◀ POLO, Marco Comprehensive index starts in volume 5, page 2667. Porcelain Cíqì ​瓷​器 Porcelain was first made in China about 850ce . The essential ingredient is kaolin, a white clay that when fired at an extremely high temper- ature acquires a glassy surface. Porcelain wares were first exported to Europe during the twelfth century. By 1700 trade in Chinese porcelain was immense, with Ming dynasty wares, characterized by cobalt-​­blue-painted motifs, highly prized. orcelain is ceramic material made with kaolin, which is a fine, white clay. Porcelain wares were first made in China about 850ce during the Tang Ornately painted porcelain bowl. Potters of the dynasty (618– 907 ce). An Islamic traveler who had vis- Ming dynasty concentrated more on painted ited China in 851 saw clay vessels that resembled glass. design and less on form. Photo by Berkshire Evidence indicates that fine, white stoneware (pottery Publishing. made from high-​­firing clay other than kaolin) was made in China as early as 1400 bce, and potters appear to have been familiar with kaolin during the Han dynasty rather than gray or brown or rust colored) and high fusion (206 bce – 2 2 0 ce). But the forerunner of modern-day​­ por- temperature (the high heat required to turn the ingredi- celain was not made until the Tang dynasty. Tang dynasty ents into porcelain). Chemically kaolin is made up of kao- porcelain is known as “hard-paste”​­ or “true porcelain” and linite, quartz, feldspar, muscovite, and anastase. Kaolin was made by mixing kaolin, which is formed by the decay and petuntse are fused by firing in a kiln at 980º C, then of feldspar, a chief constituent of granite, with petuntse, dipped in glaze and refired at about 1,300º C. Petuntse which is a form of feldspar occurring only in China. binds the clay particles and gives porcelain its translu- Kaolin is the essential ingredient in porcelain. Found cency. The high firing temperatures vitrify the ceramic throughout the world, kaolin is known for its white firing body, giving it its glassy characteristics. characteristics (that is, the finished product appears white During the Song dynasty (960– 1279) some of the 1785 © 2009 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC P 1786 Berkshire Encyclopedia of China 宝 库 山 中 华 全 书 most beautiful Chinese porcelain wares were made, in- Spread to Europe cluding eggshell porcelain, which was thinner and more translucent than earlier porcelain. Ding ware, made in Porcelain came to be called “china” because it originated northeastern China, has a molded design that is em- in China; china was first taken to Europe during the phasized by its typical ivory-​­colored glaze. Two other twelfth century. Portuguese traders began importing types of porcelain were produced slightly later during the china in the sixteenth century. The Portuguese intro- Song dynasty: Longchuan and Jingbai wares. Longch- duced the term porcelain sometime between then and uan wares had near-white​­ ceramic bodies under a bluish- the beginning of porcelain manufacture in Europe in green translucent glaze (celadon) that was reminiscent the late eighteenth century. The terms china and por- of green jade, a favorite stone of the Chinese. Longchuan celain are used interchangeably today, although some ware showed to great advantage the incised or molded people use the term china to refer to figurines and items decoration of the time. Jingbai ware, produced in Jiangxi for use with meals and use the term porcelain to refer to Province (which eventually became the center of Chi- a wider range of products. Thus, a tea set is made from nese porcelain manufacture), was delicately formed and either china or porcelain, but a toilet seat is made from distinguished by a pale blue glaze with decorations of porcelain. incised flowers and foliage. The Chinese formula for making porcelain long re- Porcelain was not widely produced in China until mained a secret. During the medieval period Europeans, the Yuan dynasty (1297– 1368), when the Chinese began who had an insatiable appetite for the beauty of kaolin to use a kaolin-​­based compound to make a material that clay, experimented with various materials, hoping to dis- when fired at high temperatures turned both white and cover the Chinese formula, but it was not discovered until translucent. the early eighteenth century. Meanwhile, beginning in Porcelain vessels fired with a red glaze. Porcelain came to be called “china” because it originated in China; the terms are often used interchangeably today. Photo by Berkshire Publishing. © 2009 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC Porcelain n Cíqì n 瓷​器 1787 A display of “Blanc de Chine” porcelain. Ka- olin, a white clay that when fired at an extremely high temperature ac- quires a glassy surface, is the essential ingredient of porcelain. Photo by Berkshire Publishing. the sixteenth century China exported porcelain wares in reigned 1661– 1722). Jingdezhen produced wares for use increasing amounts, particularly its blue and white ware by the court as well as large amounts of porcelain for the (porcelain decorated with cobalt-​­blue designs under a European market. Porcelain wares of great beauty were clear glaze). The British and Dutch East India companies produced to commemorate the birthdays of emperors. were the main exporters. By 1700 the trade in porcelain Particularly popular during the reign of Emperor Kangxi was vast. Porcelain ware of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) was famille verte, which are wares in which shades of green was particularly prized. predominate. Then a black enamel background was used, giving rise to the term famille noire and later the famille rose, which included a range of rose pink enamels. Such Ming and Qing Ware wares were in vogue during the reign (1726– 1795) of the Qianlong emperor (1711– 1795), grandson of Emperor Potters of the Ming dynasty concentrated more on Kangxi. Most of the enamel painting was done in Guang- painted designs and less on the forms of the wares. They zhou (Canton), which was the main trading port. had great success with the blue and white wares. Wares OOI Giok Ling with a yellow ground were made when the art of fusing enamels or colored glass onto the surface of the glaze was perfected during the reign (1505–1521) of the Zhengde em- Further Reading peror (1491– 1521). Honey, W. B. (1945). The ceramic art of China and other Jingdezhen (in Jiangxi Province), the center of porce- countries of the Far East. London: Faber and Faber. lain production, reached its zenith during the reign of the Payton, M., & Payton, G. (1973). The observer’s book of pot- Qing dynasty (1644– 1912) emperor Kangxi (1654– 1722, tery and porcelain. London: Frederick Warne. Potala Palace ▶ © 2009 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC.