week program diarywere read, mostly about her brings scholars and teachers together.Partici- feelings. pants first stop in Poland to visit Jewish (7) The conclusion of this unit was a dimly historic sites and concentration camps.In lit room and an unlit candle. Students Israel, visits include Yad Vashem, Masada and wereasked to share their feelings. Hebrew University. An annual teachers' Some drew pic-tures, some wrote stories conference in Washington, DC includes the ex- and others composed poems. change of teaching experiences of the Holocaust Throughout this program, parental support and Jewish resistance. A large part of the cost was high via sharing experiences, photos, and of this program is underwritten by scholarships. memorabilia.19 As a result of this program, participants have A well organized and unique program is been requested to be a trainer for youth offen- Facing History and Ourselves, based in Brook- ders found guilty of bias crimes; developing line, Massachusetts. It is an interdisciplinary, interdisciplinary curriculum projects and inser- teacher training organization whose target is vice workshops; revising city and state curric- indifference, racism and prejudice. Founded in ulum guides; coordinating trips to the U.S. 1976, over 30,000 educators, clergy, students Holocaust Museum; establishing Holocaust re- and community leaders have participated in search scholarship funds; video and audio their training workshops, which has resulted in recording of survivors; and teaching adult edu- reaching over a half-million students of all soc- cation courses. An Oregon high school English ial, economic, ethnic and racial backgrounds. teacher who participated in this program moved Introductory three-day workshops (often held all to a new school which had no Holocaust books. over the world) help in understanding the pro- She convinced them to purchase a classroom set gram's objectives, methodology and materials. of Night."Although that may sound like a Institutes provide the latest scholarship and to small accomplishment, I feel it's a great victory: support educators already using the program. 170 sophomores will have the opportunity to Inservice staff development seminars and com- read, discuss and write about a novel that they munity adult education programs are available. never would have read."20 Each year, a conference in Boston brings toge- Holocaust survivors are highly effective ther scholars and teachers. They have several in the upper grades.Before contacting that excellent publications, a newsletter and even a person directly, find out where they have spoken lending library of books, magazines and videos. before and how their presentation went. Rab- Focusing on the Armenian Genocide and bis and Jewish groups in your area should be Nazi Holocaust the questions and issues faced able to make recommendations. Authors such are abuse of power; mass conformity; how doc- as Ruth Minsky Sender and Inge Auerbacher tors, nurses and teachers participated in such are excellent speakers for students to meet. A movements; why lawyers worked to deny basic high school history teacher noted that when she human rights; why some people defied that first started teaching about the Holocaust years state; and the consequences of denial, avoid- ago, student reactions to photographs were ance and revision of history.Facing History horror, disbelief and revulsion.Now, nothing uses inquiry, analysis and interpretation to seems to bother them."Even hardened teen- help students draw the universal lessons of agers are affected by the personal lives of these these events; try to assimilate multiple perspec- people when they hear the stories from the tives; think about ethical behavior; and to dis- survivors themselves.What will happen, I cuss prejudice with students from many diverse wonder, when the survivors are gone?"21 backgrounds. It has been written about exten- The U.S. Holocaust Museum, although sively in the media and praised throughout the rather new, has vast resources that may even world has a highly effective program with be accessed by e mail. Materials include teach-

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116 ing guidelines (why study the Holocaust, learn- Roth-Hano, Renee. Four Winds, 1988. ing activities, selection guidelines), annotated Behind the Secret Window: A Memoir of a Hidden bibliographies (by reading level and genre), a Childhood. Toll, Nelly S.Dial (Penguin), videography (by subject) and a directory of Holo- 1993. caust organizations. The Simon Wiesenthal Center's Mus-eum of Tolerance (Los Angeles) sponsored References an exhibitRemembering for the Future: Themes of Tolerance and Diversity in Children's 1. National Council of Teachers of English Liter-ature.An excellentbibliography is 1993. "NCTE Passes Resolutions on available as well as a teaching resources kit. Grading and Teaching Tolerance": 2. Elie Wiesel in speaking about the importance of Holocaust education and the 2. Goodman, K.S. 1986. "Basal Readers: A dif-ficulty of teaching about it, related how he Call for Action." Language Arts 63(4): 360. first resisted telling the story and its lessons. He said, "You can either spread misfortune or 3. Dong, S. 1979. " Study Criticizes Coverage curtail it.I teach the children. It's more than a of Holocaust by 43 Current History matter of communicating knowledge. Whoever Textbooks." Publishers Weekly 216(9): 296. engages in this field becomes a messenger."22 4. Braham, R.L.,ed. 1987. The Treatment of Recommended Titles the Holocaust in Textbooks. New York: Columbia University Press, 240-243. I Am A Star: Child of the Holocaust.Auer- bacher, Inge. Prentice Hall, 1986. 5. Pate, Glen S. 1978. "The Teaching of the As The Waltz Was Ending. Butterworth, Emma Holocaust." Patterns of Prejudice 12: 1-5. Macalik. Four Winds (Scholastic), 1982.

Kindertransport. Drucker, Olga Levy. Henry . 6. Braham, 307. Holt, 1992. Young Moshe's Diary.Flinker, Moshe.Yad 7. Brown, J.E. and F.J. Abel 1982. "Revit- Vashem (Jerusalem), 1979. alizing American History: Literature in the Escape or Die.Friedman, Ina R.Addison- Classroom." The Social Studies no. Wesley, 1982. 73:279. The Other Victims. Friedman, Ina R. Houghton- Mifflin, 1990. 8. Michael, J. and J. Zarrillo 1989. "Teaching Don't Say A Word. Gehrts, Barbara. McElderry History with Children's Literature." The (MacMillan), 1975 and 1986. Social Studies no. 80: 154. Pearls of Childhood.Gissing, Vera.St. Mar- tin's, 1988. 9. op cit. The Endless Steppe. Hautzig, Esther. Crowell, 1968. 10. Cullinan, B.E. 1992. "Whole Language and Remember Who You Are.Hautzig, Esther. Children's Literature." Language Arts Crown, 1990. 69(6): 426. Mischling, Second Degree--My Childhood in Nazi Germany. Koehn, Ilse. Greenwillow 11.ibid, 429. (Morrow),1977. We Survived the Holocaust.Landau, Elaine. 12. American Association of School Librarians Watts, 1991. 1993. "Resource Based Instruction Lydia, Queen of Palestine. Orley, Uri. Houghton Statement." Mifflin, 1993. Shanghai Passage. Patent, Gregory. Clarion, 13. Downey, M. 1986. "Teaching History of 1990. Childhood." Social Education 50:265. The Upstairs Room. Reiss, Johanna.Crowell, 1972. 14. Wilms, D.M. 1982. An Evaluation of Friedrich. Richter, Hans Peter. Holt Rinehart, Biography. Chicago: American Library 1970. Association. Touch Wood--A Girlhood in Occupied France.

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11 7 15. Marinak, B. 1993. "Books in the Classroom: The Holocaust." Horn Book 69(3):364. 16. Dwork, D. 1991. Children With A Star. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press:xxxiii. 17. Levstik, L.S. 1986. "The Relationship Between Historical Response and Narrative in a Sixth-Grade Classroom." Theory and Research in Social Education 14(1):8. 18. Mick los, J. 1992. "Book Groups Are All Talk-And Lots of Action." Reading Today 9:11. 19. Lassman, B. 1991. "Teaching Elementary School Children About the Holocaust." Orbit 22(3):10-11. 20. O'Donnell, L. 1993. News From Our Alumni. Alumni Newsletter no. 14:14. 21. Feldstone,R.E. 1993. "News From Our Alumni." Alumni Newsletter no. 14:7. 22. Silverberg, D. 1979. "Studying and Teaching About the Holocaust." Present Tense 6(3):47.

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118 The Selection, Evaluation, and Integration of Culturally Authentic Texts: A Case for Making the On-Line Catalog Reflect Parallel Cultures by Dr. Teri S. Lesesne, Assistant Professor and Dr. Sylvia Hall-Ellis, Assistant Professor Sam Houston State University Department of Library Science

The Cataloging Challenge: Introduction dictably achieve ahigh level of satisfaction Building and maintaining the media center's without assistance.Potential solutions to this bibliographic database is an on-going challenge dilemma range from continued use of standard for the school librarian. The challenges can be tools and hope that users will conform to the categorically divided into two substantive types: integrated system to rejection of the standard- (1) routine cataloging and authority control is- ized approach accompanied by a requirement to sues and (2) problems unique to specific physi- devise an organizations-specific scheme based cal formats or generic categories of materials. on instructional department and hierarchy of Resources intended for use in parallel instruc- curriculum content. The choice is ours; we are tional environments or written predominantly in forced by circumstances to decide. a language other than English can be approp- A consensual decision is needed to riately included into the latter category. reflect the school's situation alone. The collec- Descriptive cataloging and classification tive decision can specify a classification system, in the school library should provide effective and descriptive cataloging standards and practices, efficient access to the collection. The media and a taxonomy for the library system.Hard- specialist strives to build a balanced collection ware requirements will follow and form the of educational resources to support the curricu- basis for district-wide networking. When we lum as well as recreational materials for stu- reach agreement, we can begin to implement a dents to read for pleasure.The mandate to course of action. provide rapid, accurate and comprehensive ac- Unfortunately for the intended users, cess to locally available materials is not library- librarians have directed their foreign language type specific: the theoretical framework, cata- cataloging efforts to the resolution of technical loging codes, classification schemes, standard- problems. These difficulties include "letter of the ized subject heading taxonomies, and interna- law/rule" situations. tional bibliographic standards do not vary from one type of library to another. However, locally Background and Need determined requirements and descriptive cata- To provide efficient and thorough re- loging conventions reflect unique dilTerences in search, reference, database searching, and docu- access requirements and user needs. ment delivery to their colleagues the media cen- Traditionally, materials for youth writ- ter staff will need to use current materials and ten in a language other than English present state-of-the-art technologies. These services will significant cataloging problems. An artificial augment and enhance current activities, thus division between materials for particular grade increasing the reliability of timely information level does not necessarily resolve these cata- gathering, decreasing the duplicity of resources loging issues, but, rather complicates and mag- required and contributing to the organization's nifies them. The media specialist cannot as- collective productivity. sume that a different interpretation and appli- The role of the media center is to sup- cation of cataloging rules and practices solely port the curriculum by providing materials that based on the language in which the material is enhance, extend, and support the curriculum written will provide specific or sufficient access The goals and objectives of the campus, the to them. scope of the curriculum, the teaching patterns in Despite our best intentions and efforts the school and student needs shape the media in the cataloging process, students will not pre- center program.Media center staff evaluate

110 119 and select materials in a variety of physical for- personalities should coincide with those found mats in order to assemble a basic, core collec- in the catalog. To solve the dilemma of subject tion of materials. authorities which do not satisfy these require- All of the items in the central collection ments, we need to adopt a standardized list of will be shelved by author to maximize ease ofsubject headings and add appropriate terms retrievability and organization. Items will be from the standard textbooks and units of kept together by physical format (book, video, instruction found within the curriculum. Newer, cassette, kits, and the like). additional terms can be recorded as classroom Resources may be available in more teachers and media specialists identify them. than one format. In order to retrieve all perti- Knight identified these technical dilemmas nent and relevant materials for a topic or by a in her 1987 review. She described six problem specific author, the media center will rely on a areas: (a) establishing edition and publication catalog. As planning activities become imple- dates; (b) lacking International Standard Book mentation plans and fmancial resources become Numbers (ISBNs); (c)establishing names and available, media centers migrate from paper responsibilities for authors and illustrators; (d) card catalogs to integrated online catalogs. Re- series; (e) choice of points of access; and, (f) sources will be readily identified in a single subject headings.Catalogers recognized and database. addressed the problems; she predicted timely Building the database requires signif- resolution and recommendations for improved icant time and effort. The problems inherent in ease of handling. handling culturally diverse and Spanish-lan- During the database building process, guage materials transcend the physical form of catalogers have identified several problems/limi- the catalog. tations associated with culturally diverse and Each item in the collection is added to Spanish-language materials. Identified areas of the database. Identifying information provided concern include the following: the author(s), title, subtitle (when existent), a.non-existent terms--subject matter identi- place of publication,publisher, date of fied in the items for which no specific, ap- publication, and series (if appropriate). When propriate term could be found. the data are present on the item, the Interna- b.broad terms--subject matter clearly more tional Standard Book Number (ISBN), Library specific than the general, broad term found of Congress card number, and Library of in the thesaurus. Congress classification number also appear in c. ambiguous terms--subject matter clearly the record. more specific than the nebulous, general Subjectaccessisof paramount terms which can be confusing or misleading. importance to students, teachers, and media center staff. The assignment of subject head- Problems Encountered Regarding Subject ings falls within the discretion of the cataloger. Assignment Each item provides content analysis data Pre-cataloging examination of the specific through the preface, introduction, chapter head- items comprising special collections reaffirmed ings, dust jacket, and promotional publishers' the problems previously identified with regard information. To assure consistency in the selec- to subject assignment and accessibility. Poten- tion of subject terms, a thesaurus is selected tial problems can be addresses by following two which contains both general terms and approp- distinct strategies. riate, specific terms. When working with cultur- First, instructional staff for the specific ally diverse and Spanish-language materials, areas should be invited to participate in the no single list exists which meets these re- media center project committee to improve ac- quirements and also serves as the official taxon- cess to culturally diverse materials.Items omy for the databases most frequently queried would be added individually to the media cen- by the media center staff ter database as access and retrieval decisions We must discard the practice of using are reached.Each item can change from its standard tools in isolation. We must do cata- current physical location dependent on the dis- loging differently, shifting the focus from a micro cretion of the committee. to a macro level. Subject access should coincide The subject access problems can be addres- with the terms used in the classrooms and sed through discussion with media center staff studios.Textbook descriptions of concepts, and individual, concurrent examination of terms techniques, periods of history, and prominent used in instructional units.Subject terms

