CEU eTD Collection In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in ofMasterArts the degree for oftherequirements In partialfulfillment Policies to Combat Corruption in Kyrgyzstan: The Case of Higher Education Karlygach Nurmanbetova Karlygach Supervisor: Professor Liviu Matei Central European University European Central Department of Policy of Public Department Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Public Policy Submitted to Submitted 2012 by CEU eTD Collection economic and political conditions played their own roles. socio- of contribution and bodies enforcement law and base legislative of lack will, political of lack areas: of corruption of causes the rest The efficient. not is theirstable performance and not bodiesbecause thelawand third within are themselves policies ambiguities the enforcement contradictions many becausethereare secondly is bypolices, addressed not because issue the first corruption: in combating ineffective were policies The topic. the to insight gain to order in sources secondary and primary used qualitative(interviews) research,utilizing Kyrgyzstan. It educational and anti-corruption policies on reductionthe of incorruption universities in the looksatissue.ineffectiveness the impactof It of incombatingthis anti-corruption policies This thesis the discusses problem inof corruption higher in education Kyrgyzstan and Abstract i CEU eTD Collection meaning. Bazarova, for giving meendless love support, and for being presentin my life and fillingitwith My gratitude mydeepest to parents: dad-Yusupprecious Nurmanbetov andmom-Sveta Acknowledgements ii CEU eTD Collection Bibliography...... 41 AnnexTableAnti-corruptionII: of Institutions ...... 40 AnnexChart I: of Anti-corruption Institutions ...... 39 Conclusion ...... 38 ChapterRecommendationsV...... 37 Findings:...... 36 ChapterAnalysis IV...... 34 Chapter III. Impact Policies of in Combating Corruptionin Higher Education ...... 22 Chapter II. Corruptionin Higher Education:Case Kyrgyzstan ...... 15 ChapterTheoretical I. Background ...... 8 Introduction 1 ...... Abbreviationsof List ...... iv Acknowledgements...... ii Abstract ...... i Contents of Table Kyrgyzstan 30 in ...... Education in Higher Corruption in Combating Policies of Ineffectiveness of The 3.3 3.2 Educational and Anti-corruption Policies in Kyrgyzstan (Period: 1991-2012)...... 26 Anti-corruption3.1 Institutions ...... 23 2.3 Causes of Corruptionin Higher Educationin Kyrgyzstan ...... 18 2.2 Proof of Corruption (Bribing)at the Higher Education Sectorin Kyrgyzstan ...... 16 2.1 System of Higher Educationin Kyrgyzstan ...... 15 CombatWaysCorruption1.2 to ...... 12 1.1 Causes of Corruption in Higher Education ...... 10 Methodology 6 ...... LiteratureReview ...... 4 iii CEU eTD Collection NST National Scholarship Testing HE Higher Education OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development ACCELS American Councils forInternational Education MOES Ministry of Education, Science of Kyrgyz Republic KR Kyrgyz Republic ofAbbreviations List iv CEU eTD Collection managerial skills in administering the universities. the in administering skills managerial lackof was there addition them. In harder toregulate became it of decentralization process 1991, thenumber of inKyrgyzstanuniversities increased Because(DeYoung, 2008, 641). ofthe “donors paidfor policy not forchanges, policy implementation” (Baimyrzaeva, 2010,42).After that such was result The society. civil and bureaucracy of improvement the on concentrating International triedassistindonors to reducing corruption, by the assetsprivatizing instead of waslackthat ofinterest inimproving by the situation leaderspolitical (Baimyrzaeva, 2010,42). visible results (Baimyrzaeva,reforming inpull the administration to order down level the bring corruption; of didnot this 2010, 42). As Baimyrzaeva explains,(Baimyrzaeva, one of the main reasonsimprove in anymore, to theirofficialsown positions government usedthis situation order for 2010, 42).started in Kyrgyzstan, and since there was nomore Later, such a strict process of control from Moscow the pointprivatization At of process the grow. that to started 1991 corruption during of period the governmentas evidentas today. presentit in andwas not Even if frequent was Exactly education corruption started to initiateProfessors werereceiving whichwere salaries sufficientfor agood life (Heyneman,25). 2006, policies2006, 25).The educational system underGovernmentcontrol was tight Union.during Soviet the with the inKyrgyzstantimes, issue corruption wasnot universities suchabig astoday (Heyneman of aim of all spheres includingthe sphere higher Althoughof education. itbelievedisin that Soviet the many economicinfluence bared political challenges and in thatcertainly ongrowing corruption principles among allthe AsianCentral (Baimyrzaeva, states 2010,22).Nevertheless,itfaced its democratic for acknowledged Kyrgyzstan was well.quickly business and education as Central Asian (Kobonbaev states spread2008). It along differentspheres: healthcare, police, dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 corruption appeared to be a common feature for all of the independent.After the timethe became back of they when to phenomenon this 15). Roots go Central Asiais in thelist of regions where corruption in education is prevalent (Heyneman, Introduction 1 CEU eTD Collection amount of amountmoneyof they (Zaplatinaoffer 2012).Students keep payingmoney for enrollment,the moneysimply input before books their record entering the exam. gradedepends The onthe confirm universities that areproviding quality not good education. There arecases when students These canas qualifiedfacts be2009). only of (Toursunof graduates 5-10 percent regarded that states Agency, Prevention Corruption National of head the be to used who Mambetalieva, financial attorney police-83” (AkiPress taxoffice-86%,the 2012). Erkayim general-87%, customs agencies courts-89%, state -90%,the inKyrgyzstan:universities-92%, “the police-95%, be universities one appearedto of corrupted Organization, 2012, Baltic most the Survey/Gallup by research conducted Recent in Kyrgyzstan. issues become of serious the one has corruption ranked information incorruption as164thamong 178countries shows (Akmataliev, 3).This that was Kyrgyzstan that indicates 2010 Index Corruption International’s Transparency phenomenon. 2004, 24).The incorruption Kyrgyzhas universities become anorm andmassive turned into a (Mertaugh, payments” “informal of form the in appearing them of all for almost feature common education they differsprovide from university university,to nevertheless becamecorruption a of The quality (EACEA, 2010,2). are private 16 and arepublic (Sultanov 2012).34universities inKyrgyzstan institutions 50higher more of education are than Currently there state country. the influence(Baimyrzaeva, hadstrong and events on social the 2010,22).Certainly political these 2010, 22).InJune ethnicviolence in inOsh (city of south the Kyrgyzstan)place took (Baimyrzaeva, prevail to continued others and unemployment poverty, as problems economic governance into changed parliamentary (OECD, 2012,9).Despite such changes the socio nextversion andPresident. Thenew Constitution of form presidential was adopted of later, in April, Bakiev’s regime fell as a result of another revolution. Roza Otunbaeva became the years of Kurmanbek Five emerged. Bakiev leadership and the overthrown a newregimeunder mention leadaTulip in to corruption that Askar Akaev revolution old2005, the of regime was to need a is there Kyrgyzstan of situation political and socio-economic the Regarding 2 CEU eTD Collection economic andpoliticalconditions. economic strong politicalwill,vagueness of thepolicies,instabilitylawenforcement bodies,socio- lack of continuestoflourishtoday)duethe that policieswerenoteffective(sincecorruption policies corruption Itfrom 1991tillpresenton combating willbe shown atuniversities, times. with. source secondary interviews) and including(18 primary wereused qualitative methods of research paper and were notrightlyimplemented in reality inreducingcorruption inhigher due tothat were they wereonlyon education nothelpful in combating corruption in higher education in Kyrgyzstan? is: question The main research bribesof and inthecontext anduniversities. graduation admissions, studies during givingduring accepting relationship, student teacher- of frame the in studied is corruption thesis this In before that it is necessary to clarify the research question and thesis statement of this work. but totheexistingliterature turn a needto is problem there of the scope andunderstanding havefull to a In order the. to make acontribution to in order is significant topic of this research the therefore world; scholarly in the researched deeply not is education higher in corruption impact higher sphere of on of anti-corruption education. the policies the Unfortunately policieshave not did influence serious on combating in corruption general,moreover in the So looking Public Policy, facts existence 2012). atthe of mentioned earlier cansee one that were only and on paper simply changing having titles, nopractical and resultsuse (Institute of thesepolicies analyses Musabaevas’ to According is in combating questionable. effectiveness Their arethere. policies anti-corruption andthe educational fact that the of regardless worsening is even education higherin corruption of problem the situation and prevails The today. Kyrgyzstan marksin 2006).Thisfor isthe reality universities of good diplomas(Sekerina receiving and This thesis will evaluate the effectiveness ofeducationaland anti-corruption Why anti-corruption andeducationalpolicies were nothelpful This work will try to draw a link between the theory and 3 . In . In order togaininto insight this question, The hypothesis is that, hypothesis The the policies CEU eTD Collection background on the topic, explaining why corruption occurs and what are its andare consequences. background occurs explainingwhy The corruption on what topic, the HallakYoung (2008), Hunther Poisson a theoretical and (2002), and Shah (2000) present broughtsuchDe that asHeyneman(2006), which and factors Scholars were successful results. policies anti-corruption explains theory second The country. the of development and society on andthreats consequences the tells about and education inhigher of corruption occurrence First group in adopted Kyrgyzstan. policies and onanticorruption educational literature of the scholarly 2)literatureframework on evidencesthe of universities inKyrgyzstan corruption at the and 3) works, lookinto at threetwo theories. canbe divided sources accessible However, Kyrgyzstan. inparts caseof the specifically education Oneaccordinglyhigher in corruption in combating discusses policies national of impact the on isavailable much Not the withreasons eradication. of international inthe process roleorganizations the of country cases and describing the of content corruption, in causesandimpacts it,of corruption combating bringing general, successful of this thesis: of phenomenon covers predominantly education in corruption about literature Existing 1) literature Review Literature on the theoretical follow. today) and theirimpact. Chapter four is about analyses, further recommendations and conclusion educationalthe and bodiesand since anti-corruption policies anti-corruption (initiated 1991till in theproof of is andhighlights ofit.corruption reasons Chapter universities three dedicatedto brings Kyrgyzstan, in education higher of system the on light sheds It Kyrgyzstan. of case the general and ways combatit.to Chapter istwo corruption about in higher education describing in in causeson and highercorruption corruption andconsequences of the discussing education work scholarly coveringthe framework, the theoretical presents chapter First be will discussed. Thestructure of the thesisis as follows: below theliterature review andthemethodology inreducing corruption higher education. in impact theirand in corruption recommendation combating analyze proposed andto practice 4 CEU eTD Collection the anti-corruptionthe policies in general which were initiated solveto theissue. isis corruptionurgency. Since at anevidencefact it there of tolook that the occurs, important universitiesis significant helpful in and observing scope clearly of the problemthe andits literatureRadio This aboutLiberty cases whichcontains in kindof thetruth 2009). of corruption any FreeI. I'm not (RadioEurope and so do their arepayingdifferent" brought bribes, children reality,today's thepractice questioning hasnever my and crossed parentswho mind.Other (father of a student applying from graduate it. Forinstance, Farangis inNajibullah hismentions article, Alymbek about to Kyrgyz Osh in tobe to university bribes ortheir payingorder accepted to the or cases students parents of State University), the discuss openly AkiPress) Central Asia.ru, Free Europe, (as Radio articles newspaper Online who says, “I accept bribery toenter bribesreceive grades(Mertaugh, help24). universitythe students to 2004, good or as in Mertaugh his outlinesthe of work prevalence corruption in at universities Kyrgyzstan and that Michael laws. anti-corruption of ineffectiveness and universities at corruption of existence prove which articles and papers academic of consists literature the of part second The Kyrgyzstan. theories,is it important tolook at the literature which brings proof of incorruption universities in the clarifying after Therefore, Kyrgyzstan. of in case beuseful can which corruption combating on solutions discuss also they causes, the presenting with sincealong isimportant literature which explanationThis effectivecorrespond tomust (2000).setof criteria’s policies of diverse internal “external causes factors” and 62). Hunther(Hallak, and 2007, Shah give Hallak points factto the corruption that in higher education is a complex problem involves which presents thetheory explaining principal- of Moreover, agent occurrence the of corruption (2006). Heyneman analyses. infurther help and Kyrgyzstan will case tothe isof relevant research theoretical for framework problem the inof corruption ingeneral;moreover education their the down lay they because important is thesis this into authors mentioned the of inclusion 5 CEU eTD Collection governmental governmental organizations and international employees organizations, of law enforcement non- of representatives professors, of researchers, consisted research the of The sample sources. secondary and primary employing research, of methods qualitative used thesis This Methodology Kyrgyzstan. in inhigher education corruption on rolecombating literature on of the policies lack of the to contribute to this will try thesis Therefore is overlooked. Kyrgyzstanin higher education inthesphereof specifically corruption on impact policy of analyses however terms, general impact anti-corruption in of and inhighereducation, ofcorruption policies phenomenon the the in general policies anti-corruption describes literature the is that underline to issue main The will be further. presented detailed More discussion is partof is literature. herethe a small What mentioned assess policies. governmentinstitutions” oversight246). (2005,Theseimportantbecause sourcesare help they to behavior,butalsoup systems set of external accountability, citizenmonitoring using aswell includemust prevention, andenforcement. Theymust incentivesfor education good create “To Phyllis be2004, 1). effectivereforms anticorruption (Shah and states: Dininio, Schaster, causes” “country-specific to pay attention to need is a there function well to strategies for those inThey 1). (2004, “onetechniques claim that ineffectiveorder fits becausethey size all” are use adoption of state policiesanti-corruption policies (OECD, 2012, 4).Shah that that and Schaster the and life socio-economic in changes the between correlation a showing Kyrgyzstan, of picture Itprovidessince monitoringin 2012,4). OECD first the economic, 2007 (OECD, political implemented were which policies anti-corruption the of a review provides report monitoring anti-corruptionanti-corruption since policies 1991 (adopted which today in till andcan be groups: grouped two general specificand aboutthe in policies corruptionfighting in Kyrgyzstan.discusses This part and educational in corruption combating on policies of impact the about is sources of group third The policies) and their assessment. For instance the OECD 6 CEU eTD Collection whole body of population in terms of their view regarding the anti-corruption policies. the of be representative cannot sample the is that research the of limitation The fact. undeniable is an it that and exists education higher in corruption that aware were respondents the all Almost policies and wereable theeducational totell and anti-corruption about fewrespondents Interestingly only moreover explainingabout itby the fact that their work ethics do not allow to give full information theirpublicly. information limited they givevery want interviews, or they to not were providing did either impact. because bodies,Most law enforcement the of workers the interview to was challenges the of One of them andcounted. were categorized knew about words form inkey of the Similaranswers (2). experts independent (1)and media representative the National(7), Government representatives (6), law enforcement bodies (3), anti-corruptionTesting. body (1), mass numberanalyzed; following andNGOs interviewees into the of werecounted divided groups: was interview each Further typed. was material recorded the interviews the finishing After reasons 5) about their view on solutionthe combatto corruption in higher education. education 4) theirabout policies viewupontheeffectiveness in of in those higher corruption the reducing about theircorruption in education theirfamiliarity anyanti-corruption higher 2) about with policies 3) view uponof aware being society civil andthe government about 1) asked: were questions Following effectiveness/rest in Russian. in 45 minutes. Onefrom the wasconducted English, continued ineffectivenessthis Interviews 15to research. bemight helpful to who people of shareother contacts askedto were respondents the interview of those the of end the In conducted. were interviews 18 and contacted were people 28 policiessum In Teaching Methods). The respondents were contacted by an e-mail,and thereafter by the phone. (Chief specialist of administration of tests at the Center for Educational Assessment and Kydyrova Meerim and Center) ShanPolicy Tian Managerat (Program Ainura Assamidinova bodies and representatives of Ministry of Education. The contacts were gathered with helpthe of 7 CEU eTD Collection academic material for evaluations favors” (Meiergifts and non-material andGriffin,At 2005,4). personal for gain, authority of “abuse as: bribery defines bothRumyantseva well. as voluntarily but materialinvoluntary and others, exchangeact in Bribes induce of thatperson giver”(2003,9). to the be interest the not only offeredcan of power to give to person corrupt a to offered gradesreward “the is bribe Berenbeim, and Arvis to According and other types2004, 87). isThere a need forclarification of definitions. the of (OECD, for actors: both of the bringsbenefits becauseit isauniquephenomenon education corruption bewhich will considered in this thesis corruption–bribery.Moreover, in higher of define theis aspect need there a to Further, in Kyrgyzstan. higher education spherethe of basis a daily on in place taking universities the at activity becameacommon which corruption all types of inexistcorruption Kyrgyz Butbribery universities. is themost prevalent type of such universities can 57). as:bribery,fraud,forms take (2002,In extortion” “embezzlement, fact grades and acceptHallak absencesand professors According them. to andPoisson in corruption day corruption give through moneyday toteachers Students to foroccurs the bribes dealings. level”district (2002,3).This fact is applicable tothe universities in Kyrgyzstan because mainly and school classrooms the at transactions day to “day he says as is which corruption” “petty and Langseth (in 1997). David corruption thatChapman argues mostly in occurs form the of low-ranking This officials) (Bashir,2006,12). wasproved by research the done byStapenhurst among and money placed people “petty corruption”transactions (small whoare onhigh posts) those among (occurs corruption” “grand be: can there corruption of forms the Regarding first. corruption of forms is the outline forms. necessary It to in inhighercan occur different education Corruption the definitioneducation and on the assessmentof of anti-corruption bribing, policies. It discusses the forms of corruption, higher in corruption main of problem the on background theoretical the provides chapter This theories,Background Theoretical I. Chapter major causes of corruption and ways to combat it. 8 CEU eTD Collection state that there can be: technical and welfare relevance (Hunther and Shah, 2000, 8). Technical 8). 2000, Shah, and (Hunther relevance welfare and technical be: can there that state Policies8). 2000, are Shah, and (Hunther consideredsustainability and efficiency efficacy, relevance, successful: to be relevant if they indeed canbeShah anti-corruption whichthe accordingpolicy counted four criteria to provide are able to reach their Moreover,anticipated behaviorand costs of 2). Hunter corrupted the (Hunther and Shah, 2000, aims. Here authors benefits outweigh Second, punishments. thereis anticipated the a smallburdenuponthe it behavior, whenthepersonshappens only anticipated anticipated expenses and of corrupted the than more are benefits anticipated is when, First corruption. of occurrence on views two raise penalties the 3). Further, behavior”expected of (2000, corrupt Hunther and Shah present and gains expected “lower the policies effective anti-corruption that scholars fact underline the on notionthe “publicopportunisticof These for incentives officials' (2000,2). behavior” build policies anti-corruption the of assessment an provide framework Shah’s and Hunther model. HE canbe principal the through agent explained in corruption of occurrence The 5). 