SOME NOTE8 on THE] Metallultgy of STEEL

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

SOME NOTE8 on THE] Metallultgy of STEEL SOME NOTE8 ON THE] METALLUltGY OF STEEL. A Paper read by Brig.-General BA~NALL-WILD,C.M.G., before a SpeciaZ Meeting qf London Graduates held on Ma-y loth, 1918, at the Worlts of Messrs. Nupier Motors, Ltd, Acton. Downloaded from pau.sagepub.com at Purdue University Libraries on June 4, 2016 80218 NOTES ON THE METAI,LUHC;\ OF STEEI.. 4 89 BY BRIQ.-GENEXAI,BAONALL-WILD, C.M.G. (PASTPBESIDENT). L ii the basii €or such a large number of parts required in automobile construction that a brio€ study of the elementary problcnir connected with it< use is of value to all engineers con- nected vith ili(\ intiii<try Thesc notes arr not intende:l fc~rThe use of the metallurgiata in control of physical and chemical labora- tories whom the majority of firms now employ, but for thuse in charge of machining and other operations, to draw their attention t,o what may happen mhcn bteci is abiised and, above all, to point out to them tlic neccwitr for cnrefiil w,rekee1)ing JVitli~~utdif- fercntiation betn eeii the ,:ii*ious steels succcisful heat-treatment is impossible, and tlie higher grades of steel are practically useless unless heat-treated. In order to explain tlie nature of the changes which take plme in steel during heat-treatment it will be iiece ry to refer briefly to the iron-carbon eyuilibriiiiii diagram, Fig. 1, arranged so as to show the different states of the stoel under varying condikions of temperature. The vertical scale represents the temperature and tlie horizontal scale the percentage of carbon in the steel. The whole diagram is divided up into a. number of areas each ooveriw certain ranges of temperature and of clarbon content; the boun- daries of each of these araas show the limits within which each con- Btituent of the steel can exist in the equilibrium condition. Phe fundamental constituents of steel are iron and carbide of iron, the latter being a chemical compound containing 6'2 per cent of carbon. Phis compound when crystallised out so as to be recognised under the microscope is known aa cementite, and fre- quently occurs in the forin of long needle-shaped crystals standing out white under the usual acid etching, see Fig. 11, Plate XXX. In low and medium carbon ste8elthe carbide does not occur in this form, but separates out in the form of thin plate- lwween layers RAQNALL-WILD. 1" Downloaded from pau.sagepub.com at Purdue University Libraries on June 4, 2016 490 THE INUTITUTIOH OF AUTOMORI3,E ENOINEEKR. of iron, presenting the appearance shown in Fig. 8, Plate XXIX. The proportion of the two constituents is fairly constant, being about 1 of carbide to 6 of iron, corresponding to a carbon content of 0'89 per cent, and the resulting structure is knovn as pearlite. In the annealed condition, which may for practical purposes be regarded ,w a state of equilibrium, low carbon ste,el consists of grains of iron and of pearlite in the proportion corresponding to its carbon content, the amount of pearlite increasing with the carbon content until a steel of 0'89 per cant is reached, this particulclr steel consisting entirely of pearlite. P L rpu?u Aurtenrtr + Cemenite Cementrte t P carlit e PIQ.1 .-Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram. When the steel contains a percentage of carbon higher than this figure the exws carbide separates out as cementite and the steel is a mixture of pearlite and cementite. In Fig. 1, the upper line A C represents the beginning of the solidification of the steel. Above this line the steel is completely liquid and the slope of the line shows that the melting point is lowered by the addition of carbon. The solidifioafon does not take place at one temperature, but the transition from the liquid to the solid state is spread over a range of temperature represented Downloaded from pau.sagepub.com at Purdue University Libraries on June 4, 2016 SOME NOTE6 ON ‘I‘HE XIE’I’A1,LURffY OF STEEL. 49 1 by the area A C B. The part of the diagram below A B bouncled by the linw A B F E D represents the state of solid sohtion; Over the whole range of temperature represented by this mathe carbide is completely dissolved in the iron. On passing the line D E F B the carbide and the iron begin to separate out and the line G K marks the completion of the separation. We have thus three well-marked states in which the steel can exist, first the liquid state with the carbide dissolved in the iron, then the solid solution state in which the carbide is still completely dissolved, and finally below 70OoC. we have the iron and carbide separated out, the steel being simply a mixture of these constituents. This falling out of solution of the carbide is due to a molecular change which takes place in the iron at this temperature, a change which is marked by an alteration in most of its physical properties and especially in those connected with magnetic quality. Whe change in the properties of the metal is so great that wo are justified in regarding the iron at the higher temperature ag being a different material, and to mark this differenoe it is now usual to refer to it as austenite, while iron as it exists at ordinary temperature is referred to as ferrite. From the point of view of heat-treatment the imporbant point is that the carbide is fully soluble in the austenite but is quite insoluble in the ferrite and is, therefore, thrown out of solution as the steel changes from one state to the other in cooling. The precipitation of the carbide takes place between the tem- peratures represented by the linee D E F B and G K, and this interval is known QS the “critical range” of the steel. A know- ledge of these temperature limits is of vital importance in the heat-treatment of steel, and their determination is necessary before ib successful heat-treatment‘ can be worked out for any particular steel. This determination is readily made by taking advantage of the fact that the molecular changes in the iron are accompanied by absorption and evolution of hat. Whese give rise to variations in t,he rate of heating and cooling, and the transformation points are marked by sharp changes in the curve showing the time rate of heating and cooling of a specimen of the steel. A typical heating and cooling curve fur a medium carbon steel is shown in Fig. 2. Phe vertical scale represents the temperature of the specimen, while the horizontal scale shows the time taken in heating up through 1°C. Whcn the specimens are hmeated up uniformly in an electric furnaoe the time per degree is at fimt I12 Downloaded from pau.sagepub.com at Purdue University Libraries on June 4, 2016 fairly constant, and the curve is a straight vertical line, but when a trinpemturc of 720°C. is reached, as the line G F is passed, tho curve swings sharply to the right, indicating that the rate of heating is diminished. As the furnace is supplying heat at a uniform rate this means that the specimen during the solution of Fxa. Z.-Heating and Cooling Curve 0.41 per cent Carbon 8teel. the carbide is absorbing heat, and this abwiytion is continued until all the pearlite is dissolved. On cooling, the reverse change takes place, and heat is given out as the carbido is precipitated. CChe temperature of the specimen is measured by a thermocouple, and the limits of the critical range are thus detormined. Downloaded from pau.sagepub.com at Purdue University Libraries on June 4, 2016 SOME NOTP.3 ON THE IlETA1,LURQY OF f3TEEL. 49 3 rl'he solution aiid precipitation of the oarbide of iron takes a oertain time, and on this very vital point the whole possibility of the heat-treatment of steel depends. It will be noted that Fig. 1 is referred to as the equilzbrium diagram, to indicate that it shows the state of the steel whcn cooled sufficientJy slowly to reach the equilibrium condition. If, on the other hand, the steel is cooled quickly by plunging in oil or water, the precipitation of cementite is prevented, and the carbon remains uniformly distributed in the iron even at ordinary temperatures. It is not possible with Btraight carbon steel to carry out the cooling quickly enough to supprew the molecular clinnge of the iron, and thus retain the steel in the austenitic condition The effect of the rapid cooling is to cause the change to be retarded and to take place at a much lower temperature. Undei these circurnstsnres the oarbide is unable tLl coalesce inh pearlite layer5 and a transition product known as martensite is fornied This product is hard and brittle, and is unfit for structural uie. It is, however, very unstable and on re-heating the steel it breaks donn and the carbide gathers together into very fine grained pearlite By varying the temperature of re-heating any desired 3t:tte of hardnesq between that of the martensib formed by direct quenching and that of a state almort as soft as ir derived from annealing is obtained. This operation of re-heating the quenched steel is known as tempering, and the control thus obtained over the hardness of the steel is one of the great advantages uf heat-treatment. Fig. 3 shows the efk'ect of tempering on the strength and ductility of steel.
Recommended publications
  • Effects of Carburization Time and Temperature on the Mechanical Properties of Carburized Mild Steel, Using Activated Carbon As Carburizer
    Materials Research, Vol. 12, No. 4, 483-487, 2009 © 2009 Effects of Carburization Time and Temperature on the Mechanical Properties of Carburized Mild Steel, Using Activated Carbon as Carburizer Fatai Olufemi Aramidea,*, Simeon Ademola Ibitoyeb, Isiaka Oluwole Oladelea, Joseph Olatunde Borodea aMetallurgical and Materials Engineering Department, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria bMaterials Science and Engineering Department, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria Received: July 31, 2009; Revised: September 25, 2009 Due to the complexity of controlling parameters in carburization, there has been relatively little work on process variables during the surface hardening process. This work focuses on the effects of the carburizing temperature and time on the mechanical properties of mild steel carburized with activated carbon, at 850, 900 and 950 °C, soaked at the carburizing temperature for 15 and 30 minutes, quenched in oil, tempered at 550 °C and held for 60 minutes. Prior carburization process, standard test samples were prepared from the as received specimen for tensile and impact tests. After carburization process, the test samples were subjected to the standard test and from the data obtained, ultimate tensile strength, engineering strain, impact strength, Youngs’ moduli were calculated. The case and core hardness of the carburized tempered samples were measured. It was observed that the mechanical properties of mild steels were found to be strongly influenced by the process of carburization, carburizing temperature and soaking time at carburizing temperature. It was concluded that the optimum combination of mechanical properties is achieved at the carburizing temperature of 900 °C followed by oil quenching and tempering at 550 °C.
    [Show full text]
  • National Register of Historic Places Multiple Property
    NFS Form 10-900-b 0MB No. 1024-0018 (Jan. 1987) United States Department of the Interior National Park Service National Register of Historic Places Multipler Propertyr ' Documentation Form NATIONAL This form is for use in documenting multiple property groups relating to one or several historic contexts. See instructions in Guidelines for Completing National Register Forms (National Register Bulletin 16). Complete each item by marking "x" in the appropriate box or by entering the requested information. For additional space use continuation sheets (Form 10-900-a). Type all entries. A. Name of Multiple Property Listing ____Iron and Steel Resources of Pennsylvania, 1716-1945_______________ B. Associated Historic Contexts_____________________________ ~ ___Pennsylvania Iron and Steel Industry. 1716-1945_________________ C. Geographical Data Commonwealth of Pennsylvania continuation sheet D. Certification As the designated authority under the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, J hereby certify that this documentation form meets the National Register documentation standards and sets forth requirements for the listing of related properties consistent with the National Register criteria. This submission meets the procedural and professional requiremerytS\set forth iri36JCFR PafrfsBOfcyid the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for Planning and Evaluation. Signature of certifying official Date / Brent D. Glass Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission State or Federal agency and bureau I, hereby, certify that this multiple
    [Show full text]
  • History of the Hardening of Steel : Science and Technology J
    HISTORY OF THE HARDENING OF STEEL : SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY J. Vanpaemel To cite this version: J. Vanpaemel. HISTORY OF THE HARDENING OF STEEL : SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. Journal de Physique Colloques, 1982, 43 (C4), pp.C4-847-C4-854. 10.1051/jphyscol:19824139. jpa- 00222126 HAL Id: jpa-00222126 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/jpa-00222126 Submitted on 1 Jan 1982 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. JOURNAL DE PHYSIQUE Colloque C4, suppZ4ment au no 12, Tome 43, de'cembre 1982 page C4-847 HISTORY OF THE HARDENING OF STEEL : SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 3. Vanpaemel Center for historical and socio-economical studies on science and technology Teer EZstZaan 41, 3030 Leuven, SeZgim (Accepted 3 November 1982) Abstract. - The knowledge of the hardening phenomenon was achieved through a very cumulative process without any dis- continuity or 'scientific crisis' . The history of the hardening shows a definite interrelationship between techno- logical approach (or the application-side) and academic science . The hardening of steel appears to have been an operation in common use among the early Greeks The Greek and Roman smiths knew, from experience, how to control the.
    [Show full text]
  • Guide to Non-Ferrous Metals
    14 Manufacturing Processes CHAPTER 2 Ferrous Materials and Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys 2.1 INTRODUCTION Ferrous materials/metals may be defined as those metals whose main constituent is iron such as pig iron, wrought iron, cast iron, steel and their alloys. The principal raw materials for ferrous metals is pig iron. Ferrous materials are usually stronger and harder and are used in daily life products. Ferrous material possess a special property that their characteristics can be altered by heat treatment processes or by addition of small quantity of alloying elements. Ferrous metals possess different physical properties according to their carbon content. 2.2 IRON AND STEEL The ferrous metals are iron base metals which include all varieties of iron and steel. Most common engineering materials are ferrous materials which are alloys of iron. Ferrous means iron. Iron is the name given to pure ferrite Fe, as well as to fused mixtures of this ferrite with large amount of carbon (may be 1.8%), these mixtures are known as pig iron and cast iron. Primarily pig iron is produced from the iron ore in the blast furnace from which cast iron, wrought iron and steel can be produced. 2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CARBON STEELS Plain carbon steel is that steel in which alloying element is carbon. Practically besides iron and carbon four other alloying elements are always present but their content is very small that they do not affect physical properties. These are sulphur, phosphorus, silicon and manganese. Although the effect of sulphur and phosphorus on properties of steel is detrimental, but their percentage is very small.
    [Show full text]
  • Comparative Properties of Wrought Iron Made by Hand Puddling and by the Aston Process
    RP124 COMPARATIVE PROPERTIES OF WROUGHT IRON MADE BY HAND PUDDLING AND BY THE ASTON PROCESS By Henry S. Rawdon and 0. A. Knight ABSTRACT The hand-puddling method of making wrought iron has not greatly changed for a century. More economical methods in the manufacture of thjs product is the crying need of the industry. A radically new process, recently developed, is now coming into commercial use, in which pig iron, which h>as been refined in a Bessemer converter, is poured into molten slag so as to produce intimate mingling of the two. A comparison of the properties of wrought iron made thus with that made by hand puddling forms the subject of this report. The test results failed to show any marked difference in the products of the two processes. The new product appears to have all of the essential properties usually connoted by the name—wrought iron, CONTENTS Page I. Introduction 954 1. Resume of the Aston process 955 II. Purpose and scope of the investigation 959 III. Materials and methods 960 1. Materials 960 (a) Pipe 960 (6) "Rounds" 961 (c) Slag 962 2. Methods 962 IV. Results 962 1. Composition 962 2. Density 964 3. Mechanical properties 965 (a) Pipe materials 965 (1) Tensile properties 965 (2) Torsional properties 970 (3) Flattening tests 971 (6) 1-inch rounds 972 (1) Tensile properties 972 (2) Torsional properties 973 (3) Impact resistance 973 4. Corrosion resistance 976 (a) Laboratory corrosion tests 976 (6) Electrolytic solution potential 979 5. Structural examination 979 (a) Pipe materials 980 (1) BaU 980 (2) Muck bar 980 (3) Skelp 981 (4) Pipe 981 (&) 1-inch rounds 981 (c) Slag 981 953 : 954 Bureau of Standards Journal of Research [vol.
    [Show full text]
  • Historical Iron by CLARA DECK, CONSERVATOR REVISIONS by LOUISE BECK, CONSERVATOR
    The Care and Preservation Of Historical Iron BY CLARA DECK, CONSERVATOR REVISIONS BY LOUISE BECK, CONSERVATOR Introduction Historical iron can be maintained for years of use and enjoyment provided that some basic care and attention is given to its preservation. The conservation staff of The Henry Ford have compiled the information in this fact sheet to help individuals care for their objects and collections. The first step in the care of collections is to understand and minimize conditions that can cause damage. The second step is to follow basic guidelines for care, handling and cleaning. Please note - this fact sheet will present a brief overview of the care of iron objects, stressing good storage as the best method of preservation. It does not address the serious problems of preserving archaeological metals excavated from land or marine sites. People who collect Un conserved archaeological artifacts should be aware that those types of objects are rarely stable if left untreated and require significant specialist intervention. Please contact a conservator if you need assistance with conservation of these materials. Iron is a common metal in historical collections. It is found in a variety of alloys, known as "ferrous metals", including wrought iron, cast iron and steel. Galvanized or tin-plated sheet is also a familiar material in historical collections. Ferrous metals are magnetic so the presence of iron can, therefore, be easily identified with the use of a magnet. Types of Damage Poor handling and inappropriate storage are the major causes of damage to iron artifacts and can result in corrosion and physical damage to the object.
