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History, Memory and Violence: Changing Patterns of Group Relationship in Mocímboa Da Praia, Mozambique

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History, Memory and Violence: Changing Patterns of Group Relationship in Mocímboa Da Praia, Mozambique History, memory and violence: changing patterns of group relationship in Mocímboa da Praia, Mozambique Thesis presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Social Anthropology Ana Margarida Sousa Santos St Antony's College University of Oxford Trinity Term 2010 Abstract My D.Phil. thesis addresses the historical construction of difference in northern Mozambique and its relation to conflict, especially an upsurge of violence in 2005. I look specifically at the relationship between Makonde and Mwani inhabiting a coastal district in the north of Mozambique and the ways in which modes of livelihood, religion, pre-colonial history, experience of colonial rule and post- independence policies, and political affiliation play a part in the construction of identities of these two groups. I look at how a shared but differently understood history and differing memories of the past become part of local discourses of identity and difference. I investigate how history and memory, place and space, and the surrounding landscape are reflected in concepts of identity especially with respect to tension and conflict. The Makonde traditionally inhabit the Mueda plateau in a remote area in the north of Mozambique. They have been associated in colonial literature with ideas of violence, fierceness and independence. They were very active during the liberation struggle in Mozambique, but their influence in the country diminished after independence. Less is known about the Mwani. They are closely associated with the Swahili complex, and had links with the Portuguese during the colonial period, loosing power and influence during the post-independence period. The Makonde and Mwani had different experiences of historical events and diverse roles in defining moments of Mozambican history such as the liberation struggle (1964-1974). The history of this area of Mozambique has had a huge impact on human settlement, changing patterns of residence, land occupation, and social relationships. This D.Phil. makes ethnographic and theoretical contributions to the anthropological research of space, place, conflict and identity, as well as memory and history. It also contributes to ongoing studies of Mozambique. It addresses the consequences of two consecutive wars caused much displacement, migration and movement. 1 Table of Contents Abstract.........................................................................................................................1 Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................4 Maps..............................................................................................................................8 Chapter I – Introduction ...............................................................................................1 1. Research questions and objectives....................................................................... 3 2. Theoretical framework......................................................................................... 6 3. Makonde and Mwani in ethnographic literature................................................ 18 4. Fieldwork sites and methods..............................................................................22 5. Thesis outline..................................................................................................... 30 Chapter II – The colonial encounter........................................................................... 34 1. Who got here first?.............................................................................................36 2. The Makonde......................................................................................................39 3. The Mwani......................................................................................................... 49 4. Slave trade and definition of identities...............................................................53 5. Colonial encounter............................................................................................. 57 Conclusion..............................................................................................................65 Chapter III – Early forms of resistance and differing relationships............................67 1. The Companhia do Nyassa: differing memories of exploitation.......................67 2. The Portuguese colonial administration.............................................................72 3. Mpanga – differing experiences of labour......................................................... 87 4. Routes of escape – crossing the border and creating relationships....................94 Conclusion............................................................................................................100 Chapter IV – The Liberation Struggle...................................................................... 102 1. Before the struggle........................................................................................... 103 2. Fighting............................................................................................................ 113 3. Villages and towns in northern Mozambique – sites of resistance or ‘collaboration’ (Liberated zones, and fenced towns)...........................................121 4. Life on the other side of the border..................................................................129 5. Memories of the struggle................................................................................. 134 Conclusion............................................................................................................138 Chapter V – Independence – national territory and local space...............................142 1. 'Do Rovuma ao Maputo' - Mozambican borders and national space...............143 2. Civil war...........................................................................................................146 3. Villagization..................................................................................................... 159 4. The politics of space.........................................................................................162 5. Administering the countryside: post-independence views on traditional authority............................................................................................................... 167 Conclusion............................................................................................................173 Chapter VI – Peace, movement and belonging.........................................................176 1. Returning home – what home? Where is home?..............................................177 2. Choosing a place and (re)building networks....................................................185 3. Visiting relatives and choosing wives.............................................................. 191 4. Travel made easy..............................................................................................193 5. 'The Tanzanians are eating us' ......................................................................... 200 Conclusion............................................................................................................208 Chapter VII – A town divided? Local relationships between Makonde and Mwani 210 1. Space – mapping divisions...............................................................................211 2. Representing identity....................................................................................... 219 2 3. Widening religious divisiveness.......................................................................226 4. Political differentiation.....................................................................................230 5. Peasants and fishermen: increasingly strong economic separation..................239 Conclusion............................................................................................................243 Chapter VIII – Local conflict – the riots of September 2005...................................245 1. Description of the riot...................................................................................... 246 2. Why are the riots important?............................................................................250 3. Space – the 'geography of violence'................................................................. 252 4. What the Riots Tell Us: Theoretical Approaches from Anthropology.............256 5. Rumour.............................................................................................................264 6. They own the land, we are visitors: We are not the owners of the land ..........268 7. Ongoing reasons for tension.............................................................................270 Conclusion............................................................................................................275 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 278 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 288 3 Acknowledgements While writing this thesis I have accumulated an incredible debt of gratitude to many people and institutions for their support and encouragement throughout this endeavour. My supervisors at Oxford were encouraged my searches and reined in my need for further reading at times when writing needed to be done.
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