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1 2 which are deemed incorrect or inappropriate by suggest that the problems are not unique to the committee should be deleted from the offi- media centers. cial thesaurus.Additional terms should be The comprehensive cataloging of mat- added. This process may be tested with a se- erials for youth requires a concise summary of lect number of materials to determine the the item. Traditionally, when describing Span- complexity of the problems and to ascertain the ish-language materials, the cataloger wrote the steps in the decision-making and alignment summary in English, thus alleviating the librar- processes. ian's need to be fluent in Spanish. However, in Second, media center staff may identify those media centers serving student popula- broad curriculum areas as too comprehensive for tions with a significant percentage of children the general terms included on the official list offrom Spanish-language dominant homes or re- descriptions.Additional specific subject head- cent immigrants (students transferring from a ings with a hierarchy of cross references are Latin American educational system and present essential to achieve the optimal degree of in the district less than two academic years), specificity. this approach can be seen as a disadvantage. To construct a list of additional subject For primarily Spanish-literate consumers choos- terms for broad curriculum areas may fall out- ing reading material for themselves of their side of the expertise of the media center staff A children, descriptive cataloging in English may team effort involving subject specialists and the be not have optimal value. media center staff combines the curricular area Subject headings used to catalog materials and database building expertise required to for youth are also primarily in English.One achieve an acceptable resolution to the problem. provision in theLibrary of Congress Subject Media center staff recognize the problems Headings for Chldren's Literature is: "Spanish inherent in adopting and using a thesaurus language materials," a heading to be used for containing broad, limiting terms. However, the basic children's reading materials in Spanish. standard subject headings tools do not suggest "Spanish language materials -- Bilingual" may be a specific method for the augmentation and used when the item is in Spanish and another enhancement of an existent thesaurus.The language.Also, a source is available to aid in situation is further complicated by the poten- establishing Spanish-language headings if de- tial for media specialists to purchase cataloging sired.The Library of Congress has approved (either paper catalog cards or machine readable the use of Spanish-language subject headings records) from commercial vendors which use from Bilindex: A Bilingual Spanish-English databases to assign subject terms. Subject Headings List: Spanish Equivalents to The broadly defined subject terms present a Library of Congress Subject Headings. This book potential maintenance problem. The mapping includes a section on "Library of Congress Sub- from one term to another may provide a theo- ject Headings for Children's Literature with retical resolution; however, the required resour- Spanish Equivalents." ces to maintain the integrity of the database This work also provides some guidance on and subject list may exceed those available. name authority work. Bilindex is aimed at the The availability of the complete subject list with English-speaking cataloguer of Spanish-langu- terms mapped appropriately would require fre- age materials. While the taxonomy is a valu- quent updating and distribution and real-time able tool for a group of catalogers, the approach access by the media center staff and curriculum of translating addresses the "letter of the law" committee members. (or more precisely "letter of the code") and ignores the "spirit of the code." Proposed Course of Action First, Spanish-speaking children learn their Considered singly and collectively, these first language before they enter kindergarten. important and noteworthy efforts provide a Words related to the home, clothing, and child- foundation for further work. Each effort pre- ren may be contemporary derivatives of Latin supposes that through the sharing of infor- American and indigenous languages from ma- mation, a resolution to the problems encoun- ternal ancestors (Nahuatl, Quechua, Tupi- tered will emerge. However, database building Guarani, Arahuaco- Caribe, Maya). These indig- efforts in related environments found in public enous words may reflect the geographic area in schools, public libraries, and other educational which the children live. institutions in the process of building and Second, materials readily available for Eng- maintaining culturally diverse collections lish-speaking children do not necessarily exist in

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12i a Spanish-language version. Copying the Eng- pels us unrelentlessly toward technologies we lish language cataloging in a Spanish transla- do not necessarily want to accept on manufac- tion does not solve the cataloging problem. turers' timetables. Technological advancements However, one cannot help but agree that the will likely continue to force us to upgrade, en- direct translation approach resolves the pract- hance, and replace more rapidly than we prefer. ical problem of cataloging materials. However, the first automation efforts admittedly Balanced collection development policies prove to be the largest. may not be reasonable to achieve with Spanish- The flexibility created by adherence to language materials. Because machine readable standards, the applications of good systems bibliographic data and review information are procedures such as planning, and the willing- not available to the extent of English-language ness to never accept the status quo, permit us materials, the media specialist must develop to do more with less while even enjoying the cataloging guidelines to address current and fu- experience.Without these components auto- ture access and retrieval requirements. mation produces little more than frustration, Successful implementation teaches valuable unhappiness, and inefficiency. The opportunity lessons. Those lessons are as follows: to develop a local, affordable automation effort 1.Library automation is first and foremost for provides an opportunity well worth taking. the user community. Access exceeds The "spirit of the code" deals with the correctness. moral, ethical, and cultural aspects of Spanish- 2.Customization of library automation can be language materials cataloging and can be ap- achieved while preserving the integrity of plied to youth and adult collections.Several national standards. aspects merit timely and thoughtful considera- 3.Library automation is a school-wide effort. tion by the cataloger. Classroom teachers and educators must participate in the process, thereby contribu- ting to its success. 4.Planning is essential, but on-going, parallel activities require support. To avoid a time-consuming, mapping, or realignment project, and recognizing the prob- lems inherent with the unilateral adoption of a thesaurus we suggest the following strategy: 1.to enlist a cadre of classroom teachers, curriculum developers, and educators to re- view the composite list of subject headings and make recommendations for modifica- tions and enhancements; 2.to field test the final draft of the subject terms list with classroom teachers, curricu- lum developers, and educators; 3.to modify the final draft of the subject terms based on the field test; 4.to share the results of the field test with the cadre of classroom teachers, curriculum de- velopers, and educators; and, 5.to publish a guide for accessing culturally diverse and Spanish-language materials using the subject terms from the composite list. Summary Rapid changes in technology used not only in library automation but curricular areas as well will continue without relief.The de- mand to keep current as we prepare our stu- dents to work in the twenty- first century pro-

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122 The Classroom Library Project in South Africa by Sophia le Roux Head, Media Centre Services Department of Education and Training Introduction traditions of his people, and expert as he may South Africa is currently restructuring its entire be in its use, as he climbs the educational education system following the first democratic ladder he must also acquire increasing linguistic elections on 26 and 27 April 1994 and the es- facility in English as that language is pre- tablishment of an ANC-driven Government of eminently the language of higher education, of National Unity. The sixteen ethnically-based commerce, industry and the professions. education departments created by the previous Government are to be integrated to form one The Classroom Library Project (African non-ethnic National Department of Education Languages) and Training and nine provincial education The Department of Education and departments. As part of the restructuring pro- Train[ing, which under the previous government cess, the practices and projects of the existing was responsible for education of the Black pop- education departments are being evaluated to ulation of the RSA (excluding the former Home- determine priorities in the delivery of services. lands), haslong realized the importance of School library services are also being developing pupils' language, reading and com- scrutinized in the light of pressing educational prehension skills in the mother tongue thereby needs, backlogs in services, and inadequate re- facilitating the transfer of these skills to other sources in those communities disadvantaged languages.It is for this reason that, in 1982, through previous Apartheid policies and prac- the Department initiated the Classroom Li- tices. What is required are cost-effective ser- brary Project with the aim of increasing the vices leading to qualitative and quantitative supply of suitable material in the mother- improvements in the education system. tongue to pupils in primary schools. Adding to the complexity and scope of The Classroom Library Project encom- the restructuring process, is the fact that South passes the provision of library books to every Africa is a multicultural and multilingual coun- class from Sub-standard A (Grade 1) up to and try.Eleven languages spoken in South Africa including Standard five (Grade 7) in the African all enjoy equal status under the new interim language taught in that classroom.Through constitution.These languages are Afrikaans, this project children are introduced to books at English, Ndebele, Northern Sotho, Southern an early age as books are integrated into their Sotho, Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa classroom experience from the very first grade. and Zulu. It is hoped that this will be of lasting value, far Some of these languages are spoken by beyond the confines of classroom and cur- small sections of the community (for example riculum, as a reading culture is inculcated in Venda, Swazi and Tsonga), while others are these children, forming the basis of a lifelong spoken by fairly large groups (for example Zulu skill essential for personal development and and Afrikaans) but not one language is spoken empowerment in a fast changing society. by the majority as a mother tongue. The geo- Because of the scope of the project (there graphic distribution of these languages further are currently approximately 7,000 primary complicates matters as, as a result of urban- schools involved), it was decided to implement it ization, most languages are spoken in the larger in different stages (Phases). The initial aim was industrial regions and it is only in the rural to provide each school annually with ten titles areas that they are, to a certain extent, local- per class per standard in the African language ized. taught in that class.The ultimate objective This multilingualism has tremendous was originally set at ninety titles per standard implications for education in South Africa. A (per class). child starting school at the age of six usually This objective was, however, not fully knows only his mother tongue well.Rich as realized.Some years, owing to a lack of that may be in the beliefs, concepts and adequate funding, only five or six titles could be

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23 purchased per standard. Problems associated publishers. with the translation of the titles into all the Before the Department places any or- African languages taught in the schools were ders, publishers are required to submit one also experienced.(Up to now eight African tender price for each title across all eight lan- languages have been taught at schools under guages into which the title has been translated. the Department of Education and Training). It The purpose of this stipulation isto ensure was also decided to supply Public schools that the languages spoken by small minorities, (mainly in urban areas) and State Aided schools for example Venda, Tsonga and Swazi, are not (mainly farm schools inrural areas) with disadvantaged because of higher costs resulting library books every alternate year (See Appen- from limited print-runs. dix). In this way, attractive books which are At present, the procedure for supplying educationally sound are available at affordable books is as follows: prices in the African languages taught in South Publishers are invited by the Depart- African schools. Various problems are inherent ment to submit manuscripts with a view to in the process of translating books into African their translation into the eight African lan- languages. Problem areas include: guages taught in schools.The books are carefully selected as relevant children's litera- Shortcomings in Standardization ture, fiction as well as subject literature, In South Africa each African language depicting the real world and written in a has its own Language Board which is respon- narrative style of literary merit, is required for sible for the standardization and development the project. of that particular language. These bodies issue Although in the past it was necessary to terminology lists incorporating the latest lan- depend mainly on translations as few books guage and spelling rules adopted by the various were written in African languages, today prefer- Boards. However, these terminology lists are ence is given to original works in African lan- not published on a regular basis and are not guages.If translations are submitted, manu- widely distributed. As a result it is often very scripts must be presented in Afrikaans or En- difficult to get consensus on the spelling and glish and at least one African language. usage of certain words and expressions among A panel, consisting of primary teachers language experts and between publishers and and advisers, representative of the different the editors employed by the Department. language groups, assesses the relevancy of the In addition, the usage of a particular content for the target groups (standards) language may differ from region to region and concerned.Teachers and other persons with the dialects spoken in townships often differ advanced qualifications in the African lan- from those spoken in rural areas. Furthermore, guages concerned are employed on a contractual some of the languages, such as Swazi, Xhosa basis (remunerated according to set hourly and Zulu which fall in the same language group tariffs) to edit the page proofs for the Depart- (Nguni), are similar; this also presents pro- ment. The finalselection, made according to blems in translation. international educational and library criteria, rests with the selectors of the Media Centre Inadequate Vocabulary Development Services Sub-directorate of the Department of On the whole African languages have Education and Training. not yet been developed sufficiently to incorpor- Publishers are encouraged to produce ate all the modern technical and scientific vo- books which are as aesthetically pleasing as cabulary. This restricts the translation of non- possible as the project aims at instilling a love fiction books. of books and reading in pupils. Clear guidelines (specifications) are made available as to the Dearth of Appropriate Texts for Transla- approximate number of words per book per tion standard (grade) and the physical production of Because the Classroom Library Project books, for example, the quality of the paper, is concerned with library books for primary letter size and type, and format. These speci- pupils, it is of the utmost importance that fications were drawn up after an analysis by children are able to identify with the characters departmental officials of the costing of the pro- and with the setting and cultural context of the duction of library books, and in consultation books. Many texts available for translation do with other educationists,printers and not meet these requirements.