    [Show full text]
  • C22 Metallurgy; Ferrous Or Non-Ferrous Alloys; Treatment of Alloys Or Non- Ferrous Metals
    C22B C22 METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON- FERROUS METALS Note(s) [2012.01] (1) Processes or devices specific to the transformation of iron ore or iron carbonyl into iron, either solid or molten, are classified in subclass C21B. (2) Processes or devices specific to: – processing of pig-iron or cast iron; – manufacture of wrought-iron, wrought-steel or carbon steel; – treatment in molten state of ferrous alloys; are classified in subclass C21C. (3) The following processes or devices are classified in subclass C21D: – processes specific to heat treatment of ferrous alloys or steels; – devices for heat treatment of metals or alloys. XXXX C22B C22B XXXX C22B PRODUCTION OR REFINING OF METALS (making metallic powder or suspensions thereof B22F 9/00; production of metals by electrolysis or electrophoresis C25); PRETREATMENT OF RAW MATERIALS Note(s) In this subclass, groups for obtaining metals include obtaining the metals by non-metallurgical processes, and obtaining metal compounds by metallurgical processes. Thus, for example, group C22B 11/00 covers the production of silver by reduction of ammoniacal silver oxide in solution, and group C22B 17/00 covers the production of cadmium oxide by a metallurgical process. Furthermore, although compounds of arsenic and antimony are classified in C01G, production of the elements themselves is covered by C22B, as well as the production of their compounds by metallurgical processes. Subclass indexes PRETREATMENT OF RAW MATERIALS ..................... 1/00, 4/00, REFINING OR REMELTING METALS .................................... 9/00 7/00 OBTAINING SPECIFIC METALS ................................ 11/00-61/00 PROCESSES FOR OBTAINING METALS ..................... 3/00, 4/00, 5/00 1 / 00 Preliminary treatment of ores or scrap [1, 2006.01] 3 / 00 Extraction of metal compounds from ores or 1 / 02 .
    [Show full text]
  • 717 the RADIOCARBON DATING and AUTHENTICATION of IRON ARTIFACTS P T Craddock1 • M L Wayman2 • a J T Jull3 the Radiocarbon Da
    The Radiocarbon Dating and Authentication of Iron Artifacts Item Type Article; text Authors Craddock, P. T.; Wayman, M. L.; Jull, A. J. T. Citation Craddock, P. T., Wayman, M. L., & Jull, A. J. T. (2002). The radiocarbon dating and authentication of iron artifacts. Radiocarbon, 44(3), 717-732. DOI 10.1017/S0033822200032173 Publisher Department of Geosciences, The University of Arizona Journal Radiocarbon Rights Copyright © by the Arizona Board of Regents on behalf of the University of Arizona. All rights reserved. Download date 05/10/2021 15:01:32 Item License http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/ Version Final published version Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/654670 RADIOCARBON, Vol 44, Nr 3, 2002, p 717–732 © 2002 by the Arizona Board of Regents on behalf of the University of Arizona THE RADIOCARBON DATING AND AUTHENTICATION OF IRON ARTIFACTS P T Craddock1 • MLWayman2 • AJT Jull3 ABSTRACT. The continuing improvements in accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dating technology mean that it is pos- sible to work on ever smaller samples, which in turn, make an ever wider range of sample potentially available for dating. This paper discusses some of the difficulties arising with the interpretation of AMS dates obtained from carbon in iron. The over- riding problem is that the carbon, now in chemical combination with the iron, could have come from a variety of sources with very different origins. These are now potentially an iressolvable mixture in the iron. For iron made over the last millennium, there are the additional problems associated with the use of both fossil fuel and biomass fuel in different stages of the iron making, leading to great confusion, especially with authenticity studies.
    [Show full text]
  • Clearing the Confusion Over Wrought Iron
    Clearing the Confusion Over Wrought Iron Is it rod iron? Is it rot iron? Or is it wrought iron? By Todd Daniel One of the most confusing terms in the ornamental metals business is the phrase "wrought iron." However, the confusion is understandable since even dictionaries cannot agree on a single definition The first thing to clear up is the spelling. Many consumers spell the metal "rod iron" or "rot iron." Secondly, when the public talks about wrought iron, they could be referring to one of three things - actual wrought iron, hand forged items, or the "look" of wrought iron. Your challenge is to determine what the customer actually wants. When someone calls your shop and says he wants a "rod iron table," that person has something clear in mind. Chances are, he's thinking about an old piece of metal furniture that his grandfather made. The table he envisions is black, full of scrolls, and pretty. Now could that customer actually want genuine wrought iron? Not likely. Does he want something hammered out at the forge or is he just looking for the silvery black finish characteristic of wrought iron? In most cases, when your shop receives a "rod iron" call, you may have to play detective to find out what the customer is thinking about. You've probably had so many "rod iron" calls that you are used to them, but they are still a little frustrating. The following is an attempt to clear up some of the confusion about wrought iron by breaking the term down into its most commonly accepted definitions.