2006, (Heyneman, etc. rectors professor, teachers, agents, canbe actors member.Different isafaculty seller the and buyer of isin the role the student bribe is the government. In terms of illegally entering the university, orpaying for the grades, the of the seller the and university is the buyer the education, higher in corruption of case the In 4). and government in serve for the ofpublic asagents sale services” the goods 2006, (Heyneman, Vishny in explaining in corruption formercountries of Soviet Union. In this model “officials criteria anti-corruptionof (2000).Principalmodel policies agent by was used Shleifer and the evaluation presents andShah’stheory and Hunter corruption of phenomenon appearance of theory Huntherof andShah bemodel will usedinthisthesis.explainsagent Principal the theory on assessment acknowledged a generally is no There in education. corruption on of theory common anti-corruptionone no is policies inof education, sphere corruption there on the thebribing theories 32). Regarding (Bashir, 2006, too. Nevertheless a principal than just broad bevery is of keptinmindneeds toscope samethe corruption itthat time always agent model and 9 CEU eTD Collection possibility for corruption to occur. Strong leaders are able to take strong measures strong towards take are able to Strongleaders occur. to forpossibility corruption is less thenthere andeffective governance Indeed if is1). stable there (2007, governance” for of corruptionin is the mainreasons sector the public of general “dysfunctionality one that states Shah Anvar corruption. the of spread the cause leaders and governance Weak provides combined causes. scholars with other comparatively Hallak (2007) factors. socio-economic and legislation weak Johnson2005, Rumyantseva, of 2005, are: weak governance, phenomenon 2007).Causes this inexperiencedand issues specialists, with absenceemployment leaders of educated (Chapman, quality decreasing the bringingvalueseducation, of upwrong inyoung uneducatedand people, among public, the distrust creating consequences: andhas negative threats poses in education Corruption education. higher in corruption of causes the describes and presents section This 1.1 Causes of Corruption inHigherEducation education. This needs to be done in order to be able to relate them with them further.be in case to abletorelate the bethem to them done order needsto with This education. is discussing after there a theories, into issueneed toturn causesof the inof highercorruption Now effective. be can considered see which helps policies to second The education. sphere of the in corruption of causes the understand to helps approach first hence theories mentioned the of social and other factorsin toassessorder sustainability is policy.the of a There need touseboth consideration: into It isnecessary officials” take 11). and Shah, 2000,to political, (Hunther policythe tobesustainablecounted if“itthe expectationschanges of accountability public of when brings policy the “maximum” decreasein corruption andShah,2000,11).Lastly (Hunther inincrease of: terms reduction, no effect waswith (Hunther andor 10). Efficiency Shah, is 2000, importance”It also (Hunther and10). atthechanges Shah,mainlylooks 2000, within corruption, account theirinto relative be taking expectedto achieved, achieved, or were project's objectives corruption” Efficacy (Hunther andwhich is Shah, 2000,8). “the as: extentto defined the of type andparticular of for growth reduction poverty is: importance relevance “relative andwelfare incidence corruption” of the on is:activities “impact of specific asnoted relevancies 10 CEU eTD Collection the only the survive”way to (Mambetalieva 2012). Mutually beneficial ofcorruption process turned that’s bribes, taking because start atseveralwork they sametime, atthe places an to opportunity have not do professors if Certainly Kyrgyzstan. in receive they salaries of amount the for live to needs 16,2006).As (Penkauskienne, Mambetalieva mentioned: need “Professors tosurvive and act in a corrupt manner comes from increasing needs that always matter more than other person’s main“human’s of Penkauskienne states (16,2006).The desire one to that reasonsis the egoism” education. higher in corruption of appearance on influences motivation Personal sphere of higher education are: low salaries and low level lifeof in general (Akmataliev, the in 7). corruption high such of reasons main the of one that outline to important is it salaries, on Concentrating making bringsdecision 16,2006). more(Penkauskienne, corruption procedures” lack weakcontrol of management, of weak and accountability, unclearorganizations, purpose including: lack “weakeconomy, budget,jobs, administered small state of poorly salaries, and factors Socio-economic corruption. of causes the of one are factors Socio-economic lack of stable socio-economic environment in the country is not least important cause.the Further, corruption. combating for important are bodies mentioned and laws of existence The anti-corruption moreover 2012). lack body arepresent,independent bodies (Mambetalieva of enforcement law weak legislation, weak Kyrgyzstan of case the In issue. isadditional body independent weak. Thelackanti-corruption of too bodies ifare lawenforcement impossible the is this But 28). (2006, corruption” will reduce regulations enforcementof and rules “better that, McCusker states implementednot inreality. but lawsplace, areat Often anti-corruption 2006). 16, (Penkauskienne, lack protection programs” witnesses, of poorly courts, legislature, qualified fact andit ambiguous In cause corruption. appears whenever are:“unclear, changing there institution independent controlling a lackof bodiesand enforcement law legislation, Weak and laws.come practical with along coherent shall governance Good 4). (Rumyantseva, in Kyrgyzstan government the of ineffectiveness the combating corruption makingand (Chapman, Rumyantseva positive changes 2005,71). to points 11 CEU eTD Collection due to the complexity of due tothecomplexity issue. the of toworkon for thereisnothat ineducation combating corruption strategy single one possibility bodies, increasing salaries,managerial improving skills and others. Poisson and Hallakagreed on success.steps improving Some towards of enforcement strengtheningthe are: them governance, and it combating of importance underlining corruption combat to ways covers section This 1.2 WaystoCombat Corruption it.impacts of the observe to necessary combine allof intomajorthem two After groups. considering the causes of itiscorruption Poisson and Hallak different causesof flourish.corruption; present to higher education Scholars in corruption the letting Kyrgyzstan in present are mentioned were which factors the of All if look itatare thesame. causes of because Kyrgyzstan case of to corruption judiciary mentionedbody Factors andsystem poor 63). the byHallakareapplicable(2007, to auditing of lack principles, ethical of diminishing conditions, social and economic will, political forExternal Hallak factors information are:absenceof 62). access to(2007, poor management, funds, ineffective absencemotivation codesof and of lack conduct, professors, of professors (Hallak, 2007, 62). To internal factors he refers, absence of rules,lack of transparency among the factors” internal and “external into education in corruption of causes grouped Hallak help know students cost the of examthe (AsiaNews. It2009). its With have. professors some that for thegrades list” set“aprice is even There students. from “professional culture”, among the members of the faculty for whom bribes is it for take whom faculty of a norm the to among members the culture”, “professional enforcementlaw the to report to is willing sides the of bodies neither therefore process beneficial mutually on the factsis a This 6). (Akmataliev, them offer to willing are ofstudents but bribes, bribery.in taking interested Rumyantsevainstitutions.Akmataliev underlined thatpoints one of majorthe problemsis that not only professors are education tohigher Kyrgyz in theprofessors and students the among both existence activity a normal into of so called 12 CEU eTD Collection Kyrgyzstan. Now,in terms of solutions, different scholarly works propose different techniques. among Such students(Penkauskienne, 2006,18). of kind be wouldpractice use in of great intocourse the curriculum anti-corruptionwouldnurture itposition and disrespecttowards anti-corruption the adding instance, For corruption. reduce may curriculum the Reforming 2010, 12). bring (Poisson, could results changesinthecurriculum ethical Moreover (Johnson, 2007,25). 260). Hence Johnson suggests combination two toolsof for combatinglegal corruption: and (Azsfar, government” “systemically corrupt effective of because arenot and others committees accountability legislative commissions, as:anticorruption accountability” of “mechanisms in (2006,12).Moreover most that OmarAzsfar, outlines such of countries overlooked the were skills” managerial of upgrading and building capacity “implementation, as aspects such still lawsinitiated certain were there that thefact of regardless Kyrgyzstan, in case of that the note improvement of transparencythe in Horton educationalthe andsphere (2007,16). Williamson management potential (making sure that they are put in force) can serve as good solutions for the thatstrengthening Weidmanlegal and state system framework) the the regulatory (improving improvecorruption. help to transparency They inservices government 2006). John (Bashir, 15, for combating institutions are important anti-corruption Independent visiblebring results. not will they is weak laws the of implementation If bodies. lawenforcement by implemented symptom of fundamental governance failure” (2004, 5). 