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124 Shortage of Language Experts Not Already The Classroom Library Concept Involved with the Book Industry Some people in developing countries To ensure objectivity and neutrality and such as South Africa appear to be of the opinion to prevent favoritism, it is imperative that lan- that classroom libraries are inferior substitutes guage experts employed by the Department to for centralized school libraries- this sentiment evaluate manuscripts have no links with the was also expressed during the aforementioned publishing industry.As many language ex- INFO AFRICA NOVA Conference. However, perts (especially departmental officials) are ap- although the decision, taken by the Department proached by publishers to act as authors, in 1982, to foster classroom library collections in translators and editors, it is often very difficult primary schools was taken partly because the for the Department to obtain the services of provision of centralized school libraries to pri- neutral, unattached experts.It is precisely for mary schools was not found to be economically this reason that the Department had to viable - in 1993 there were approximately 7 000 interrupt the provision of books in the African primary schools under the jurisdiction of the languages during 1990 and 1991. (See Appen- Department (South Africa. Department of Edu- dix.) cation and Training. 1993)- there is a definite didactic advantage in having libraryresources Management and Quality Control available where teaching and learning take The continuous management andcon- place. Liesener (1985:12) points out that there trol of the project is very important but also is a solid relationship between proximity and time- consuming, especially the editing of texts use. The greater the distance, either physically in the African languages. To facilitate quality or psychologically, the less likely it is that the control, various control points have been built resource will be used. into the process, for example, the submission of Mabomba (1990:15) believes that pri- final page proofs and inspection copies toen- mary school graduates or dropouts who have sure that the text is correct and the production acquired reading skills and habits are likely to complies with the specifications. Future of the remain literate in their later lives, given the Classroom Library Project in the new education proper literate environment. He is of the opin- dispensation ion that, although the influence of illiteracy is If the new government is serious about very strong in Africa, especially in the rural its commitment to the equality of all eleven areas, the presence of easily accessible school languages, it is essential that this projectcon- library services will help to protect children from tinues in the new education dispensation. As such influences. Classroom libraries can make stated by Professor Lenake of Unisa duringan an important contribution in this regard. This INFO AFRICA NOVA Conference on Publishing view is shared by READ, a Non-Government and Distribution in Africa, held on 19- 20 May Organization which renders a supplementary 1994, writing and publishing in the vernacular school library service to schools in South Africa is only viable through the school market. Thus, (READ. 1994:4). only if publishers are assured of bulk purchas- Notwithstanding the advantages of ing by the government, will they be in a position classroom library collections, particularly in pri- to publish children's books in all the African mary schools and the costs involved in sup- languages taught in South African schools. This plying and equipping viable centralized librar- is especially the case with the minority lan- ies, there are high expectations that thenew guages, such as Venda, Swazi and Tsonga. At government will provide centralized school present, where children's books are published in libraries for all schools in South Africa.If, how- African languages for the open market, theyare ever, one considers that there are more than 26 mainly in Zulu, Xhosa and Northern Sotho. 000 schools (South Africa. Department of A decision is still to be taken as to the National Education. 1992:10), it is doubtful future of the Project.If it is decided that the whether the new government will be able to Project is to continue, a decision will also have fulfil these expectations, especially in the light to be taken as to whether it will berun at of the pressing need for additional classrooms. national level or at provincial level, perhapsas Critics of the classroom library concept a cooperative project according to the language should note, however, the growing trend to- distribution in a particular province.In that wards classroom libraries, even in developed case, the project could be coordinated at nation- countries. In Finland, for example, libraryac- al level. commodation also presents problems but,as

116 Haapsaari (1991:18) points out, very often the towards the promotion of resource-based learn- appreciation of the school library depends on ing and teaching in primary schools. the quality of its premises and fittings.One suggested solution is that emphasis should be Conclusion placedon developing classroom libraries in The new government has stated that Finland. In the report of The English Coalition lifelong learning is an essential structural objec- Conference: Democracy through Language,a tive for education if the objectives ofa demo- 21-day conference held in the USA by the cratic society are to be met (African National National Council of Teachers of English and the Congress.Education Department. 1994:73). Modern Language Association in 1987 (Barron, The provision of classroom collections to primary 1989:47), the development of the classroom schools and the Classroom Library Project library that "celebrates the diversity, back- endeavors to make an important contribution in grounds, interests, and potential of children" is this regard. also encouraged. It would thereforeappear that the provision of classroom collections, at least as an interim measure, could be a possible means for the new government to ensure that BIBLIOGRAPHY all primary pupils have access toa variety of library resources, thus upgrading the quality ofAfrican National Congress. Education Depart- school education. (Bawa, 1993:179; Totemeyer, ment. 1994. A policy framework for education 1994). and training. Braamfontein: ANC Education Department. Effective Utilization of School Library Re- sources Barron, D. B.1989. "Resources-based Educa- Whether access to school libraryresour- tion, Technology, Information Literacy, and Li- ces is provided by means of a classroom col- braries: Views from Other Associations and the lection or a centralized school library is, Government." School Library Media Activities however, not the decisive factor in assuring Monthly, 6 (2): 46-50. quality resource-based teaching and learning. It is well known that the mere provision of Bawa, R. 1993. "The Role of the Public Library facilities does not necessarily lead to student in Supporting Education in the Natal Region." gains in learning, to enriched learningexper- In Dreams and Dynamics: Conference Pro- iences, or to improved teaching, but that theuse ceedings. (The 22nd Conference of The Inter- of libraries and library materials needs to be national Association of School Librarianship mediated for maximum benefit (National Edu- and The XIII Biennial Conference of The cation Coordinating Committee. 1992:10). Australian School Library Association.Ade- This fact was brought home to the Department laide, 27th - 30th September, 1993): 175-181. when it was found that school libraryresources 4( which had been provided, were grossly under- Haapsaari, R.1991. "School libraries" in utilized by teachers and pupils. Furthermore, Finland. Scandinavian public library quarterly, the provision of school libraryresources has had 2: 15-20. little impact on the teaching practices which have remained predominantly teacher- and text- Liesener, J.W. 1985. "Learning at Risk: School book centered. Library Media Programs in an Information It is for this reason that it was decided World. School," Library Media Quarterly, 14 (1): to develop supportive material to assist primary 11-20. teachers in fully utilizing the classroom library material provided by the Department. A teach- Mabomba, R. 1990."The role of libraries in ing guide and video Using books is fun, based combating illiteracy the Africa perspective: on the English and Afrikaans books provided to illiteracy, the illiterate person and his envir- schools during 1990 and 1991 has thus been onment," Cape librarian, 34(9):11-18. developed. This guide analyses the books and provides ideas for using the booksacross the National Education Policy Investigation. 1992. curriculum in classroom teaching.It is hoped Library & information services: report of the that this guide and video will stimulate theuse NEPI Library and Information Services Research of classroom library material and contribute Group. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.

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126 READ. 1994. Why box libraries: READ's approach to reading and learning (Unpublished). South Africa.Department of Education and Training. Sub-Directorate Educational Technol- ogy. Media Centre ServicesSection. 1993. Information sheet:4 (Unpublished). South Africa. Department of Education and Training. 1994. Tables DET Annual report: 1993 (Unpublished). South Africa. Department of National Educ- ation. National Education Policy Branch. 1992. Educationrealities in South Africa 1991: Report: Nated 02-300 (92107). Pretoria: The Department. Totemeyer, A.-J. 1994. "Resource making and moving: Namibian innovations in the school library field." (Paper read at the Conferenceon Possibilities for the Future of School Libraries in South Africa. Info Africa Nova Conference. Synodal Conference Centre, Pretoria, 19-20 May, 1994) (Unpublished)

118 APPENDIX Provision of Books to Primary Schools Through the ClassroomLibrary Project

PhaseYear TitlesNo. Of LanguageSpent Schools Classes Books

1 1983 40 483,000 8 African R1,400,000 Public SSA-STD Languages Primary 2 1,220

2 1984 40 251,000 8 African R700,000 State Aided SSA-STD Languages Primary 2 (Farm Schools) 5,500

3 1985 69 85,000 English R600,000 Public STD 3-5 Afrikaans Primary 1,440

4 1986 .37 805,500 8 African R2,800,000 Public SSA-STD Languages Primary 470 5 5 1987 37 550,000 5 African R1,990,000 State Aided SSA-STD Languages Primary 5 (Farm Schools) 5,700 6 1988 75 460,000 8 African R2,800,000 Public SSA-STD Languages Primary 600 5 1989 75 411,000 8 African R2,400,000 State-Aided SSA-STD Languages Primary 5 (Farm Schools) 5,700

8 1990 52 173,000 English R3,300,000 Public STD 3-5 Afrikaans Primary Schools 1,200

9 1991 36 134,000 English R2,700,000 State-Aided STD 3-5 Afrikaans Primary (Farm Schools) 4,600

10 1993 32 314,000 8 African R3, 500, 000Public *SSA STD Languages Primary 2 School (1,699) 1,700

SSA=Grade 1=1st Year of formal schooling *19,000 Classes Republic of South Africa, Department of Education & Training,Sub-Directorate Educational Technology, Media Centre Services Section, 1993. Information Sheet, p.4.

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128 Incorporating Oral History into the Curriculum

by Loriene Roy Graduate School of Library and Information Science The University of Texas at Austin

What Is Oral History? methodology through a women's studies pro- Oral history is "the recording and preserving of gram. Dr. Roy has served as the Oral History planned interviews with selected persons able Coordinator for a local history museum in to narrate recollected memory and thereby aid Arizona (U.S.A), served as member and chair of the reconstruction of the past."1 It is a process the Texas (U.S.A) Library Association's Archives that aids in the reconstruction of the past and and Oral History Committee, and served on the in preserving and documenting culture.Oral Oral Record Task Force and Oral Record Project history is as old as human memory and as re- Advisory Committee for the Association for cent as yesterday's news.Oral history is an Library Services to Children (U.S.A.). Her pro- extension of the art of storytelling. While oral fessional associations have included member- literatures predate the written word, oral ships in the Oral History Association (U.S.A) history as a research method dates only from and the Texas (U.S.A) Oral History Association. the 1940s and the availability of portable Her articles on oral history have been published recording equipment.Classroom oral history in the Journal of Youth Services in Libraries and has been documented since the late 1960s.2 in the Texas Library Journal.3 Since 1989, Dr. Students of all ages, from elementary grades Roy has included oral history activities in her through graduate school, have experienced oral graduate course on public libraries and in indi- history in classes across the curriculum. vidualized study work with students in the There is currently much interest in oral Graduate School of Library and Information history as researchers have, in general, redis- Science at the University of Texas at Austin. covered qualitative methods of data gathering. Professional organizations in the field of library ORGANIZING AN ORAL HISTORY and information science, including the Music PROJECT Library Association (U.S. A.) and the Assoc- Becoming Acquainted with the Methodol- iation for Library Services to Children (a ogy division of the American Library Association) The first step in preparing for an oral have, within the past several years, ventured history project is to read about the technique of into large, national efforts to record their history oral history. There are a number of good train- through the reminiscences of key players. ing manuals available, some of which are cited The purpose of this paper is to introduce on the pathfinder portion of this paper. In addi- the concept of oral history with an emphasis on tion to purchasing a manual, each person en- how oral history efforts can be incorporated into gaging in oral history should secure a copy of the curriculum to involve students of all ages. The Guidelines and Principles of the Oral History The final two pages of this article is a path- Association, revised in 1992.4 The Oral History finder or guide for librarians and teachers on Association (OHA) principles outline the respon- how to locate further information.Cited are sibilities of the oral historian to those being books, articles, indexes, documents, and an interviewed, to the public and fellow research- organization.These sources should provide ers, and to agencies and institutions that fund sufficient background on the theory, method, oral history work or house and/or make access and ethics involved in initiating an oral history to the interviews.The guidelines provide a program.The resources should also provide framework for conduct covering all steps in the examples of how oral history has been used in oral history project development.Especially the curriculum and how to locate other such relevant are guidelines covering ethical and examples. legal issues and special guidelines for educators Both authors have been involved in oral and students to consider. The forty-item bibli- history over a number of years.Ms. Craiglow ography at the end of this pamphlet includes has been formally trained in oral history English language publications as well as