    [Show full text]
  • Corrosion of Ferrous Metals Underground
    Z TECHNICAL INFORMATION ON BUILDING MATFRIALS TIBM - 29 FOR USE IN THE DESIGN OF LOU^COST HOUSING ***** THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE WASHINGTON, D. C. August 7. 1956. CORROSION OF FERROUS METALS UNDERGROUND Corrosion of Buried, iron or steel differs in several important respects from the attack on similar material when exposed to air, (See TIBM Nos. 10 and 17), or when wholly or partly submerged in water (See TIBI! No. 22). The main factor governing corrosion is the nresence of oxygen and water together on the metal surface. Impurities in the air or the water are also iranortant factors. In soils, the atmosuhere often differs from ordinary air. In addition to a difference in oxygen content, there may he gaseous im- purities such as carbon dioxide, gases from decaying plants, hydrogen sulphide, etc,, which affect the corrosion rate. Air in the soil is nearly always saturated with water vapor, but certain imuurities which affect the corrosion rate under other conditions probably are not pres- ent. The access of soil air to the buried metal may vary considerably in different soils. In general the amount of oxygen available for corrosion at a given time or area is much less in soil corrosion than with atmospheric corrosion. Moreover, the amount of oxygen available varies on different parts of buried metal. Soil water always contains varying amounts of dissolved salts such as chlorides, sulphates, phos- phates and bicarbonates. These affect the ra.te of corrosion directly and indirectly by their effect on the acid or alkaline character of the water.
    [Show full text]
  • Iron Gates and Railings
    The Maintenance of Iron Gates and Railings Introduction Technological advancements in the 18th and 19th centuries enabled the mass Cast and wrought iron were production of wrought and cast iron, and popular building materials during iron production became a significant industry the late 18th and 19th centuries. in Scotland. Iron was used for a broad range Consequently, much of the of architectural purposes, ranging from architecture of this period used iron structural columns and beams, railings, gates and balconies, to detailed ornamentation such decoratively and structurally. The as finials and ridge cresting. In many cases, it retention of traditional ironwork is possible to identify the original makers and such as gates and railings can be foundries through their marks on surviving enormously beneficial to the quality cast work. and character of the building. Such period features enhance the appearance and value of traditional buildings, and are costly to replace if they are removed. This INFORM is intended to assist building owners and occupiers maintain and repair their existing iron gates and railings. Identifying the material l Wrought ironwork is less common in Scotland, although the use of wrought iron In order to establish how best to maintain or enjoyed a revival in the early 20th century. It repair ironwork, it is necessary to identify the tends to be quite delicate – scrolls and foliage type of iron it is made from: are common motifs – and, due to the specific craft skills involved in its working, slight l Cast ironwork is more commonly found variations of pattern and design are typical. in Scotland than wrought ironwork.
    [Show full text]
  • Heritage Wrought Iron: Towards the Development of Evidence Based Standards for Coating
    Heritage wrought iron: towards the development of evidence based standards for coating Nicola J. Emmerson Thesis submitted to Cardiff University in candidature for the degree of PhD September 2015 i Summary Effective management of heritage assets relies on decision-making which is underpinned by empirical evidence of impact of treatments on long term survival prospects of materials. Historic wrought iron presents a particular problem for conservation. It occupies a niche position between heritage and engineering, is frequently exposed to outdoor atmospheric corrosion and, in the case of bridges, gates and similar structures, may be required to perform a distinct function. Sector guidance to direct practices is based on anecdotal evidence and established methods. British Standards relate to modern steels hence application to historic ferrous metals is complicated by differences in metallurgy and lack of concession to conservation ethics. This study generates empirical evidence of the effects of five surface preparation methods and three protective coating systems on the corrosion rate of historic wrought iron samples. Immersion in sodium hydroxide solution and blasting with crushed walnut shells are found to reduce corrosion rates of uncoated wrought iron. Aluminium oxide and glass beads blasting increase corrosion rate but offer removal of contaminants and a keyed surface for coating adhesion. Flame cleaning increases corrosion rate by almost four times the uncleaned wrought iron corrosion rate. A two-pack epoxy resin coating system with polyurethane topcoat applied over substrate surfaces blasted to Sa2.5 (near white metal) and a surface tolerant single- pack alkyd coating applied over coherent oxide layers successfully prevented corrosion for almost two years in high static relative humidity environments.
    [Show full text]