2006, 13).Shah and Schastereverywhere almost arguethat in is worldthe corruption “a Williamson, and (Horton corruption in combating success bringing quickly reforms implement leadershiptransparency” 13). Strong is for(2006, necessary governance. good leader Such can and bring “accountability Thiscan system. aclosed of political importance opening the to point Williamson and Horton improved. be must country the of system political the First Changing the political system is not enough without laws that are effectively 13 CEU eTD Collection corruption. Further the case of Kyrgyzstan will will be discussed. caseof the Kyrgyzstan Further corruption. (Shah andwidespread is not where corruption countries onlyin bringthose successful agencies” can results Schaste,such strategiesanti-corruption “decentralization, salaries, raising creatingas “watchdog” 2004,concentrating on the country features (Shah and Schaster, 2004, 2). One of the main5). issues is specifically that be considered to has. Corruption another. in result same Differentthe have not might country in one is effective what Nevertheless world. the around implemented were policies corruption scholars anti- Many policy.a adoptingin important is features country specific account into Taking suggest diverse solutions on combating 14 CEU eTD Collection specialized schools (Uchilische ) and institutes (institut)” (EACEA, 2010, 2). There (EACEA, (institut)” arealso 2). institutes 2010, (Uchilische )and specialized schools education institutions (for example, Kyrgyz National Conservatory, Bishkek Higher military academies specialized higher (akademia), are:“universities(universitet), Kyrgyzstan, those of system educational the in institutions education higher of types four are there Today accessibility (Ismailova 2012). sphere of higherearn money 2012).The (Ismailova startingfrom period 1991 became time of reforms in the education. to in order andcolleges, theircreate universities own to sector) far educational from were the One ofMcGlen, According 48). Tolekan to Ismailova, thismotivated many whopeople (even those the main goalslaterUnion, it free becausebecame education Soviet was but the during and paid(Tolbaeva was to 50% (OECD,311).Thisuniversities,numbers whiletoday isquitetheir increasedto interesting achieve: quality,De Youngtoo. According during time to only applied Soviet the of the graduates -14% to efficiency were already There andMcLean,48). wasanincrease114 (Tolbaeva in number of the students andthere In institutions1999 existed. higher education its only9 independence Kyrgyzstan received When Sainazarov). and (Shamatov worse became education of quality the Union of Soviet the After collapse the andMcLean,48). of country Union 1991 (Tolbaeva until Sovietthe was part because the education system, influenceof soviet the buildunderastrong Kyrgyzstan was in system Educational Kyrgyzstan. in education higher of system the describes section This 2.1 SystemofHigher Education in Kyrgyzstan There is a need to review the educational system of the country first. in became widely nowadays. Thehigher of topic discussed discussed. education corruption be itwill of causes and corruption of evidences itself higher education of system Kyrgyzstan: in comeeducation will current (which picture next of chapter) the in higher education higher in policies anti-corruption of impact the discussing Before in Kyrgyzstan. universities in corruption case of bringing the education higher corruptionin on elaborates chapter This Kyrgyzstan Case Education: Higher in Corruption II. Chapter 15 CEU eTD Collection quality of education they provide differs among them; nevertheless corruption in the form of form the in corruption nevertheless them; among differs provide they education of quality graduation. Currently in Kyrgyzstan 50universities aremorethere than 2012). The (Sultanov ample evidences illustrating students duringoffering money theadmissions, and studies indeed inbecame aserious sphereof issue.Thereare the higher education earlier corruption providing results of surveys,the of and secondary the sources interviewAs responses. mentioned This section provides proof of thatcorruption existsinhigher education in Kyrgyzstan by 2.2 Proof of Corruption (Bribing) atthe Higher Education Sector in Kyrgyzstan know to what extent the phenomenon hasspread. thephenomenon what extent know to is universities there at of aneed anti-corruption discussingpolicies anti-corruption impact to the Before institutions. education higher in corruption of evidences bring section will next The 6). and Sainazarov, exams) (Shamatov andsummerof winter theperiod times ayear(for time students obligated to attend all of the courses, part time students attend the courses only two can university full part Students the attend (Tolbaevasalaries andtime. McGlen, 49). or Full private universities who havebetter teach at contribution. state’s isProfessors universities the of payments; privateof budgetthe universities comes from private state 20-30% the students”) and(“budget by paymentsthe students”). of students (“contract 100% the of the universities. Two types offunding appeared in higher institutions: funded by education state the Tuition fees differ from university,privateuniversity to universitiesbut charge more than public of andadmissions. part.This process Kyrgyzstan upthe cleared eased take could regions of intherefore 2002 National scholarship wasintroduced. Testing (NST) Inwhich from students from areas; whoare rural itsstudents towards forthose unfairness became famous system universities number weregiven and of quotas then distributed them among students.This kindof budget. Public from institutions In receivemoney terms earlier 2010, 3). of state admissions, the forinstitutions, professorsandmany the (EACEA, holding developing trainings others policies, mentioned the upon responsibility carries Kyrgyzstan in MOES doctarantura). and (aspirantura levelsdifferent masters, as:bachelors, programs specialist programs and alsopost-graduate 16 CEU eTD Collection level feesof that students can pay for the exams, attendance, quizzes etc., and as a result students university instead and pay for exams the $500-600).Moreover, professors (about have set certain the attend not do even students some that stated university Osh of student Sarybaev, Emil professor. tothe money further that gives who group, the leader of the “starosta” not want for his/her name to be mention) that the money is gathered among the group mates to did (who respondents of the by one mentioned itwas interviews the During mechanism. separate awhole and that’s studying during of the instead process exams.tests takes Bribing place oral standardized bybringing procedures admission toreform started sovietstates Drummond, post universitiesthe with start admissionsandlastthe till graduation.Accordingthe toTodd corruption Mambetalieva notes at (OECD,2008,26).AsErkayim improvements case some with inaccording thecorruption results to the was notreduced last five was years. Georgia a single region; soviet post the in corruption of level high revealed Plan Corruption Istanbul (Bakir uulu 2012). heads of the universities do not want to fight with the issues,because they themselves are corrupt students invite their professors to restaurants and cafes. Most of the students thought that the claimed that professors take bribes in the form of money, 14% in the form of groceries, 3% of low corruption 54%of of because Moreover values, that salaries. 203stated respondents occurs lackethical becauseprofessors the universities isat corruption there that 54thought give bribes, stated thattheir 261people arecorrupted, students themselves universities arewilling to saidthat of For example, 520people, interviewed 262 Ombudsmen Kyrgyzstan.of survey Institute the in inuniversities ofcorruption scope revealingthe conducted surveys of number were There current 52universities (K-News 2012). amongto benot corrupted of Asia arecounted University Central and AmericanUniversity universitieshave funding. who strict rulesand good Manas Only Kyrgyz Turkish two: This few 24). is (Mertaugh, those feature excluding theircommon became “informal payments” 17 CEU eTD Collection institutions.big (right ongkanat into twowing) Theyaredivided (left sol and groups: kanat memberseveryday The (2002,4). formalreality” clan of the donottrust groups and rules be to remain “They states: Berdikeeva 2). (Biryukov, other each among benefit the share to able inhas Itforto dominate informal be these been 2). important all (Berdikeeva, to groups spheres it andstarted strong very become relations based time that Akaev. clan Since Askar Kyrgyzstan, informal 1990’s (Biryukov, This backruling president to of 56). groups goes first of the is hard identify It central because to bondclans 2002,4). they members”(Collins, are among institutionsocial in notional which or actual blood based kinship ormarriageon forms the economic and social life of Central Asian states (2002, 4). Collins defines clans as: “an informal in political, important always were politics clan Collins Kathleen to According corruption. of causes major the of one being Kyrgyzstan in persist regionalism and relationships Clan which at the same timeincreased chances of corruption (De Young, 2008,14). so, do to andwereable enter university the to school wanted at their of performance regardless all 14). Thislead beUnion Young,students 2008, tothat Soviet the state asitduring(De used to the only not parents of shoulders the on left were expenses educational that fact the of regardless enough thenumberincrease. Asto of students started DeYoung,pointed out that happenedthis and lackenforcement body interestingly of reasons.From and socio-economic 1991 controlling weak legislation, weak will, political and governance weak regionalism, and relationships clan are: inKyrgyzstan of corruption maincauses the of arediverse.One inKyrgyzstan corruption of Causes Kyrgyzstan. in education higher in corruption of causes the presents section This 2.3 Causes of Corruption inHigherEducation in Kyrgyzstan causes. theright see iftoaddress tothey in were able order further policies is infor in This analysesof Kyrgyzstan. the the necessary higher education causes of corruption main the bring will section next The today. universities Kyrgyz the of reality the is This easier way of bribesgiving and solving all of their issues. by graduate by buyinga thesis adiploma butnot orpassingexams. choose writing an Students, 18 CEU eTD Collection at place. But there were no concrete and specific results” (Mambetalieva 2012). As Uzakbaev 2012). (Mambetalieva results” andspecific concrete no were there place. But at and they are realizing that itis useless to spentmoney. First steps, as normative base was already foreign donors. But donors also do not want to keep helping, because there is no political will, will. Very few part of anti-corruption activities are financed by the state, most of it is financed by think of corruption. As Mambetalieva mentioned during theinterview, “There islack of political political will it would be easier to overcome the issue and neither professors nor students would students nor political issue itwill beeasierto overcome professors would neither the and strong in order as to not still eradicateis will political the Nevertheless issue. corruption this upon touch often lately Babanov Minister coming from the top to the down. In the presenceRosa Otunbaeva became a President (OECD, 2012, 11).of Recently Presidentthe Atambaev and Prime combatsince 2010when desireshow corruption some of to Kyrgyzsigns started to of Republic in fac.Government will, political lack ofstrong isweakgovernance main causes the of One give during presents the public holidays and thisisperceived as a normal thing. Students 2011,54). bribery of (Akmatbekova, typea “nice polite” into and This turned practice Giftoffering lifebecame andthem part accepting of 4). ofKyrgyz 2011, (Akmatbekova, people (Taksanov). and shameful unacceptable” perceivebribing “assomething not Some people do role inKyrgyzimportant has become and culture apartof (Saralaeva 2012). Kyrgyz “mentality” very a plays giving gift of ceremony The in Kyrgyzstan. prevalent still is This officials. actby higher to how told were anduniversities control undergovernment was higher education of The sphere isexisted. corruption of a which petty “blat”, type timesso called Soviet when corruption in universitites in Kyrgyzstan and(Temple 2004,91). Petrov, Itcomes from the “Mentality”professor’s support. (way of thinking) instance,if22). For is from a student samethe clan region professor, he/sheor as mightgetthe of givingdominant, peopleintonorthernerssoutherners dividing 2003, and (Dukembaev and Haansen, gifts prevailsbelonging certainto clan,members of that clan take a leading position in society. Regionalism is being onewing) andDepending (Dukembaev Haansen,2003,22). on leaderthe of his/her country the and of the major causes of 19 CEU eTD Collection people’s Shamatov, (Mambetalievaconsciousness” 2012).According to since 1991slow decline money. is It like avicious circle everything goesback tothe social, reasonsand economic (illegally working). Corruption became normal. This is a systematic problem. Student has to earn areabroad areregisteredbutthey “Many asstudents during interview, students the themselves told Mambetalieva as money, earn to have situation financial difficult to due Students more. were wasless workload the salaries while the force,is 2010, 27).That whichis (OECD, ageing population” alsobe if an whyit better would majority Women provide vast teaching the of andvacuum” the Joldoshalieva, 10). (Shamatov (PISA Worldstudies,Such 370,2010). Bank, ofheavykind leads workload “methodological to universities was$112 private whowereemployed at the those $82,whileuniversitiesof was several places.2009 statisticsAccordinghalf almost to 13 the of 025 professorcombining were in their work The professors, 800hoursforlevel professors the with consistsexperience. lectures. 