120 93 several publications in French and Spanish. Oral history manuals and publications provide ample advice on how to do oral history. Assessing the Appropriateness of Oral. Most oral history projects are headed by some- History in the Curriculum one who serves as a director who handles coor- Once the librarian/educator is versed in dination of effort and record keeping. Some of the process of oral history he or she must decide the important considerations include training whether the methodology fits within the edu- students on the skills involved in conducting cational institution's curricular goals. This deci- background research; formulating appropriate sion is based on such evidence as the insti- questions; handling equipment; conducting tutional support in staffing, equipment, and interviews; outlining, indexing, or transcribing supplies; institutional approval of innovative completed interviews; and editing to prepare teaching approaches; existing curricular man- written documents or other products from the dates; student aptitude and interest; and time interviews.Training can include preparing available for training, interviewing, and packets of background material on oral history, preparing products from the interviews.In developing model interviews, organizing work- some cases, the librarian/educator may choose shops by experienced oral historians, pur- to engage his or her students in "passive oral chasing training materials including video history."5 In passive oral history the students tapes, and instituting an ongoing evaluation make use of products of others' interviews, process including peer review. reading accounts, listening to tapes, and Important documents, such as legal otherwise becoming aware of the contributions release forms, will need to be drafted and of oral history without actually experiencing the approved. A file of potential interviewees will method first hand. Conversely, active oral his- be developed, along with a name authority file tory projects may involve students in all stages to provide cross references between variant spel- of an oral history program, especially in lings, former names, and nicknames. Banks of interviewing. interview questions should be kept. Evaluation forms need to designed.Equipment will be Selecting a Focus purchased or borrowed and its use and main- If the librarian/educator chooses to tenance scheduled. The director will handle the initiate an oral history project in an educational financial operation, including budgeting, ac- setting, the next step is to select, with the counting, and fund raising. The director will students, a focus for the project. Generally, oral also handle the disposition of the interviews. history projects are thematic, centered on a theme such as an event, or biographical, What Are the Products of Oral History? centered on the personal and unique lives of The primary result of the oral history individuals.There is much blurring between effort is a document that contributes to the his- these two broad types of projects. For example, toric record. This contribution may flesh out the individuals who experienced an event such as a traditional historical, chronology by providing the natural disaster are apt to discuss their exper- personal perspective of someone whose contri- ience in the context of their own life. However, butions or observations were heretofore undocu- without a clear, agreed upon central focus or mented. Such data would otherwise be lost purpose the oral history project may diverge into with the observers' or participants' deaths. a number of unconnected avenues. This focus Other oral history projects use the should be in the form of a written agreement on archival .records to create unique products. the mission of the project. Once the focus and Personal research based on oral history inter- mission are determined, then the librarian views leads to presentations and published /educator can identify one or more objectives or articles and books.In Oakland, California, statements with measurable outcomes that adult students in a literacy program were inter- indicate whether or not the mission is achieved. viewed on their life histories; with the aid of a Thus, if the mission is for students to document federal U. S. Department of Education grant, area veterans' involvement in war, one objective their stories were published in a four-volume set might be, by the end of three months, to have and these biographies were then used as texts interviewed ten citizens who served in active in subsequent literacy classes.6Appalachian duty over the past fifty years. students in Eliot Wigginton's high school English classes published magazines, mono- Initiating and Directing the Project graphs, and curricular support materials and

121 130 produced recordings and programs for radio and order to teach their students a research meth- television.? Community wide oral history pro- od.10If a student develops an interest or jects are celebrated through exhibitions, adver- aptitude in social science research, a student tised at festivals, recorded on film, or performed might contemplate careers that build on this on stage. learned skill, such as journalism, sociology and social work, history, and anthropology. Why Include Oral History in the Curric- ulum Enhancing Communication Skills There are many advantages to incorpor- Oral history can aid in the development ating oral history into the curriculumIn an of language arts.In fact, the aim of some oral experiment comparing high school students history projects is not to produce a taped inter- involved with oral history and those not using view but to help students improve their reading oral history methods in their required United and writing.11 Students practice writing skills States history class, Lanman found that oral when they draft and write invitations to inter- history might contribute to greater under- viewees. They learn to describe themselves and standing of content, especially when the project their plans on paper. They analyze their oral focuses on the students' ethnic background.8 He speech through transcribing the interviews. In also found that students had a positive attitude editing the transcriptions, students learn to edit toward oral history, welcoming the change of their speech and writing. pace oral history affords and motivating some They develop skills in asking written students to continue in personal study of topics questions, following the type of training survey after the oral history unit was completed.9 researchers use in their methodology.Thus, Using and practicing oral history in the class- they must learn how to phrase questions that room can enhance the educational experience are to the point but not leading, polite yet through introducing new skills and augmenting direct, open ended rather than closed.Their other skills and knowledge. oral skills are challenged as they learn to speak with another. Oral history helps students de- Adaptability of the Approach velop active listening skills: the interviewer Oral history is a versatile research tool listens to learn. Not only do they learn to listen that can be applied in any location or environ- to others for content, but students practice ment that allows at least two people to com- carrying a progressive conversation. In listening municate with each other. Where there is mem- to themselves on tape they become aware of ory and a means to document it, there can be their tone, phrasing, and use of iteratives (such oral history. Oral historians have interviewed a as basically, urn, ah, you know, and don't you broad slice of human experience:American know) and lapses in speech. writers of the Vietnam war, nursing home residents, film directors, Soviet Jewish immi- Enhancing Organizational Skills grants, concentration camp survivors, women of Oral history requires that advanced northern Ireland, drug addicts, children ofplanning and structure be tempered with flex- Nazis, war brides of World War II, crime ibility.Organizational skills are needed to victims, black female domestic workers and handle the myriad tasks required in record their employers in segregated American south- keeping and seeing a project through from start ern states, patients in mental institutions, and to finish. There is some structure to oral history people who claim to have seen Elvis since his but there is also ample room for the unexpected. death. Due to its multidisciplinary potential, The list of worries associated with oral history oral history methods can be applied to any is a lengthy one. Tape recorders can malfunc- subject area within the curriculum tion; needed equipment can be forgotten the day of the interview; batteries can be exhausted. Learning a Research Method Background noise, panting or barking dogs, In 1987 the Oral History Association's unhelpful relatives, electric appliances, traffic, Committee on Teaching surveyed educators to or ringing telephones can minimalize the pro- assess their use of oral history.Results indi- duction quality of an interview.Interviewees cated that almost half of college and university may be talkative until the recorder light is on. teachers returning completed questionnaires Interviewers may record over taped interviews; (44% or 68 of 155 respondents) indicated that tapes may be erased during duplication or they incorporated oral history assignments in stored under improper conditions and subse-

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0 -47 10 _IL quently damaged.Advance preparation can in oral history, an individual develops trans- minimize some worries; training can assist a ferrable abilities that can be applied throughout person in handling them. While dependent on a lifetime. Eliot Wigginton, wrote of a core set team effort, oral history pushes self-reliance and of practices in teaching. In conversations with often translates into character building. former high school students who had partici- pated in his famed Foxfire project he described Promoting Socialization and Self Growth tO...when these practices are used well, the The hallmark of oral history is the valu- result is often the most memorable, formative, ing of the individual.Popular culture and intense, educative experience of [the students'] media such as music, television and film, pro- public school lives."12 mote the personality with the recognizable name and/or countenance; oral history permits References the everyday person to speak. Oral history may help reduce the isola- 1 Thomas L. Charlton, Oral History for Texans, tion of modern life.Once involved in oral his- 2nd Ed. (Austin, Tex.:Texas Historical tory, whether as interviewer or interviewee, the Commi-ssion, 1985): 2. participants are no longer solitary. Engaging in 2 Barry A. Lanman, "Oral History as an oral history can serve as a rite of passage for a Educational Tool for Teaching Immigration young person, an entering into the adult world and Black History in American High Schools: where one becomes a peer and associate. He or Findings and Queries,: International Journal she becomes part of the community of fellow of Oral History 8 (2) (1987): 122 oral historians, part of the community of human 3 Loriene Roy, "Planning an Oral History experience. This community includes the inter- Project," Journal of Youth Services in viewees, librarians, archivists, and historians Libraries 6 (4) (Summer 1993), 409-413. involved in the storage and dissemination of the Loriene Roy, "The Oral History Project of content of the interviews, and the public or TLA," Texas Library Journal 68 (2) (Summer audience making use of the oral history inter- 1992), 59-62. views or products.Oral history has a great 4 Guidelines and Principles of the Oral History capacity for fostering intergenerational com- Association. Los Angeles, CA: Oral History munication, contact between cultures, and coop- Association, 1992. erative learning. A student's sense of self worth 5 Lanman, "Oral History as an Educational may be enhanced when he or she contributes to Tool," 123 a project of acknowledged importance. 6"Literacy Students' Stories Become Text for By focusing on the interviewee's life and Others," Library Hotline 21 (December 7, contributions, the interviewer engages in the 1992): 5. other and cannot help but learn about himself 7 Eliot Wigginton, "Foxfire Grows Up," Harvard or herself. In developing the introspective skills Educational Review 59 (1) (February 1989): required to consider someone else's life, the 26. student may begin to ponder his or her own 8 Lanman, "Oral History as an Educational future. He or she may learn to question and Tool," 129-130, 134. consider alternatives.Students may become 10 Barry A. Lanman, "The Use of Oral History in aware of some valuable life lessons: that within the Classroom: A Comparative Analysis of one lifetime numerous experiences are possible. the 1974 and 1987 Oral Histroy Association That others may adopt very different lifestyles Surveys,"Oral Histroy Review 17 (1) (Spring from the student's own background and that 1989): 217-218, 221. these lifestyles can also be valued. A person 11James Deem and Sandra A. Engel, can live his or her life on many levels: as a "Developing Literacy Through Transcription," private, family focused individual; as a person Journal of Basic Writing 7 (2) (1988): 99-107. involved in a profession; and as a person 12 Wigginton, "Foxfire Grows Up," p.30. involved in the greater community. Oral history may afford the young person the wisdom of perspective. Conclusion In summary, oral history has much to offer the curriculum. Through becoming involved

123 132 Incorporating Oral History into the Curriculum: A Pathfinder By Hilary Craiglow Graduate School of Library and Information Science University of Texas at Austin Oral History is the recording and preserving of International Publications, 1994. planned interviews with selected people able to In the "Cumulative Subject Index" look under narrate recollected memory and thereby aid the the "History I Geography" section for the key reconstruction of the past.Oral history can be terms "oral history". Items listed will include used in the elementary and secondary school a reference number to locate the document classroom as a way for students to capture the from the "Microfiche Collection". history and lives of people not recorded and become a part of preserving history and culture. Methods for Using Oral History in the Classroom Start with Background Information on You can find books on this topic by looking Oral History in the library catalog using the term: "oral When searching the library catalog for history--study and teaching". The following are general works on oral history use the term "oral bibliographies and general works. history". Also, browse the call number D16 for Library of Congress or 907.2 for the Dewey Lanman, B.A. and G. Mehaffy. Oral History in Decimal system. the Secondary School Classroom.Los The following are titles on the theory Angeles, CA: Oral History Association, and practice of oral history. 1988. ED 348 330. Neuenschwander, J.A. Oral History as A Teach- Baum, W.K. Oral History for the Local History ing Approach. Washington: National Educa- Society, 3rd ed.Nashville, TN: American tion Association, 1976. Association for State and Local History, Pierce, P. Oral History: An Effective Means to 1987. Enhance Education in the Elementary Class- Haulice, P. Oral History: A Reference Guide and room.' A paper presented at the Annual Annotated Bibliography. Jefferson, NC: Convention of the New York State Council McFarland, 1985. for Social StudiesEllenville, NY, 1984. ED Hoopes, J. Oral History: An Introduction for 244 856. Students. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of Schipper, S.P. Oral History: An Effective Means North Carolina Press, 1979. to Enhance Education in the Elementary Thompson, P. The Voice of the Past. 2nd ed. Classroom, 1982. ED 224 744. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Sitton, T, G. Mehaffy and O.L. Davis, Jr. Oral History: A Guide for Teachers (and Others). For Articles and Curriculum Guides on Austin, TX: University of Texas- Press, Oral History 1983. In the following indexes you will find articles about oral history and curriculum models on the Examples of Oral History in the Classroom use of oral history in the classroom. These are some examples of the ways that oral history has and can be used successfully in ERIC. Washington, DC: Educational Research the curriculum Information Center, 1960 - Using the words "oral history", to search, you Fernekes, W.R. "Student Inquiries about the will find many articles. By adding other Vietnam War." Social Education 52, 1 terms such as "teaching methods", "multi- (January 1988): 53-54. cultural", "curriculum development", "class Totten, S. "Using Oral Histories to Address activities" or any other area of interest, you Social Issues in the Social Studies Class- will get more specific titles. room." Social Education, 53, 2 (February KCDL (Krause Curriculum Development Libr- 1989): 114-116. ary) Cumulative Subject Index and Microfiche Wigginton, E. ed., ed. The Foxfire Book. Garden Collection. White Plains, NY: Krause City, NY: Anchor Books, 1972.