70%of work the of of salaries isworkload high very inmost the of universities, timethe is it about-850hours for the in is (Aslanbekova, professor Moreover of between 2011). $20-40,whilethatrectors $60” 2006 of thosesalaries professors are low in Kyrgyzstan, Socio- who“On economic average, worked it. tocure than diseaseprevent the to better problems the monthly playin a bigsalary theroleis infact nothing because, done.It really so, was say doing job cannot one their while properly, in of termsstatelecturers are they that of states this corruptionfor is responsible that and “body” although prevention, no professorsis “There change. growth. Theis professor’s regimedue tothe on later closed which body was wasananti-corruption corruption. There enforcement bodies are weak as well and there is no independent stable controlling body on law paper, laws on exist only Anti-corruption independent body. islacka separate there of a moreover weak, is implementation their but Kyrgyzstan in exist policies Anti-corruption isbut there a for someoneimplementneed it’ to (Uzakbaev, 2012). Law isnecessary arethere. legal instruments mechanisms, legal acts, “Strategy, normative noted 20 CEU eTD Collection corruption incorruption higher education. controllingbody, socio-economic reasons are all come to be one of the major causes of of lack implementation, weak laws, weak governance, weak will, political weak So, only the states duty to take care of HE sector (Rumyantseva, 3). it not andwas salariesdropped because, faculty this betime to referred inHEcan corruption of quality education of could be (2010).AsRumyantseva observed states quickthe expansion of 21 CEU eTD Collection 2012 2009 2007 2006 2005 2003 2004 2003 2003 2002 2000 1996 1992 Year Table 1.Educational and Anti-Corruption Policies of Kyrgyz Republic but not innotbut sphere higherthe of education specifically. in combating aimingat corruption wereimplemented policies general sphere. Anti-corruption problem inof corruption higher nevertheless education improve directly; to the tried educational influence on education from andthrough helps went policies adopted toseechanges nowadaysand their 1991 till policies contains system table The 1). (Table policies educational and anti-corruption inthe analyze to Kyrgyzstan. SomeKyrgyzstan’s some of which were reformed or dissolvedof (Annex 1). Further, the section theattempts in exist that bodies reforms anti-corruption the presents it Firstly, now). till 1991 since (adopted policies did not aim to solve anti-corruption and educational institutions, the anti-corruption the discusses chapter This Education Higher in Corruption Combating in ofPolicies Impact III. Chapter A decree "On the State Anti Anti National The Educ American Bar Association was published auspicesof the Law Initiative for Central European andEurasian Affairsof the Anti of the "Analysis report The Republic Kyrgyz in Corruption National Agency on Prevention of Corruption + The National Council to Combat A Decree on “Urgent Measures to CombatCorruption” and the creation of National Strategy Against Corruption in Kyrgyz Republic Expertise held by OSCE, USAID and UNDP Istanbul Plan Against Corruption National Scholarship Test (NST) Law New Law On Education Kyrgyzstan in testing National Concept of Education in Kyrgyz Republic State Doctrine of Developmentof the Sphere of Education Program National “Bilim” Law On Education Policy Name of Kyrgyzstan ratified the UN Convention Against Corruption. Against Convention UN the ratified Kyrgyzstan Against ation ation Development Strategy of the Kyrgyz Republic (2006, 4). Corruption - Corruption Strategy in the Kyrgyz Republic - Corruption Corruption Policy Strategy of the Kyrgyz Republic." - Corruption Corruption Legislation of the KR" under the 22 CEU eTD Collection Committee on the Rule of Law, Legality and Fight against Corruption. The Public Advisory Public The Corruption. against Fight and of on Law, Legality Rule the Committee also and Council Advisory Public bodies: anti-corruption several are There much. universities anti-corruption youth events, which notdo have muchto impact oneradication of corruption (Jukeeva 2012). limited mostly is it that noticed be can it activities, anti-corruption its beingRegarding professor dean a singlenot punished. caseof up tonowthere was or corrupted phonereceiving calls upon Security Service andFinancialPolice But case on the corruption. of National State with cooperates and Ministry the within affairs administrative and financial the monitors which Audit, Internal of Department is there that interview the during noted MOES, the at Secretary in Press Kerez policies. Jukeeva, the is underestimated in universities corruption of problem the because practice on be seen cannot concerns these of results the Nevertheless is15). higher (OECD, atrisk of education sphere the corruption the that stating awareness about raise to started which bodies first the was among MOES OECDreport the to According fight. factis considered beuniversitiessphere, educational an of bribery at notproblem to urgent to Work of Ministry of Education and Science (MOES) is directed towards the improvementof Council). Business Anti-corruption Corruption, Combating for Council National Agencyon Corruption, (National (Anti-corruption Agencies Office3)Independent General Prosecutors Service), Security National on Committee State Affairs, Interior of (Ministry bodies Financial ServicePolice ofKyrgyz Republic andPublicAdvisory Council) 3)Law enforcement State Corruption, against Fight and Legality Law, of Rule the on (Committee Parliament There are several bodies: 1) Ministry of Education and Science (Committee of Internal Audit), 2) effectively. beimplemented to policies anti-corruption the for constrains biggest of one the functions are force.broad instability, Howevertheir putpoliciesintoThese and unclear bodies Kyrgyzstan. in phenomenon this of linkederadication with are directly activities their because 3.1 Anti-corruption Institutions Governmental anti-corruption bodies are not concerned with the problem of bribery at bribery of problem the with concerned not are bodies anti-corruption Governmental It is necessary to discuss major anti-corruption institutions and scope of their work, 23 CEU eTD Collection dependent fromdependent governmentandthe dubious laws.Inits developmentstrategy it is outlined that, who will be employed might not have a necessary work experience to work effectively.” job, people young left while “we without are new be effective: surethat the heis not body will that stated, police) financial at (an ex-employee interviewees While of the one police areunclear. Financial the of and body new this of functions between Difference 2012). (Government created Babanov’s a words new Service named institution State for Combating Crimes Economic be will this body since from February, 1993and itwasthen on was Recently reformed 9times (Vinogradov, 2012). dissolved. exists Financial Police instance, For restructuring. frequent because of suffer often institutions Now, These Service). (Anticorruption of Kyrgyzstan Committee Office,Security National Prosecutor’s accordingNational Security Service (State Financial Policeto Service ofKyrgyz Republic), General the Prime in combatingOne are: sphereof corruption HE. preventing or of maininstitutions State the the Minister of Kyrgyzstan,governmental bodies aimed at combating corruption but not in the sphere of HE. formembers) and voted the bill lifecame into (Bazarbaeva, 2012). As it be these can noticed Omurbek majority departmentnevertheless combating the on (80 separate deputies of corruption, had already National Service Security and State Affairs Interior of Ministry because this body, send bill itto or back for revision many 2012).Therewere (Kenesh upon disputes creationthe of the support to either right the has Parliament Kenesh). (Jogorku Parliament the of consideration the Rule of Law, Legality and Fight against Corruption is to hold meetings, to pass bills for the on Committee the of maingoal Advisory The Council 2012). (Public agencies committees) and governmental Advisory Councils wereorganized in 40bodiesabout (under numberministries, of of governmental activities monitor the is to its maingoals of in2010andone was created It cases of corruption. bodies the with deal to specifically Parliament the under committee asaseparate created Council was and to report on them to the citizens (Government 2012). Overall Law enforcement bodies regardless of their long existence still have not done much in much done not have still existence long their of regardless bodies enforcement Law Prosecutor Generals’ Office has not done much reducing corruption in HE. The office is office The HE. in corruption reducing much done not has Office Generals’ Prosecutor 24 CEU eTD Collection policies. The National for policies.Agency for TheNational implementation was the reportingand a twice responsible the of implementation the of control the provide to in order created was corruption against fight the on Kyrgyzstan of Council National The (for.kg). etc. body Judicial Parliament, media, headthe of Counciland members National the among 11 whom were: representatives the of and the National Council for Combating Corruption formed.was as was ThePresident appointed gave hisagreement who Bakiev Kurmanbek was President timeAt the anew that body.create to initiated National person the Agency-proposed Japarov who Sadyr Later (Kubanychbekov,13). policies state anti-corruption form to also and realized are which policies state implementbody independent main were coordinationthe of andevaluation whose goals to the Republic in onPreventing Corruption was created was 2005 (Mambetalieva 2012).It an duetotheirprominent, ofsomeinstability and of Agency Kyrgyz dissolution them. National of not were corruption eradicating on performance bodies’ independent and Anticorruption Service has not touched Young upon issuethe of bribery universities.at clear; (2012,17).The be work still not its regulation the adopted” of activitiesshould on “ThemonitoringAnti-Corruption underlined OECD (kib.kg). functionsService are that: report work in practice” not functionsdo broad which very wasgiven “Anti-corruption Service AccordingCholponlegalof who Jakypova,are onsenior positionsto (kabar.kg). clinic: director suppression, detection and bylaw investigation in cases of corruption against peoplecrimes” goals that do not include combating body. work of the hindersthe certainly dependence corruptionThis (prokuror.kg). position President forthe prosecutor the candidate the proposes of in the spherebut also under the President. The office is obliged tocarry regularof reports to the head of the state. HE. It aimsanyone. at “prevention,Today the Prosecutorresponsible for not body, whichwas independent office wasan Prosecutors Union General the Generals’ Office is combatingnot corruption is on the first place onlyamong all of the goals (prokuror.kg). During the Sovietunder the control of the Parliament Anticorruption Service under the National Security Committee of Kyrgyzstan has broad has Kyrgyzstan of Committee Security National underthe Service Anticorruption 25 CEU eTD Collection KR”(Education (2012) Strategy Development KR,of 2006). Corruption inStrategy KR (2009),adecree"On State the Anti-Corruption Policy Strategy of the (2003), The CombatNational Strategy in Corruption to theThe KR Anti-National (2005), UN Convention of ratification (2003), corruption” with struggle Law KR“On Republic, of (2004). Following anti-corruption policies canbe Criminal to referred Codeof Kyrgyzpolicies: EducationNationalEducational Test of Concept (2002), (1996), Scholarship (2000), Doctrine “Bilim” Program National Education” are:Law“On (1992), policies significant educational isdiscuss aneed of most there impactthe One them. identifying to their 1991 till Before today. since Kyrgyzstan in adopted policies anti-corruption and educational presents section This 3.2 EducationalandAnti-corruption Policies in Kyrgyzstan (Period:1991-2012) inefficiency” (2004,262). high shows corruption combating of experience the of “all in general points, Koichumanov as nevertheless done, were actions andcertain werecreated bodies Anti-corruption 18). (OECD, sphere of HE. There is stillcorruptionhelpful bodies wasnot in in combatingboth corruption andmoreover general in the lack of an institution numberanti- more of of measures. Creation certain least suggested at or universities specifically that would in oversee corruption in eradicating involved was them of neither terms, corruption ingeneral corruption combating and combat it at aim often and replaced) and reorganized (regularly unstable are above mentioned Bodies body ( increated 2009. When National Agency independent Council the was dissolved, intoan turned was Council Business Anti-corruption The Agency. National the for recommendations develop body levelthe basisbe creatingwould aseparate on regular to and monitoring of that corruption idea came there an on Later, in local governments. level of corruption researched Corruption consulting “Consulting company Development” together with National Agency on Preventing functioning. Agencystopped the Counciland2008, National In National tragic Osh events) the June midstof October andApril). the National (in year beginning the In Council of to the (in Anti-corruption Business Council2010 ). 26 CEU eTD Collection 200 000soms (Kyrgyz involvedCurrency),National limited or into corrective labor, liberty until followed by Articlepunishment. 314states bribe-givingthat is inpunished sum of money up to and money is in assets of mediator terms a or from a person through bribes that taking indicates the assets and the right being of employed at another job in the period of three years. Article 310 of all away taking with years, fifteen to eight from is crime such for imprisonment of period The corruption is Articles a crime. 314specifically 310 and andbribeaddress bribe-taking giving. must bementionedfirst.corruption”, In article 303 indicated of Code Criminal the that KR“Onwith struggle KRLaw of and Code of Criminal laws, theanti-corruption Regarding education. access to actionintowas put (Drummond & It was inDeYoung, 2004). created hopetoprovidethe equal cooperation in the sphere of education.Further with the assistance ACCELS,of National Testing international and education, of development economic and financial education, of system the of management education, of system in the professors and relatives student, of responsibilities education, and Itmainly of provisions, system general rights adopted. educational covered was Education on Law new 2003, In schools. the of improvement the on concentrated mainly it in but 2002, adopted of was education and Concept people. aspects between government Strategy aimsof KR, 2006,6).Its as:broad improving were the relationship oneducational Development in May,2000(Education adopted was Educational Doctrine the Further, itself. space andthe legislation educational improve thefinancing, to education, increase quality of the period of 1996 tillprovide 2000.The were of goals program the education,to access to to equal main forthe launched.of “Bilim”defined of called ways education the development was It connections (Shamatov, andfinancial 6, status In 1996,March2011). 20 National Program personal butbasedontheirbased not their achievements students wereadmitted on this point from starting that states Shamatov (UNESCO.org). regulations policy educational the lay down chargeeducation One institutions to 6,2011). tuition feesofits main was to (Shamatov, goals higher thisto law gave permission adopted, was Education Lawon 16th, 1992, December In 27 CEU eTD Collection decree (on March decree (on 11, 2009, Strategy Anti-Corruption whichNo.155), “Thewas calledNational a signed Bakiyev President in 2009, KR”, in the Corruption Combat to Strategy National “The (Decree by 2005 the“In corruption: acting combating on policies major three were presidentthere nowadays till 2005 From of the KR of June 21, 2005, given recommendations (2012,5). OECDmonitoringthe mentions, report nothing changed in criminal according code with the 6). As for Transition 2004, Economies, beNetworks usedin (Anti-corruption cannot practice” provisionsmentioned lacklaw of law whichmean the “the sanctions, is that declarative and some of the provisions, lacks certain code because thecriminal Moreover narrow. much is with forcorruption” (Anti-corruption Transition Networks 2004,6).TheEconomies, definition corruption”. In the Criminal Code about 35 offences are counted as bribery, the law “On struggle Further itself corruption in isdefined differently and criminal code inlaw “On struggle with it. be to referred exactly can in who terms of confusion creating loosely is defined official” mentioned”not (Anti-corruption forNetworks Transition 2004,6).Term Economies, “public are material andmaterial non assets the islimitedassets of notion First bribes only all to of the Transition for Economies, 2004,5). Networks UNConventionsset by (Anti-corruption those the to specifically standards, international the to correspond fully not does corruption on legislation official duties”. According to Istanbul Plan on Struggle with Corruption, the framework of money and services for the implementation of actions or omissions gifts, of relatedform the in to the performance remuneration of entities of legal and individuals from receive to prohibited are “public in law stated officials that: the It isclearly wellforeigners. as Kyrgyzstan all of beapplies to citizens and can of all Kyrgyzstan on law territory The operates actions. It aimed toidentify, prevent and combat corrupt actions and topunish those who committed such Law 2004). of Kyrgyz Republic“On struggle with corruption”, wasadoptedonMarch 6 (Omarov, be punished not will from came initiative the whom from tells or giving bribe the Person who admits voluntarily 87). years Code, into (Criminal prisonyears three put three to or 28 ʋ 251) the document was called th , 2003. CEU eTD Collection the majorthe of directions for development mainthe levels of education: preschool, primary, education. Strategy In 2007 Educational DevelopmentdefineIt aimed was developed (2006). to analysesnot mention do impact anything about the of anti-corruption legislation on higherthe these enough Interestingly relevant. are which others and Corruption” Combating “On law the of KR”.the Thiscontainedreport study of legislation anti-corruption Kyrgyzstan,of specifically the American Bar Association published a report called “Analyses of Anti-corruption legislation cases” for 2012).In Central (Musabaeva, 2006 LawInitiative Affairs andEuropean Eurasian of investigation corruption fields,aswellof in measures various andprevention corruption contradictions of anti-corruption legislation, measures the for the overcome study and andidentify to diagnosis of commitments, corruption international with line in legislation corruption itsbring aims national “to the was adopted, anti- strategy were: In 2005national anti-corruption analysisthe introductionobjectives to of and of strategy, the (Musabaeva, 2012). situation” the fight and against corruption,of goals the same conceptgeneralapproach corruption, the to same. the are even the they is manyplaces almost There In similar. very are strategies in the According Musabaeva, Strategy of Kyrgyzto the 2012). Republic" (Musabaeva, “all texts three Policy Anti-Corruption State the “On into: renamed was strategy the and Atambayev "President Republic”. Kyrgyz in the by Strategy Anti-Corruption National was signed In 2012,adecree “Theinto: andtitle Bakiyev signed adecree changed President 2009, Kyrgyz Republic.” In Combat in the Corruption it “Theto National Strategy was called 2005 In transformed. upon anti-corruptionthe instrategy adopted Kyrgyzstan. From 2005 till 2012 thestrategy’s title corruption plan by hadcreated OSCE, USAIDand strategy UNDP.This influence enormous anti- Istanbul of frame the in corruption eliminating on base institutional and judicial of expertise legislative institutional and base will be in with it.accordance In 2004 there was held an the that upon responsibility a taking this by convention, UN ratified Kyrgyzstan 2003 In Corruption Policy of Strategy KR”the 2012). (Musabaeva, inFebruary in Anti- the KRandAtambayev 2012, signed 2, President State the a decree"On 29 CEU eTD Collection specifically still exist. This means that anti-corruption activities implemented till now were not were now till implemented activities anti-corruption that means This exist. still specifically policies. Nevertheless in corruption general moreoverand corruption in higher education Asitwerenumber of views). and anti-corruption respondent’s was discussedthere educational impactthe on positiveeliminating to corruption (according the admission during process isprocess evolution 33).The atthe phase initiativehadNational Testing (OECD, 2010, a certainly the but independence change since level of educational certain achieved Kyrgyzstan passed its since for independence building a strong educational truly system 33). (2010, had time much not and