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133 This is the first of a series. Wigginton began an oral history program in the 1960s. It was so successful that it has become a model called the "Foxfire Method". Associations Associations can put you in touch with local oral history experts and practitioners. You may also want to ask for a list of publications, especially their "Guidelines". Oral History Association Box 13734, N.T. Station North Texas State University Denton, TX 76203

125 134 Literacy and the Inner City Child by Jack Stack Doctoral Student University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania USA

The focus of this presentation is literacy and are not enough assets to adequately provide for service to the inner city child.I believe that all the needs of these children. "Without basic thereis a need to target these children. The skills a child's chances for future independence, vision of an inner city child is one of living in productivity and success are greatly limited." less than desirable circumstances, more than (Hatkoff, 1992).The families remaining are likely at or below the poverty level, and there is raising their children as best as they can. The a good chance that they are one of the minority inner city is usually not represented in the child- groups in a country.In the United States ren's books we have in the collection. Although "almost three-quarters of the nation's poor re- there has been some new titles depicting the sided in urban areas in 1985. The propor-tion inner city child and a way of life that may be of the low-income people living in extremely poor familiar to them, the titles are not in abun- neighborhoods increased between 1970 and dance. Our role as school librarians will con- 1980, from 16 percent to 24 percent.The tinue to expand in an effort to provide the spec- concentrated poor are mainly in a few of the ialized assistance necessary to serve these largest cities." (U.S. House, 1991).We can students. predict that the children we will be serving The children are the future of the com- throughout the remainder of this decade are munity. What they are and will become is a the offspring of the children who lived in ex- reflection of how they developed. Think of the tremely poor neighborhoods in the 1970s and children as the seeds of a growing crop. If you 1980s. sow the seeds in fertilesoil, provide nutrients, There is no desire to remain in the inner water, light and heat, the seed will grow into a city or major population area. The inner city is productive crop, and produce moreseeds to old, crowded and not a very pleasant place to sustain itself.Lacking any of the necessary grow up.Those families that remain in the ingredients the crop will fail or produce a less inner city are there either because they have no than desirable product or yield. choice (mandatory residency for certain jobs), If we view schools as growing fields and economics (either close to work, school, family) all teachers as growers then we can see that or lack of resources (can't find enough money to some of the crops grow very well, while others move and live outside the inner city). There are barely survive and some wither and die in the some exceptions."Millions of children grow up ground. The school library media specialist can in illiterate households. They do not receive the be the master grower. The expert in crop devel- support they need to excel in school, which opment. A master grower is able to diagnose results in their starting off far behind their the crop and recommend the remedial action or peers."(Hatkoff, 1992). Although the school ingredient to correct a deficiency. We are the system they attend offers the best instruction fruits of good growing practices.Just think possible, there usually is a need to place more back to your earlier growing years. Whether we emphasis on the social needs.According to had thebest of all the ingredients or were Project Literacy, U.S., children with low basic saved by a caring grower and provided with skills are nine times more likely to drop out of better soil, nutrients, more water, moved to a high school, eight times more likely to become brighter location or given some heat. We all pregnant out of wedlock, and four times more developed well. The children of the inner city likely to become welfare-dependent than child- are not being provided with all the necessary ren with above-average skills.These children ingredients in the proper amounts to produce come to school with a greater abundance of well.Some arelacking the light, some the social needs than children from the non-urban, water and some are trying to survive (not grow ) suburban or rural population. Generally there in very poor soil.School librarians must

126 understand how children learn to read, then municated to children by adults (role models) they can provide the proper instruction. who unthinkingly take it for granted that child- Lea-Ruth Wilkens said in her book Supporting ren recognize the importance of reading. The K-5 Reading Instruction in the School Library attitude of the classroom teacher also con- Media Center, "Only if school library media tributes to positive or negative influences specialists have a sound understanding of the regarding reading." (Wilkins, 1984). We need reading instruction process will they be able to not only be aware of the social and emotional guide readers on how to use the wealth ofproblems that face our inner city youth, but we printed materials available to them in the must have a variety of solutions to help them school library media center." (Wilkens, 1984). deal with the issues.I think that we cannot There are a variety of sources to learn how solve these problems alone. However, we must children read.ThePower of Reading, by be a part of the solution.Understanding the Stephen Kashen offers the research background issues and affects on the children will help us of various studies to confirm the fact that design an adequate approach to the children. continuous reading induces better readers, We must be desirable models for the writers and thinkers. Now is the time to pro- students to follow. A potted plant will grow vide that healthy start or remedial action to toward a light source, it will bend. The bending produce the best and strongest crop that can be will affect the development and shape of the produced. plant. With daily rotation a potted plant can Another significant factor in the literacy develop into a straight, tall and healthy speci- development of children is modeling behaviors. men, without rotation it may be strong but "Modeling has the most profound effect on slanted. Children, like growing plants, need the learning. We are all modified models of our daily attention of the grower to develop into environment." (Wilkens, 1984). The history of well-rounded, knowledgeable citizens of the mankind confirms this. Who is your heroine or community. The school library media specialist hero? Picking a famous person and following (Master Grower) and the teachers (growers) can their footsteps is a method we have pursued at provide this daily rotation in the form of new sometime or another. Start with answering the information of varied subjects, introduction to question, "What do you want to be when you alternate sources of information, and reading for grow up? Think back to when you were first growth. We need to recognize not only the asked that question.I'll bet you named an inadequately growing crops, but maintain the occupation or profession and had a famous nourishment of the entire field or garden. We person in mind that you wanted to be like. know as gardeners that what works for one Some of us picked a parent or older family group or crop or type of plant does not work for member, others may have selected a famous all group.As the growers know some crops entertainer or film star, sports figure or social need more light, others need additional water, leader. And as we grow older we may have had or perhaps the soil is lacking the required changed our attitude toward that person or the chemical consistency and needs fortified with profession. "Your beliefs, behavior and manner additional nutrients. Different groups need dif- reflect your development. If your developmental ferent ingredients. However, all the crops need environment was rich then you acquired skills attention, your attention. faster and they were reinforced into a stronger I think we can all agree that reading foundation upon which all others issues, skills literacy is a master key to success. What are and attitudes rest." (Wilkens, 1984). some methods or techniques you can incorporate Emotional and social problems manifest into your program of service to the children? in the actions of the children in a variety of Understand the students' backgrounds.The ways."Some children may suffer from emo- inner city may not be your background, but you tional problems because they are neglected and need to get into it to understand it. What is the abused or live in home environments which do heritage, customs and traditions of the students not provide a feeling of being loved and nur- being served. You must attempt to get to know tured. Negative attitude toward reading may what the students deem important and develop develop in children who come from home envir- an approach from that information. Try not to onments in which reading is neither nurtured force your views of life, learning and living onto nor reinforced by a positive regard for the lear- your students. We learn from what we know to ner or the teacher or it may also occur in homes what we don't know. You need to establish where reading is highly valued but not com- what the children know in terms of what they

127 136 have experienced, how they live and how they literary or printed language." (Hillerich,1977). view their world.Only then can you build a That is probably why folk tales were among the bridge from their limited experiences to the first types of literature to be printed. greater world of society's experiences. What is Once you have picked a book appropri- important to the children may be insignificant ate to the interests of the group's age, both to you. However, the only way you can reach mental and physical, the book or story ought to them is by placing a value on their comments, be read without paraphrasing.There is no ideas, and issues. harm for children to hear a word or two that Establish a fertile ground for the seed to might not be in their listening vocabulary. grow. Present the children with a comfortable Again that is how people, children and adults, place to listen and read. A school library that is learn; experiencing new words, ideas and con- warm and inviting is a start.It can be a haven cepts."Oral reading should be done from a especially for children who don't have a place of book that others do not have in hand." their own to read in. (Hillerich, 1977).Practice, practice, practice! Feed the children stories that they like. Make up particular voices for each character. Feed them by reading to them.Introduce These voices should be as colorful as the cos- stories that are short and funny. Capture their tumes of a theater production.Children also imagination with stories that may be familiar need to play a part, their part in the oral read- to them. Studies show the importance of child- ing process. They can share by reading to the ren being read to at an early age in terms ofrest of the group a small portion of a book or developing reading and language skills.Yet story they enjoy. "They may dramatize a story many young parents lack the precedent of story by the taking of parts of thecharacters and time. Therefore, a tradition of reading and the reading their parts directly from the book." importance of developing a lifelong learning (Hillerich, 1977). The other purpose for reading habit of reading is not developed or ingrained to children is to increase their interest in read- into the memory and lives of the children. Offer ing.Do you remember an interesting oral to lead a group of parents in reading to their introduction to a book that made you want to children. Set this up through a literacy group, read that book? or as a school library to host an after school Another approach is to incorporate read- program. You may be able to get assistance ing into the subject matter. You have heard of from local community groups that advocate literature across the curriculum? David Moore, helping others in the community. writing in Developing Readers and Writers, Water the new plants. Encourage them develops the concept that "literacy and subject to read anything and set up a routine for the matter instruction can be combined in elemen- children to tell their fellow students what they tary as well as secondary schools. This distinc- read about.I would suggest that you limit the tion is especially valuable because more and amount of formal structure in this process. Too more elementary teachers are incorporating lit- many rules or procedures, like too much water, eracy instruction with instruction about the can drown the imagination and creativity of world." (Moore, 1994). He offers the following anyone. reasons for incorporating literacy instruction Provide the nutrients on a routine basis. with subject matter: Present the children with a variety of literature, rhymes, poems, folk stories, and ballads, and 1. Reading and writing are tools for learning. longer stories of children experiencing unfamiliar 2. Literacy requirements continually increase places and things. Develop displays of inquis- in school and society. itive things for children to experience and ex- 3. Each mode of expression requires distinct plore language abilities. Oral reading appears to be similar to 4. Each content area requires distinct lear- the tradition of story telling in ancient cultures. ning abilities. Before the printing press and mass quantities 5. Readers and writers perform a variety of of textbooks and readers, our ancestors passed tasks that require distinct language abil- down the body of knowledge through oral ities tradition. The folk tales of every culture were 6. Content area teachers can teach content handed down by word of mouth for centuries. area reading and writing best. "It is important to read to young children in Because content area sources and order to acquaint them with the patterns of the courses consist largely of language, the study of

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137 content areas is really the study of language. Libraries Unlimited, 1993. We now understand more than ever before that the literacy requirements are increasing sig- Moore, Davis W. et. al. Developing Readers and nificantly as students move from elementary to Writers in the Content Areas, K-12. 2nd. ed. New secondary school. This is reflected in society as York:Longman, 1994. we evolve from an industrial-based to a tech- nical/informational one (Cole, 1990; Resnick, Resnick, L. Education and Learning to Think. 1987).The amount of sophisticated reading Washington, D. C.:National Academy Press, and writing abilities required of graduates is 1987. rapidly increasing as a result of the technical /informational deluge. The revolutionary chan- U.S. House. Select Committee on Hunger. "New ges in technology have affected nearly all occu- Perspectives on Urban Poverty and Microeco- pations. Office workers of our parents nomic Development." Hearing 25 July 1991. generation were skilled in using manual type- Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1991. (Y4.H writers, filing cabinets and single line tele- 89:102-9). phones. Today's office workers need to be able to use word processing programs, computerized Wilkens, Lea-Ruth C. Supporting K-5 Reading databases and multiline telephone systems, fax Instruction in the School Library Media Center. machines and electronic mail functions."Jobs Chicago:American Library Association, 1984. that call for predictable, simple routines are giving way to work that requires complex problem solving and decision making skills." (Moore, 1994). In order to develop these skills children must be able to read and write well. Literacy started at an early age can instill the tradition of reading and learning on ones own to become a productive member of the community and break the pattern of poverty that is burdening today's society. "Without basic skills a child's chances for future independence, pro- ductivity and success are greatly limited." (Hatkoff, 1992). The major difference I have seen from working in an inner city school is the environ- ment and cultural background of the children. We were not the same. Yet I tried to develop a sense of understanding their culture in order to show them reading literacy and reading tradition. Notes Cole, N.S. (1990) "Conceptions of Educational Achievement," Educational Researcher, 19 (3), 2-7. Hatkoff, Amy and Karen Kelly Klopp. How to save the Children. New York: Simon & Schus- ter, 1992. Hillerich, Robert L. Reading Fundamentals for Preschool and Primary Children.Columbus: Charles E. Merrill, 1977. Krashen, Stephen D.The Power of Reading: Insights from the _Research.Englewood, CO:

129 138 Looking at Britain's National Curriculum for English: Promoting Long Established Children's Fiction and Stories froma Variety of Cultures and Traditions by Helga B. Visscher Education Library University of Alabama

No matter what one's family origins approach. Although there seems to be a con- may be, most Americans grow up with a land- sensus for the idea of having a national cur- scape of England imprinted on the mind. riculum, there has been a lot of controversy over Through nursery rhyme, we did "Ride a Cock details. In this study, a review of the contro- Horse to Banbury Cross," and other places. We versies on the National Curriculum will be pre- worried about London Bridge falling down. As sented, along with examples of books promoted we grew older, through books, movies, or tele- for student reading which reflect long estab- vision, we became familiar with Peter Pan in lished children's fiction and stories from a vari- Kensington Gardens; Christopher Robin watch- ety of cultures and traditions.Library hold- ing the changing of the guard at Buckingham ings were checked, observations made, and Palace; Mary Poppins strict rules of decorum on school staff interviewed at two schools in Guild- Cherry Tree Lane; tea parties with Alice in ford, Surrey. The problems described at each Wonderland. Fantasy and make believe seem- school are typical for schools in Great Britain-- ed much more plausible in England.Toad all trying to meet the demands of the National drove a motor car, and messed around with Curriculum, school finances, and classroom and boats along with his old friend Badger, and it student needs at the same time. The recom- all made perfect sense. The great outdoors ofmended reading list for English reflects the woods, fields and moors are magnificent gate- conflicting points of view of the traditionalists ways to worlds of fantasy. and progressives in educational thought. England has a rich literary heritage to bequeath to the world, but, as I discovered Background Information on the National during my sabbatical year in England, life is not Curriculum. like that.The reality is that most people in The passing of the 1988 Education Great Britain live in large cities, in apartments, Reform Act changed the power bases and po- semi-detatched houses (duplexes), and small litical assumptions of state schooling in Great houses. Less than ten per cent of the nations' Britain.Proponents said that the Act would children attend fee-paying schools, and of that, raise standards, extend choice, and pro-duce a fewer than two per cent are in boarding schools. better educated Britain.Critics said that the Most attend state supported schools in their Act has eliminated concerns for equality of op- neighborhoods and live at home with their portunity or a comprehensive system of state parents, without servants. Modern England is education. Parental choice and competition, a multicultural society with people living close financial monitoring and strong central throughout the country from Pakistan, India, control are its traits.According to Flude and the West Indies, Hong Kong, Kenya, and Niger- Hammer (1990) the changes were brought ia.There are racial conflicts for these imm- about by the New Right after the Conservative igrant families in Great Britain, and some of government took power in 1979. The curricu- the modern stories reflect this fact. There is a lum was not changed immediately, but financial strong love of nature reflected in many stories, restraints on schools due to the economy fol- but modern children search the great outdoors lowed the Conservative party line. in public places, not on their own wooded Controversies regarding the National estates.City bound children rarely get to a Curriculum are based on the weighting of test- landscaped park. ing and assessment schemes, and on educa- In 1989 England implemented the Na- tional philosophies.The consensus for the tional Curriculum for state schools, making adoption of a National Curriculum is strong. prescriptive demands on teaching content and The classroom revolution of the 1960s had its

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13 backlash in 1976 in a speech given by James education with vocational train-ing, or general Callaghan, then Prime Minister at Ruskin Col- studies. In 1991, 62% of 16 year-olds chose to lege in Oxford. The politicians, and much of the continue full time study, and another 2% chose public felt that schools were failing the needs of part time study.Secondary schools give the pupils, with too much play and child centered older students free time in the middle of the day learning. Students were not being educated for for working on projects, and these students help the needs of the work force.Schools were en- with supervision duties at school. couraged to become more cost efficient and all The National Curriculum has assess- should teach a relevant curriculum.Duncan ment and attainment targets for all required Graham 1991), former head of the National subjects.English in the National Curriculum Curriculum Council, summarizing the impact of has specific activities required for each subject. Callaghan's speech, concurred that "there was a Students should be able to: need for a National Curriculum and...a sur- Level 1--Talk in simple terms about the prising consensus on content. "Even a letter to content of stories, or information in nonfic the editor in the Times Educational Supplement tion books. (TES) affirms this. 'The introduction of the Na- Level 2--Read a range of material with some tional Curriculum has encouraged many pos- independence, with fluency, accuracy, and itive effects: an appraisal of the whole curricu- understanding. lum, consideration of teaching methods, dif- Level 3-- Devise a clear set of questions that ferentiated schemes of work, reflection on all will enable them to select and use appropri- types of assessment aimed at improving learn- ate information sources and reference books ing, and better reporting of information to pup- from the class and school library. ils, and parents." (TES April 30, 1993) Level 4--Find books or magazines in the class The National Curriculum is taught to all or school library by using a classification students ages 5 to 16. It covers three core foun- system, catalogue, or database and use ap- dation subjects: English, mathematics and sci- propriate methods of finding information, ence; and seven other foundation subjects- when pursuing a line of inquiry. -technology, history, geography, music, art, phy- Level 5--Select reference books and other sical education, plus a modern foreign language information materials and use organization- for ages 11 to 16.Religious Education is re- al devices to find answers to their own ques- quired, but is not subject to attainment targets tions and those of others. or standardized tests as the others are. Within Levels 6 & 7--Read a range of fiction and the core and foundation subjects, cross curricu- poetry, explaining their preferences. lar themes are included, in areas such as health Level 7--Select, retrieve and combine informa- education, environmental education, careers tion independently from a wide range of education, and education for good citizenship. reference materials. Library and information skills are woven into Levels 8, 9 & 10--Read a range of fiction, the National Curriculum through subject poetry literary nonfiction and drama, includ- strands--primarily through English and Tech- ing pre-20th century literature.Select, re- nology (information technology) subjects.Na- trieve, evaluate and combine information tional standardized tests are given at four Key independently and with discrimination, from Stages: a comprehensive range of reference mater- Key Stage 1, at age 7 is said to be diagnostic ials. only; DES. "Attainment Target 2:Reading. "English Key Stage 2, age 11; in the National Curriculum, 1990. Key Stage 3, age 14; Under this system, children will all be Key Stage 4, age 16, students take the GCSE - exposed to the same literary heritage which General Certificate of Secondary Education England has to offer the whole English speak- Exams, in 4 or 5 subjects. Good performance on ing world. The truth is, many children cannot this exam is needed for the next level. Stu-dents relate to the middle class Victorian sensibilities may leave school and start work after this. of the old favorites. Books which reflect the cur- Because of the economy, many more con-tinue rent conditions of modern times are added to and take A level exams, which are required for the recommended lists. There has been a great University admission. Students concentrate on deal of controversy on all of this, and that is three subjects in depth, and can take other part of the sport of observing the implementa short courses. Students can also choose further tion of the National Curriculum.

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140 Background Information on the National number of books, and student's performance is Curriculum: based on tests given on those particular stories. Callaghan's Ruskin speech of 1976 is Students are encouraged to read widely, so seen as a turning point in shifting public opin- other books are welcome, but the assessments ion. Early success in privatization policies in the must cover reading ability and comprehension. sale of Council Houses (housing projects) and The list of reading books in English in for some industries, made the social climate the National Curriculum is provided in order to open to the Conservatives' reforms in education. standardize the assessment process. This is a Calls for school choice, and account-ability fit in sample of the good books to be found in to the ethos of the school reform movement. One classrooms and libraries, selected so that the new concept is the local management of schools, results of the assessments are consistent across which covers financial delegation and obliga- the country. tions. Local decisions are made on school In the National Curriculum, Attainment expenditures - for supplies, maintenance, staf- Target 2, reading is defined as "the ability to fing, etc.Formula funding is a pupil driven read, understand and respond to a wide range system of funding schools in which at least 75% of literary and non-literary texts." It goes on to of the money allocated by formula must be tied say that pupils should be encouraged to devel- to a pupil, so that schools have a dear incentive op a habit of reading for pleasure. The subject to attract and retain its pupils.Thus, a strands within the reading requirement include popular school receives more money on the basis initial reading skills, comprehension, response of the higher number of students attending it. to literature and information handling, (using Schools with declining enrollment, whatever the library skills). reason, will have to manage within these In the teacher's guide each level indudes constraints. This financial arrangement causes a list of the type of literature children should short term problems in staffing and in buying read.Titles listed in A Reading List for the resources for the school. A sudden influx ofNation's Children are advisory. In reality the students adds more money for short term national exams at Key Stages, especially KS 2, needs, and can make the school more attractive KS 3 and KS 4 assume that students are in a competitive school market. On the other familiar with specific titles, authors and liter- hand, more students puts more demands on a ary styles.The reliance on exams to raise school, and overcrowded classrooms are not educational standards is part of the controversy attractive. over English in the National Curriculum. Tra- The National Curriculum has faced ditionalists favor concentrating on the best of frequent revisions and updates.Four were British authors, while others promote a multi- introduced between 1989 to 1993, with a major cultural point of view, and others prefer a child change planned for the 1993-1994 school year. centered or whole language approach to reading Testing and assessment is at the heart of the and literature. In many parts of England multi- changes - in order to provide a comparison of the racial and immigrant communities are the performance of schools at all levels.The predominant culture. The recommended titles National Curriculum for English has become include enough variety to reflect Asian Indian the most politicized, by the right wing Centre for and Afro-Carribean cultures, but not enough to Policy Studies, producing a curriculum which please all sides. "looks back to the past, not forward to the Reading for Level 1 and Level 2 includes future," according to an editor of Times British and American titles. Teachers may use Educational Supplement. (St. John-Brooks, any book the children are enthusiastic about, 1993) When the 1994 revision is introduced, and with which they are familiar. The recom- there will be a five-year moratorium on changes, mended titles are selected, so that the assess- giving English teachers some stability, after ment process is standardized. years of wrangling. (TES, March 11, 1994, p.1) Level 1 and Level 2 include the fol- lowing titles: Level 1: Each Peach Pear Plum, Looking at the National Curriculum for Ahlberg; Ten Nine Eight, Bang; Mr. Gumpy's English: Promoting Literature. Outing, Burningham; Dear Zoo, Campbell; The In the classroom, students are exposed Very Hungry Caterpillar, Carle; One Inch Rajah, to a variety of literature each year. The Front; The Bears who Went to the Seaside, National Curriculum suggests certain titles for Gretz; The Baked Bean Queen, Impey; Titch, each school year. Every class covers a certain Hutchins; Is Anyone Home, Maris; Brown Bear,

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141 Brown Bear, What Do You See?, Martin; Not range of texts which include poetry, prose and- Now Bernard, McKee; On Friday, Something drama. Paper One, Part A is an open study of Happened, Prater; How Do I Put It On?, comparative work on texts. Students research a Watanabe. Level 2: Andrew's Bath, McPhail; selection of texts, reflecting individual interests, All in One Piece, Murphy; But Martin!, Counsel; and including sufficient scope to draw compar- The Bad Tempered Ladybird, Carle; Frog and isons and connections.Texts studied by the Toad are Friends, Lobel; Eat Up, Gemma, class as a whole can be included, but must also Hayes, Ormerod; Dogger, Hughes; Peepo!, include books, drama or poetry read on one's Ahlberg; Threadbear, Inkpen; Through My own. Teacher input can be very strong at this Window, Bradman, Brown; Whatever Next!, point,and unless a student has other Murphy; It was Jake!, Jeram; Jamaica's Find , resources, the student is limited to the books Havill; Miss Dose the Doctor's Daughter, Mr. and the school has to offer. Part B of Paper One is Mrs. Hay the Horse, Mrs. Wobble the Waitress , the Shakespeare Unit, based on works studied Ahlberg; New Clothes for Alex, Dickinson. in class. Activities can include a comparison of Level 3: A Necklace of Raindrops, Aiken; a number of different versions of the same play- - Old Bear, Hissey; Osa's Pride, Grifalconi; Shaker film, video, performance. Another choice could be Lane, Provenson; The Bunk Bed Bus; Rodgers; a comparison of a Shakespeare play with a text Tall Inside, Richardson; the Turtle and the with related themes - -such as Romeo and Juliet Island, Wilson; What's the Time Rory Wolf, and Love Across the Barricades.A student McClure. could write a comparison of two Shakespeare Level 4:I'm Trying to Tell You, Ashley; plays.Paper Two in the Key Stage 4 assess- Lady Daisy, King-Smith; Alice in Wonderland, ment would be a written exam on a student's Carroll; A Bear Called Paddington, Bond; understanding and response to poetry. Stu- Charlotte's Web, White; The Man Who Wanted dents must have read a wide range of poems to Live Forever, Hastings; West Indian Folk from a range of times and cultures.Students Tales, Sherlock; Winnie the Pooh,Milne; Seasons and teachers are not informed ahead of time of Splendor: Tales from India, Jaffrey, Carbonel, which poet(s) will be part of the exam.For Sleigh; Here Comes Charlie Moon, Hughes; The Paper Three in the assessment a student may DownhillCrocodile Shizz, Mahy; Dear Mili, choose one of two options, which will be changed Grimm; The Good Little Christmas Tree, every three years. A number of specific texts Williams, Tyler; Across the Barricades, Lingard; will be specified for each option, additional Treasure Island, Stevenson; Dragon Slayer: reading is not specified. Example One Writers Beowulf Sutcliff; Just So Stories, Kipling. and Their Cultures:American Women After Key Stage 2 exams at age 11, the Writers includes reading the books The student's school day is arranged by subject clas- Friends, by Rosa Guy; Roll of Thunder Hear My ses, like American middle school or junior high. Cry, by Mildred Taylor; and To Kill a Mocking- The English classes include literature, writing, bird, by Harper Lee.Related reading would grammar. Recommended reading is covered in include books by Maya Angelou, Alice Walker, class, and choices for student's reading becomes Carson McCullers, Toni Morrison, etc.Example broader. Students begin to study one Shake- Two: Thematic Study: The Individual and speare play per year. At the end of this stage, Society. Required reading would include Great the Key Stage 3 exam includes a choice of ques- Expectations, by Charles Dickens; A View from tions from specific stories read. In the bad old the Bridge, by Arthur Miller; Sumitra's Song, by days, it was a fill in the blank of who said Rukshana Smith. Other authors could include what to whom. Modern tests are supposed to George Orwell, H.G. Wells, etc. be better designed, but teachers even in con- At Level 1, the teacher may use any servative Guildford boycotted the national tests book that the children are enthusiastic about for 14-year-olds in 1993 and 1994, because of and with which they are familiar. They should their unfairness and lack of consistency with be given a choice from a selection of high quality what the National Curriculum required them to books they have had the opportunity to look at teach. and to hear read aloud. The list is for sugges- The exams for 16 year-olds at Key Stage tions only. 4 or GCSE exams drive the course work for stu- At Level 2 Shirley Hughes' book, Dogger dents ages 14 to 16.Oral and written course- (David and Dog) the curriculum guide specifies work is included as well as terminal exam that students should to read out loud pages 6 papers. Students are assessed on a diverse and 7 for their reading record. The child is also