country young isa Kyrgyzstan indicates, As OECD conditions. political and socio-economic and them) for beneficial is bribing because report not do or report, to scared time same the at policies, new of is unaware (who society civil bodies, enforcement law unstable aremany There weakand sources. causes as:lackof legislation, political vague will, weakand policies combatingbased in on interview corruption on universities secondary the results and the anti-corruption and educational of ineffectiveness of reasons the discusses chapter This Kyrgyzstan Educationin Corruption in Higher ofPoliciesinCombating The ofIneffectiveness 3.3 corruption. combating of terms in of existing policies the impacts see the itisimportant to Now, initiated. were ever Kyrgyzstan precise policies towardscombating the problem corruption of specifically in higher education in and clear form of in the actions serious no but implemented were initiatives and Reforms (OECD, 2012,13). involved not were organizations International of representative of neither NGOrepresentatives process, the monitored who actor asingle was Council Defense the when itwas created that decreasecorruption.and One to man of by criticsthe is presented this strategy OECD regarding (Musabaeva,It had 2012). main two make toaims: first, law enforcementinstitutions stronger Atambayev 4). In 2, President 2012,February (2006, highereducation professional secondary, and signed a decree "On the State Anti-Corruption Policy Strategy of the KR” 30 CEU eTD Collection bodies matter for the implementation. As Zaplatina mentioned: Zaplatina As implementation. the for matter bodies Law enforcement bodies are weak. In fact, laws are important, but along with them enforcement policies are too general. Almaz Tajibai, stated following: the stated general. Tajibai, Almaz policies are too beismustwhen considered as abribe. out Anti-corruption what comes on aquestion there Educational policies do not mention a word about corruption. Moreover, unclearness of laws were toovagueexisting Tolekan only added: paper. on Ismailova laws the weakand basewas thelegislative effective because not were policies Anti-corruption corruptiongovernment still prevails.Ismailova Tolekan said: from willingness strong truly of lack of because Exactly, results. positive any bring not will Indeed unlessthegovernmentand governance will becomenot stable anti-corruption policies Tolekan said: emergency as But, (Tajybai headthe 2012). of CivilNGO, Corruption Society againstIsmailova in whocancaseof support is on top the someone there bribes, because take to universities vertical and comes from top to the down. This kind of structure gives confidence torectors of the is Kyrgyzstan in corruption that interview, the during noted “Peremena” NGO the of director on combating corruption. Even if they do they are artificial (Mukanova, 2012, 2). itcan beeffective. Today donothave bodies currently seen any that strategy governmental clear constitution we work, buttheyhave alotofby-laws donot we the bestmight haveoneof “We have a lot oflaws thatwere adoptedby the parliament ofourcountry we have considered as woulda bribethen it beeasier todistinguish bribing.”(Tajybai2012). andnot isacceptable soms, 300soms flowers 500 instance asbouquetof out for “Many aspectsare notspelledoutin the anti-corruption policies.Ifthey would bespelled are conflicting in natureand contradict each other” (Ismailova2012). “In thischaos work.policies will not provided Thoselaws by the Ministry ofEducation (Ismailova 2012). government bodies” peopleinthe (old bureaucratic) those key all of there are currently toptothedownfrom because thereforms “The currentpolitics arenotlettinginfor “There is a totallack ofgood governance” (Ismailova 2012). Tajybai, Almaz will. political weak to due effective not was policies of impact The 31 CEU eTD Collection because bribing is forbeneficial sides: both giverand receiver. becausepunished ofbribes. Mostof timethe bribing is perceived asusual action and this is But again the reality is that there were very few cases when rector, professor or student was stated: mention his name, wanted to not member, whodid staff National Security Committee for State taking and for bribes students offering the them. is corruption only Therewerevery werecaughtforfew casespaper. on professors when deans, committed who those for punishment because effective not are policies Anti-corruption deal with causesthe of notwithcorruption its results” (Mukanova, 2012,2). necessity is Mukanova“in preventioncountry But, the is out: forgotten. to our there pointed a parliament.the passed to corruption andwere written of prosecution longbills on the Not ago beingnot afraid tobe heard (Kulmatov). afterwards, since they know that their report might be ignored most of the time people do not tell feel secure be able to to is who reporting person for the is need the aspect important Another that: outlined Deichman, Most of the respondents told that without proper implementation laws are with no use. Valentin take abribe.” (2012). “Impunity creates more crime. Thereisaneedwill topunishsowant thatothers not to “There is absencepunishment” of (Ismailova 2012). investigation starts andhe refuses” staff member of thenationalsecurity committeetold. ofcorruption,the “There iswrites studentstatement onthefact a problem- comes, a of peoplestepoverthem”(Deichman 2012). actors are interestedinbribes.narrow mindedlawsare writtenby10people, andmillion Both ofthe waywould tocombatcorruptionitself. aneffective be do notthinkthatit I who convictedinbribery, those are execution andpunishmentof will stating about be “Even ifyou will 150policies,which create andcompetent, willbebothbeautiful that who willimplement we will notchange anything” (Zaplatina 2012). constitutions,laws oneofthebest world,willlist of everinthe butuntilwe havepeople 32 CEU eTD Collection results. The policies are noteffective and corruption still prevails. certain to come to possible not is it society civil Science, and Education of Ministry parliament, bodies, enforcement law of side the from work combined Therefore, results. visible bringing education system.Law enforcement bodiesfunctions areunstable,possessing unclear and not touch on the issue of corruptionvaguegeneral, donot andartificial. The anti-corruption policies aretoo Educational too policies at all generally aiming only at the improvement of the higher the National Scholarship Testing (NST), and had a positive view about it: reduction of universities.the amountthe bribing Almost at all knewof respondents the about in not but the knowledge of students etc., assessingnewintroducing of the teaching, ways corruption inhigher education In (Ryskulueva). a way policiesthose were helpful in creating and economicthe stabilitybut andfinancial effectiveness neither of them directly address the strengthening achieving curriculum and the equal access, newways of teaching, development, seen (except the NST) because they simply do not address this issue. They concentrate morehardly be can on:higher education in corruption reducing on policies educational of impact The testing. national the about only knew they or general, in policies the about little knew Interviewees eveneducation respondents educated lawsinthesphereof anti-corruption exist. know what did many ofthe therefore public actively; tothe presented not are arecreated which New policies words: preventing looking itor from at it perspective. another Valentin According to Deichman’s of instead corruption the of results the with struggle they because ineffective are Policies department cannotinfluenceontheresults the of exams.” (Zaplatina2012). thegovernment. from That is whyeducation northeheadof neithertheministerof any money do notget independent. They whothem are people manage effective; “Testing is (Deichman2012). competitive.” is ademand professionalfor workers andthismarket canbecome motivating and of educationatall. Itisin the professionalfield of activity,inthe job market. Where there theproblem of“The solutionfor corruption inhighereducationdoes not lieinthesphere 33 CEU eTD Collection reduced by Lastly 100 percent. notpolicies aresustainableintoconsideration taking unstable not was corruption because either, efficient not are Polices results. positive brought policies state thatis hard it to of evidenced corruption atthe looking because Efficacy is low, overlooked. issuepoliciesin addresstheand general inoften existenceis the corruption of highereducation Anti-corruption Testing. National the was one only the issue, the address even not do policies insuccessful in achieving educational goals.big Butnot reducing corruption, portion those of were partially policies be rated positively. Educational cannot policies say anti-corruption to that Assessing policies in terms of: relevance, efficacy, efficiency and sustainability,itis possible follow. yet.notwere nocasesof any Hencepeople expect do punishment might of type problems that in Kyrgyzstan, no university the is one setting afraid of oraccepting bribesgiving becausethere of In the case (punishment). costs the than more are benefits the because placemostly takes it that saying corruption of appearance the explain Shah and Hunther As content. the not but and innovation of the sphere of education.Anti-corruption policies are simply changing the titles improvement say largely the they penalties;notare about the they can see anything about do that penalties” for thosewhocommitted action acorrupted 3). The (2000, educational policies one theexpected gainsand raises theexpected it:“lowers successful when be policycalled can the that mention policies of anti-corruption assessment the on theory diploma. Thesecond or grade of the asbuyers andstudents serve sellers as Professors of corruption. occurrence the explain higherKyrgyzstan. institutions principal of education was in to agent theory The order used in almost all occurs which corruption of type most widespread be asthe came considered to corruption” in the form for receiving money of absences.small agradeor Bribing transactions underlined in beginningthe corruption that in in universitiesoccurs mostly theform of “petty was It Kyrgyzstan. in education inhigher corruption in combating ineffectiveness policies the of reasons the reiterating and case the to theory the applying analyses presents section This Analysis IV. Chapter 34 CEU eTD Collection corruption.Nevertheless It policy. isanti-corruption or educational of kind other successful any it with than rather does testing national not mean that nationalonly familiar connections5). Mostof respondentswere the the (Shamatov and with Sainazarov, 2006, duringtesting was on andnot their based knowledge university on to be admitted started to Students admissions. 