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142 asked to give a summary of the story. Children Lenny's house toconfront him have to cover two of the suggested main points but when he gets there he is. so of the story to give evidence of having read the shocked by the treatment that book. The curriculum guide presents four to six Lenny receivesfrom his mother main points for each story. Teachers are free to that he finds himself unable to accuse Lenny. This is just as well, choose their own titles, but the easiest path is because the postal order is found to choose the standard titles, and follow the with the Monopoly money. standard assessments. Understanding beyond the Literal: At Level 3, each suggested title is Students and teacher should followed by an indication of the points children discuss some of the following need to coverin order to demonstrate points: Why Lenny does not understanding of the main points of the story, come to school very much. Why and "understanding beyond the literal."For he has no friends. What does example, with Shaker Lane, by Alice Provenson, Lenny feel about school. What students should make some of the main points the other children feel about about the old and new inhabitants and how Lenny. What Prakesh usually they lived. The dam is built, and people move felt about Lenny. Why he in- out.For "understanding beyond the literal," vites Lenny home for tea. The students could mention the historical events in reasons for the reactions of Pra- the story; explain how the Herkimer sisters felt kesh and his family upon realiz- when selling the land; or discuss the motives of ing that the postal order is dam builders, and what the people felt about missing. Prakesh's feelings up- the dam. on seeing Lenny's home and the Level 4 stories include a wide range of treatment he receives from his content, but are similar in reading level. A book mother. should be chosen which reflects the child's inter- The emphasis on reading, and reporting est and experience.Children are to read the on what students read will definitely affect stories silently; and then discuss the main school budgets and the publishing and media points of the story, and points covered in industry.In the year I spent in England, I assessing the children's understanding of the noticed that many titles from the recommended literal.The book I'm Trying to Tell You, byreading lists appeared as special programs on Bernard Ashley has a multicultural, moral after school television: for example, The Bor- message.Other stories in this group include rowers, by Mary Norton, Village by the Sea, by Alice in Wonderland, A Bear Called Paddington, Anita Desai, The Railway Children, by E. and Charlotte's Web. The story I'm Trying to Nesbit and others.I like to think they were Tell You, features the chapter "Lenny's Red chosen because of their literary merit, and that Letter Day." The story reflects some of the the story was easily transferable to television. social turmoil in modern England. The titles publishers make available, and the Main Points: resources which textbook publishers offer for Prakesh befriends a classmate, Lenny Fraser, who has no friends, sale, will try to match the National Curriculum. and comes from a difficult home. A poetry anthology, Dragon's Book of Verse, Lenny does not come to school matches the recommended poetry list.Book very much, but when he arrives publishers and bookshops offer reading sections on the day of his birthday, he is for children, featuring titles recommended by embarrassed because he has no the National Curriculum Mums are encouraged cards to show the class andno to buy books and study helps for all ages. presents to talk about.Prakesh According to a 1992 survey by The Book invites him home for tea. They Trust, more and more schools rely on parents play Monopoly, have crisps and and friends associations to raise money for class pop, and Prakesh gives Lenny a and library books. birthday card from the family shop. Schools spend three times When Lenny has left, it is noticed as much on photocopying paper than as they do that a postal order (check) has on books.The average primary school spent gone missing and Prakesh and his between 1,000 and 2,000 pounds on class and family immediately think that Len- library books in 1991-92. One school only spent ny has stolen it.Prakesh goes to 9 pounds, another spent 6,396 pounds. Junior

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143 schools spent 250 pounds to 15,000 pounds. In books and equipment, and perhaps additional secondary schools, the average spent in 1991-92 staff. was be-tween 13,000 pounds to 19,000 pounds. In the autumn of 1992, League Tables The highest was 100,000 pounds, the lowest of performance on the national tests for 1,172 pounds. Spending per pupil averaged 7 A-Levels and GCSEs were published for all pounds to 18 pounds for primary schools and 16 schools. This allows parents to choose a school pounds to 23 pounds for secondary schools. on the basis of its performance. The school is (TES Oct. 9, 1992, p.8) accountable for the quality of the education the Changes and shifts in school funding, children receive. Although there is no reason to added demands for education of students with keep the performance levels of students on special needs, and changes in school organiza- national tests a secret, the test scores reflect tion change the publishers outlook on who buys more than the school's ability to teach the their books.Schoollibrary services are not National Curriculum. Critics point out that the always run by a central school district in many League Tables do not take into account the cases. The centralized curriculum does allow ability of students before they enrolled in a for predictability in what material is needed particular school. By emphasizing aschool's and required. Individual schools face choices in worth on performance on one test,schools are which areas of a subject to emphasize. Funding encouraged to select students who are likely to priorities vary from school to school and region do well. to region.The demands of the National Cur- The League Tables reflect well on riculum are always higher than the amount of Guildford.Schools considered for observation money spent. have over 90% of their students taking the A The National Curriculum is a political Level exams. School A has a score of 16.3 in football. Everyone from the man in the street to 1992 and 15.4 in 1993 for the A-Levels. For members of Parliament have their opinions on the GCSE exams, 95% of the students passed 5 which books are important to read, and what exams in both years. School B has a score of children should know.The problem is that 13.4 in 1992 and 13.8 in 1993 for A levels, and some members of Parliament have insisted on an 84% pass rate for 5 exams in 1992 and an traditional favorites, without thinking of88% pass rate in1993.Another school has students' abilities or interests.The new 17.5 A level score and a 95% pass rate for 5 reading list for age 14 has some modern GCSE exams in 1992. The school libraries in improvements, such as the unit on American Guildford are adequate but underfunded, and women writers, for Years 10 and 11.As one students still had good test scores.For the commentator put it, "They even recognize that sake of school libraries, no conclusions should some writers are women, and that writing can be drawn from this tiny sample. deal with teenage topics rather than post The school marketplace is not geared to imperial nostalgia." (TES, Jan 28 1994, p.2) the student with special needs, or troubled The list was not changed for most age groups, families, unable to help children at home.Is and remains very traditional. the low performance on tests always the In the school libraries I observed in teacher's fault?Schools can face declining Guildford, funding for library resources was aug- enrollments, teachers can lose their jobs be- mented by gifts from the Parent's Associations. cause students did not do well. What happens In a comfortable suburb such as Guildford, the to the students at the failing schools with amount of money is a matter of degree. In less declining enrollments? How far does a school affluent areas, extra funding from parents is out have to decline before it is closed?What of the question.Since funding is tied to the happens to the overcrowded popular school number of students at a school, schools need to when it runs out of space? These market forces spend their money on brochures, video programs have started, and schools do not know where and other public relations materials to show the they will end. school off at its best, and gain more students. Recent newspaper articles (TES, May Problems arise when marketing the schools 17, 1993) have indicated that test scores are takes precedence over teaching. What kind of not the only criterion parents value in selecting ethics are children being taught, if a student's a school. Parents consider the school's value to the school is based on the amount of proximity, whether or not the child's friends or money he brings in,to the school? Some of the siblings attend, and general school atmosphere. money spent on public relations would buy The enthusiasm of teachers and other students

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144 at the school, the absence of vandalism on the When library work was attached to specific school grounds, and the general reputation of assignments, students were able to use the new the school are other popular considerations. skills immediately. Given the generally good standing on the Both schools I observed in Guildford had League Tables, Guildfordparents use other reference book based assignments which ac- general criteria in selecting a secondary school quainted the students with books used in for their children. history, geography, and religious education. One group of students asked tosee reference National Curriculum and Library Infor- books only, as if they were not allowed to use a mation Skills: book from the main part of the collection. With As early as Key Stage 2 (ages 7 to 12) in their literal minded interpretation of the assign- the National Curriculum for English, "School ment, they fulfilled the "controlled conditions" and class libraries must provide as wide a limit to an assignment, which worried the mem- range as possible of fiction, nonfiction and bers of NCATE. Too bad these students were poetry, as well as periodicals suitable for not doing an English assignment. children of this age." As part of their reading Information technology is a strand in skills, students are asked to learn how to find the National Curriculum; it is not a subject that information in books and databases, sometimes stands on its own. Time for IT is carved out of drawing on more than one source, and asked to given time slots for English and Science. The pursue an independent line of inquiry. These students are given lessons on using the com- skills must be taught and evaluated by the puter for word processing skills and spread subject teacher.Thecurriculum guidelines sheet skills. Some of their time is used trying assume there are adequate resources to enable out CD-ROM databases. In one school, the use students to do these tasks. of the CD-ROM databases is tied to an English The National Curriculum in several assignment. As these resources increase, the subjects frequently refer to the finding and limitation to the subject of English will be less using of information from a wide range of differ- important. ent sources, but the teaching of the skills "User Education" became "Information needed to be able to find and use information Skills" during the 1980s; a time when the use of is not specified. Use of particular reference tools computers revolutionized the workplace, and is required by the English curriculum, but there the world of learning.As libraries became is no requirement to teach the skills needed to automated in the 1980s, the respect for infor- use them. mation skills expanded to include the library At a technology oriented secondary world. The practical applications of computers school, the English faculty did not have time to were available for students to use in assign- include all the library skills in the time allotted ments, and the world of computers was seen as for their subject. The teaching plan is spread relevant to the world of work and technology. out through several subject areas.PE class Both schools I observed have an assignment for covers the introduction to library skills; English Information Technology which requires students --alphabetical order; mathematics -- number or- to use the CD-ROM databases in completing der; modern foreign languages -- dictionaries; sci- their assignment. Students submit a print out ence-- encyclopedias; geography--atlases. Subject of the article they looked up. teachers bring year 7 and year 8 students to the The National Curriculum weaves the library once each term for a hands on and Library and Information skills through school worksheet session.It helps with transfer of subjects.These skills do not stand on their skills involving a whole range of areas. (Small, own. The Attainment Targets for Key Stages 1 1993) --4, and the GCSE (General Certificate of Secon- Before 1981, librarians used the term dary Education) requires the use of a wide "user education" in their work in educating range of resources and technology. The library people to use the library. Some libraries offered is the natural source for books, media, and classes on how to use the library, or part of a technology. This learning resource for students special course on how to study.Experience has is not always used, and is chronically under- shown that these methods were not particularly funded. (Heeks, 1983) effective. (Heeks, 1983)Students would not School libraries have a new impetus for pay attention because they did not feel that the improvement due to the demands of the information presented to them was relevant. National CurriculumIn 1984 a government