100the percent admissions. effective the corruption induring reducing National effect hadapositive sources, Testing secondary in reduction Regarding interviewsAccording andtheissue. tothe tobesolved in asan order specific approaches of needs which issue systemic is a it that believe to tend also I theBut problem. systematic a is itself rest of thecorruption agree that I do sphere.in specific steps specific to take itmuch bemightbetter fact policiesgeneralcorruption inhighereducation,fortoo now they taking approach a inare wide while, of aspect any touching from far are policies anti-corruption most see can one as fact In especially if itis new. experience also theinstitutions leadership changes or Every regime time rearrangements. frequent reforms. because Itbringvisibleof result cannot a Bodies ofthem.instead new creating institutions and takes old the abolishing completely money and a efforts time, much long too spends Government work. time for bodiesan whoseinstitution activities do not bring clearimplemented in resultsan efficient way. But as one can notice, because there are too many law enforcementto be of to their become policies instability the for important and is uncoordinated institutions strong anti-corruption of performance The andregionalism. efficient, and consideration. instance: clanrelationship into For arenottaken features country specific combatRegarding many suggestions corruption, to thenevertheless, ways many areproposed roles. own their played conditions socio-economic bodies, law-enforcement weak governance, weak as: Causes bribery. on of prosecutions cases successful no were aswesaw.There strength “On lack Struggle Corruption” with aseriousbut definecorruption of crime,as clarity and political and socio-economic conditions of the country. There Criminal Code of KR and the law 35 CEU eTD Collection Findings: conditions. bodies, uniformed andbenefiting civil society, and difficultsocio-economic and political weakpolitical inhigher education corruption due to: weaklawenforcement laws, will, weak having only had impact paper, nopractical Policies small use and on on eradication results. were They titles. their changing simply were them of most analyses, Musabaeva’s to according 6) 5) 4) 3) 2) 1) bribes and students offeringbribes andstudents them. thatvalues Ethical here.people matter possess taking stop will professors mean that not does beincreased will salaries that fact The for peoplenot tobe afraid toblow the whistle. do, later they refuse tobeto supportive is there needfor Students a areafraid trust. If of proof thetruth. telling they their own statements.Political will is not enough thereThere has to be support from theis people. Fora theneed civil society to more productive. create conditions expensesisnew members, upon extra recruitingcreating institution,but astaff nothing it Often policies. of implementation successful in helpful been not has ones old of instead bodies new creating institutions, anti-corruption of restructuring Frequent country. Anticorruption agencies are underinfluence ofregimes and political situation in the were punished. deeds corrupted laws caseswhere the about and newly the adopted about both channels isthere a need tospread informationthe through massthe media andall possible Therefore, follow. will punishment no that know also they but crime; a is corruption that peopleknow Certainly, policies. aware of anti-corruption and educational Public isnot mainly are paper. on initiatives educational system. For bothof typesimprovement the of towards the policies directed mostly are thethey all; issue at bribing of is stillproblem not on the agenda their general. They takein a broadcorruption about stand but in HE on thecorruption issue.about concerned Educational not are policies policiesAnti-corruption do not try to solve the equally. matters whoseperformance actors other but are there corruption in curbing matter Policies 36 CEU eTD Collection for successful combating of corruption in HE. efforts their and actors all of involvement the for and change complex a for need a is There lifeacademic universities. atthe honest with the professors. It is necessary to work with the studentsless willhave contact conditions wherestudents create is a need to there corruption combating at schools preparing them towards corruption body bewhich will solely responsible for combating corruption. Interms of Professor’s mustbesalaries increased.Thereis a need astable, for andanti-independent strong students motivate study gainto in and tobe to knowledge employedorder in future. the will be This will valued. butpeople’s skills diplomasthe and knowledge wherenot market labor competitive generate to necessity is a it. of There on prevention mechanism clear create enforcementbodies need tonot only struggle to with issuethe of insteadcorruption but try to initiating andlaw enforcement bodies is necessary. must punishments Strict be imposed. Law enough,not are atplace theymust implemented.law is Forthis of beproperly close work on this issue. Public needs knowto the newly adopted anti-corruption policies. The fact that laws corruption inhighermust education.be are It afraid students ensured that not of openly reporting curbingandpreventing be Policies results. shouldat particularly aimed provide concrete will that isrequired base legislative stable Further will. political forstrong avery is aneed Recommendations V. Chapter For the educational and anti-corruption policies to be effective in combating corruption there bein corruption to effective combating policies and anti-corruption educational For the 37 CEU eTD Collection unite a within nothappen. complex changes will than approach statingdemonstrated if that law enforcementgovernment, bodies and the civilsociety notwill actors hide this fact. is beneficial since a mutually Moreover they bribing be guarantee that process, will protected. Along with this the theyurgency todo fightnot corruption follow even if theyknow, aware of are Publicpolicies whatanti-corruption adopted, isnot coordinated. in thethem sphere because becauseof HE was theythecorruption in curbing effective not is performance their stable and arenot bodies enforcement scopeknow thatof theirthere many contain general.policies and Anti-corruption Thelawcontradictions ambiguities. workis nois real toocorruption in universities specifically, although improving they aim at the educational system in wide.punishment. Their perform effectively. Forinstance, asitwas mentioned, educational donotpolicies address functions Therenot do and stable not are bodies enforcement law is the and in reality work not nodo and vague are not clearmost andof the policiesactions do not is it underline that, Moreover, necessary conditions. to socio-economic andlackappropriate of addressnot the issue of corruption awareness public lack the in among political of curbingcorruption are will, legislature, stable in universities,sphere of HE. The research proved thatmost one of mainthe reasons of the ineffectiveness of policies of them are to the in ineffectiveness policies anti-corruption the of reasons reveal the to aimed paper This Conclusion 38 CEU eTD Collection Bodies Law Enforcement Independent Bodies Ministry ofEducation Ministry Annex I: Chart of Anti-corruption Institutions Anti-corruption of Chart I: Annex Parliament and Science Corruption National Council for Combating AdvisoryCouncil andPublic Republic Kyrgyz of Service Police Financial State Corruption against and Fight Legality Law, of Rule onthe Committee Audit Internal of Department Anti-corruption Business Council Business Anti-corruption onCorruption Agency National General ProsecutorsOffice Security on National Committee State of Ministry Council Public Advisory Interior Affairs 39 Anti-corruption Service CEU eTD Collection against Corruption law, legality and fight Committee on the rule of Council of the Defense Secretariat Council Anti-corruption Business Councils Advisory Public National Security on the StateCommittee Anti-corruption Serviceof Kyrgyz Republic Preventing of Agency National Corruption Combating Corruption for Council National Serviceof Kyrgyz Republic Police Financial State Armed law enforcement Ministry body 1917 of Interior Affairs Republic Science of Kyrgyz Ministry of Education and Name ofthe Institution Institutions Anti-corruption of Table II: Annex 2012 2012 2009 1991) (about 2010 2011 2005 1993 Functions Year 2012) policy in education(MOES of unified implementation rights to Provision of equal access and body which workson Executive State National 2012). criminal code (Vinogradov, investigative workof the conducting operational and corruption crimes and To economiccurb the and 2012). (Ministry of Interior Affairs crimes with struggling and citizens the of safety that is for responsible the corruption (OECD,2012) linke problems the for Carries responsibility only 2012, 4) Kyrgyz Republic” (OECD, corruption policy of the ofthe Anti- State strategy To control the realization of “ bodies (adc,2010) activities of government corruption, monitoring the environment,of eradication Improving the business (Government 2012) keep them updated bodies tocitizens inorder to governmental the of actions To regularly the report upon ,17) the public officials(OECD To fight corruption among Council (OECD,17) replaced bytheSecurity was The body awareness. prevention of it and raising against corruption, To develop national strategy (for.kg) preventing the corruption 40 education, d to HE Corruption in Combating corruption curbing aimed at not directly Yes, butdid No No No NO NO NO NO NO NO Status Current functioning Still and being and dissolved Was functioning Still functioning Still functioning Still functioning Still functioning Still functioning Still 2010 Dissolved in 2010 Dissolved in a new body by replaced CEU eTD Collection Bakir uulu, Tursunbai. Fakty vzaytok v vuzah respubliki nosyat sistematicheski harakter (Facts of bribery in of bribery (Facts harakter sistematicheski nosyat respubliki v vuzah vzaytok Fakty Tursunbai. uulu, Bakir Biryukov, Vadim. 2008. Clans State Capture and Regime Durability in the Kyrgyz Republic and Kazakhsta. MA Berdikeeva, Saltanat.2006. National Identity in Kyrgyzstan: the Case of Clan Politics. 11th Annual World Akmataliev, Academyof Management under the President ofKyrgyz Republic, Rol vyshego obrazovaniya v Akhmatbekova, Indira. 2011. Culture of Corruption in German and Kyrgyz Universities. MA diss., American Baimyrzaeva,Muhabbat. 2010. Analysesof Kyrgyzstan’s administrative reforms in light of its recentgovernance Master in Bangladesh. Anti-Corruption of Bureau ofthe Role the Corruption Combating 2006. Ahmed. Bashir, Bazarbaeva,Damira. 2012. Struktura parlamentapreterpela izmenenia (Parlimemnt’s Structure Went through Asia-Caucusus Central Reorganized. be to Kyrgyzstan in Education of Higher System 2011. Aisha. Aslanbekova, Azsfar, Omar.2006. “Disrupting Corruption.” In Asia News. It. 2009. Corruption threatens to stifle universities in Central Asia. AkiPress.2012. “Urioven’ koruptsii pochti ne izmenilsya, izmenilos otnoshenie ludei k dache vzyatok, resultaty Abdrapiev, Sayapina and Sultankulov. 2010.Otchet po rezulatatm monitoring sobludenia prav studentov. (Report Anti-corruption Business Councilof Kyrgyz Republic.An 2010. establishment history, Anderson, Kathryn and Stephen Heyneman,P. “The Cost of Corruption in Higher Education,” Comparative http://rus.gateway.kg/news/kg/obshestvo/1894 highereducation institutes of the republic carry systematic character). Kyrgyz Development Gateway. University. 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