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143 report described libraries as underused and school open to the public in the voluntary aided underfunded. The current trend of local man- school category getting state support and some agement of schools places libraries as more money from the Diocese of Guildford. than repositories of background material. The The library at School A is in a crowded specific needs of the curriculum have to be met. room, on the main floor near adminstrative Peggy Heeks, the author of the 1984 govern- offices and the school lunch room. There are ment report, described successful school library about 11,000 books in the collection. There are programs as having the following characteris- 770 students enrolled. The budget is more tics: than half of the Library Association's recom- *They furthered school aims, serve as mended 10 pounds budgeted per student per the liaison for cross curricular work, in- year, and seating almost meets the recommend- formation technology skills and flexible ed 1 per 10 pupils.The main area seats 46 learning programs. students at tables, with 3 seats available by *They collaborated on curriculum deliv- the computer. There is a Sixth Form library in ery. In Heeks's survey libraries became another room with its own book collection, and busier with visits reaching 500 per day seating for 20 students. The main part of the in one school. library is crowded during morning and noon *Factors contributing to success include breaks. The Sixth Form room is used primarily the following:The support of school as a study room. Students are free to use the management, giving the librarian direct books there for their assignments, but most link to senior management, and a clear students use their own textbooks and work on vision of the library's future, developed homework. According to the librarian's collaboratively with faculty. (Heeks, statistics the number of books checked out per 1993) week is 150, much higher than average. Plans School libraries have met success in new for a new library in the classroom wing are situations. In a grant maintained school (simi- underway. The library will be adjacent to the lar to U.S. charter schools) the librarian computer room. Students ask frequent assign- described how a new budgeting plan was put in ment related reference questions, about 80 per place to totally renovate the library. The school week, according to statistics kept. Most books library was targeted as having a key role to checked out are nonfiction, for assignments. play in raising academic standards across the Not all students come to the library to study. curriculum.The library was equipped with The librarian at school A has to deal with overly books, tapes, journals, software, CD-ROMs and chatty and disruptive students, but the videos.The library was organized to deliver students mind her when told to get back to high quality services to support the National work. Curriculum, GCSE and A level teaching, as well There is one computer with 3 CD-ROM as reading for enjoyment. The library is part of indexes available for students to use.Three marketing the school toparents andpros- students can sit beside the computer at one pective pupils, and has met with success. time, but only one database can be used at a (Larkworthy, 1993) time. Students use the CD-ROM for assign- ments, but many enjoy playing around with the Observations at Schools. new toy, looking up subjects in the encyclopedia During my year in England I became on their own. Students do check out fiction for involved as a volunteer at the two schools my pleasure reading, and some assignments, but children attended in Guildford. School A, is an most books checked out are nonfiction.The older school, with a smaller enrollment, for Year library collection includes 66% of the titles from 8 through Year 12, (ages 12 through 16) and A the National Curriculum Reading List for ages level programs, called Sixth Form, from the old 12- 16. numbering system, for students ages 16 The library at school B has a similar through 18.School A had just changed its space allotment, with seating at 52 students at status from being part of the Local Education tables, andstudy carrels by the reference Authority to a Grant Maintained school. It is books. The library is in the upstairs part of the state supported.School B includes the same computer classrooms wing.There are 1200 age group. The building is newer and can acco- students enrolled,so the seating is far below modate more students than are currently en- the recommended 1 for every 10 students. rolled.It is a Church of England secondary There are about 12,000 books in the

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146 collection, but many are out of date. CD-ROMs asked location type questions--such as where and computer software are housed in the are the encyclopedias, where are books on nearby computer room, and students are en- animals, etc. for assignments. The school has a couraged to use them for assignments.The copy of 62% of the titles on the National Cur- library budget has been sacrificed to meet finan- riculum Reading List, for ages 12- 16. cial constraints, due to falling enrollments over Teachers and staff interviewed agreed the last three years. Some improvements have with the concept of a National Curriculum. been made in the computer center.A local Complaints arose with the constant require- grant was awarded to the school to build up the ment of recording results, assessments, and Information Technology area, and plans are exams. There seems to be no time left for being made to improve thelibrary. (Unfortu- teaching. One teacher was critical of the whole nately turned down in October, 1993) Enroll- idea of testing. He said that the National Cur- ment is up by 20% for the next school term, riculum exams set too many students up for 1993-94. The budget for library books is barely failure. He has seen many of the students he 10% of the Library Association's recommended teaches give up trying. He is able to modify the 10 pounds per pupil, even with gifts from the main course he teaches into modular units. The Parent's Association.Expenditures for com- students complete each segment, and their puter software is not included in the library's grades are based on course work. He says that budget. because of the nature of his subject, the CD-ROM indexes are part of the students are not asked to use the library fre- adjacent computer center, and a special grant quently. He involves them in hands on activ- has allowed them to buy software. Instruction- ities, and relates the subject to current events. al Technology is focused at the computer room. Teachers, librarians, and administra- Since there are 15 terminalsinthe room, tors were interviewed at each school, when several databases can be viewed by many available. Their opinions and descriptions of the students at the same time.This activity is library and the National Curriculum were geared to assignments, so students are not as almost interchangeable for each school. Neither likely to play around with the computer on their school had a whole school policy on a curriculum own free time, because the computers are also for information skills. Teachers in both schools used for classes and assignments. stated their specific IT module, required at Key An alcove of two tables is reserved for Stage 3, for Year 9 students, age 14.The 6th formers, with books set aside for assign- assessments are done by the subject teachers, ments.About 16 6th formers are regular for a specific assignment. The time for IT is library visitors. They complete their homework, carved out of the English and science courses, using their textbooks, even photocopies of but in the future, more time will be taken from articles given to them by the teacher.These math and foreign language as well. The students rarely use the 6th form library books. strands for IT must include the following: The lower year students use the library for Communicating information; Handling informa- assignment based reading, looking up articles tion; Measurement and control; Modelling; and in the encyclopedias, and specific reference Applications and effects.(National Curriculum books.The library is crowded during break for English, 1990)The work is kept in a time and lunch time. Many students come in to portfolio with an account of what the student socialize, or finish uncompleted homework. has done.There should be a minimum of Disruptive students will quiet down, or leave twelve pieces of work, in three different subject when reminded about using the library for areas. Examples of IT work can include the studying; but some need frequent reminders. following: A print -off from a CD-ROM encyclo- During classtime, students come in pairs or pedia; map making from a computer program; small groups to work on class assignments, desk top publishing example for English; with the teacher's permission. Students check spreadsheets for mathematics; micro-electronic out an average of 50 books per week, mostly measurements in science; electronic mail in for- nonfiction for assignment related work.Stu- eign language; digital sequences on computer for dents usually come to the library discouraged, music. Although this outline is merely a sug- and don't expect to find books on their subjects. gestion, it is a pattern adhered to by most stu- Fiction books are checked out by an enthusias- dents and teachers trying to keep to a schedule, tic few.Statistics were not kept on reference and complete their tasks for the National questions, but I observed that the students Curriculum.

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147 When asked if there was a plan for use --finding newspaper and magazine articles of the library and help for students in acquiring about current topics, discussing social issues. the necessary skills for study and learning, the The library does not have enough new material teachers all reiterated the activities of the IT to keep up with students interests. School B is unit. Both schools had a general introduction to on its way, with plans for improving the fadl- the library for new students, in year 8 (age 13) ides, but much needs to be done.Another English classes.In School A, students had teacher felt that the library could become a true activity work sheets.Students in Lower 6th resource center for independent learning, and Form (age 16-17) came with their Tutor Groups endorsed the concept. He added wryly, that the (homeroom classes), for a single session on National Curriculum is so tied up with testing where to find things in the library. School B and recording, that independent learning is not gave the new students a general tour of the valued. Teaching and evaluation is always library and the computer center in English geared to the National tests. class. Students in Year 8, the first year of this Neither school had a formal way to mon- school, had a short unit on study skills with itor how well the library met the curriculum their Tutor Group teacher. The evaluation of needs of the school. The Reading List for the students' work is all based on their courses. Nation's Children which was published in There is no evaluation on the process for finding January and April, 1993, was one tool.The information. Everyone interviewed mentioned recommended reading lists have been changed that the National Curriculum's emphasis on so frequently, that teachers did not regard the testing, and record keeping was a problem. list as very important to their subject teaching. Teachers are so concerned about tests, and Other methods followed to make sure materials student's measured performance, they feel the met curricular needs include asking for requests learning process is ignored. for titles at staff and departmental meetings, When subject teachers were asked if checking the course syllabus, responding to they incorporated teaching information skills as requests.Since School A had a larger budget, part of their subjects, reactions were mixed. they were able to buy more books. The teacher of English felt that she hardly had Asked whether or not they felt there enough time to teach the required parts of her was a strong link between library/information subject. Students from her class came into the skills, i.e. reading widely, using appropriate library searching for biographical material on reference sources, and performance on stan- authors. All of them knew how to use the gen- dardized tests, the reaction was mixed. One eral encyclopedia, but had to be made aware of school administrator did not think so, another biographical dictionaries, and reference books did.One teacher said that his students were in literature. Her students did practice using not required to use the library much for his some information skills, even though she may class because of the nature of the subject. not have emphasized it.Traditionally, English Another teacher said that she did not send her teachers have had information skills as a nat- students to the library for related assignment ural part of their subject, but in this curriculum, work because she knew the library did not have students are kept very busy reading and writing much to offer.She often suggested that they in their assigned texts. use the public library. Administrators and The librarian at one school said she was teachers said that the library should be a cen- pleasantly surprised that the music teacher had tral resource for the whole school, and materials her students do a lot of reading and research on should be added to make it a true resource composers and music styles, so she was happy center.One librarian commented on the fact to buy books on the subject. Another teacher that the top students rarely visited the library. said that his subject was practical, and They had a lot going for them, with help at hands-on related, so students didn't use the home, they completed their assignments on library much for his class.He had eloquent time, so they did not dash into the library ideas about the library's possibility as a during breaks or lunch time to complete resource center for the whole school. The ideal homework assignments.The good students of independent learning would be well served by were busy with clubs and school activities, adequate multimedia resources, including com- which met during the lunch break, and the puters. He would like to see his non-academic social chatterers, and those too disorganized to students learn to use a resource center type complete their homework beforehand came to library for their practical skills style of learning the library during free periods. It seemed to her

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148 that the top students did very well without needs will be. When problems of assessment using the library.Let us assume that these and the workload appropriate for certain age students learned on their own to read widely, groups is ironed out, schools can plan appropri- look up information from a wide variety of ate schemes of work. This careful organization sources, including computer databases, etc. allows the library to spend its money on This comment was made as a criticism of the materials that will be used. No more books library's lack of resources, not how unnecessary purchased on worthy subjects which will sit on the library is. The librarian at school B also felt the shelf.Library purchases in the future must that the school's top pupils did not use the be justified for in depth study for some class. library often for the same reasons. Books and library resources can be geared for One administrator felt that student specific reading assignments. I hope that along work on projects was linked to high performance the way, students will find books and materials on tests.Projects did not have to be library to read for pleasure. based, but students had to work independently. Most librarians would like to be able to say References: that the better equipped a library is, the better Bain R., Bibby, B. and Walton S.National. students perform on nationalized tests.This Curriculum for English Ages 5 to 16. Summary idea is one that makes sense, but is hard to and Commentary on the Proposals of the Cox prove. The National Curriculum stresses test- Committee.Frecheville, Sheffield:National ing, and evaluation of a student's performance Association for the Teaching of English. 1989. against the standards outlined in the National Curriculum.Several teachers preferred the DES. Department for Education and Science. independent learning approach, but taught "Attainment Targets," National Curriculum for their subjects in the test oriented method of the English. London: HMSO. 1990. pp. 7- 11. National Curriculum. Dore, Antony. "Compulsory Reading List Critics Conclusion: Face Defeat," TES. Mar. 11, 1994. p. 1. The National Cumculum. for English promotes traditional British literature. Options Dore, Antony."Parents Reject Exam Tables" are available to include literature from other TES. May 14, 1993, p.3. cultures as well.Students are offered a com- prehensive reading list through all school years. Flude, M. and Hammer, M. The Education Re- Exams and Key Stage assessments prescribe a form Act 1988: Its Origins and Implications. certain amount of literature.Reading also London: The Falmer Press.1990. includes library and information skills to be taught through the grades. National assess- Graham, Duncan."National Curriculum- - ment for these skills is not standardized, since National Standards", RSA Journal. Dec. 1991, the subject is not clearly defined, and is vol CXL, no. 5424, pp 61-66. embedded within required subjects.The Library Association has summarized the infor- Heeks, Peggy.Perspectives on Partnership: mation skills which form the basis of the new Information Skills and School libraries. curricula: Planning, locating and gathering, 1983 - 1988. (British Library Research Board selecting and appraising, organizing and record- Review 13) London:British Library Board, ing, communicating and realizing, evaluating. 1989. The library can be used as the center for pro- viding the resources for learning these skills. Reeks, Peggy. "Tickets to Success," TES, June Practicing and learning these skills can be 11, 1993, p. 15. difficult when there are not enough books, or media or indexes on the subjects for a student's Larkworthy, Peter. "Foundations of the assignment or personal interests. The schools Curriculum: School Libraries and Grant Main- observed in Guildford are well respected secon- tained Schools," School Librarian, v. 41 no. 2, dary schools, but both are short on materials for May 1993, p. 47-48. the library.Teachers and students carry on, and students score well on the national tests. Office of Arts and Libraries. School Libraries: The National Curriculum requires a The Foundations of the Curriculum. London: school to focus on exactly what its curricular The Library Association. 1984.

140 4 A Reading List for the Nation's Children, the Times of London., April 16, 1993, p. 8. St. John-Brooks, Caroline. "Ideals sabotaged by politics," TES Update, April 11, 1993, p. 2. St. John-Brooks, Caroline. "A sad chapter in the story of learning," TES, Oct. 9, 1992, p. 2. Small, Graham. "Integrating information skills into the mainstream curriculum," School Librarian. v. 41, no. 4, 1993, p. 142-43. Thomas, Peter. "Multitude of sins, "TES Jan. 28, 1994, Features Section. p. 2. Times Educational Supplement. April 30, 1993, p.22. Letters to the Editor, from John Oversby, St. Patricks Hall, Reading.

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