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Conservation Status of Oyster Reef Ecosystem of Southern and Eastern Australia', Global Ecology and Conservation Conservation status of oyster reef ecosystem of Southern and Eastern Australia Citation for published version: Gillies, CL, Castine, S, Alleway, HK, Crawford, C, Fitzsimons, JA, Hancock, B, Koch, P, Mcafee, D, Mcleod, IM & Zu Ermgassen, PSE 2020, 'Conservation status of oyster reef ecosystem of Southern and Eastern Australia', Global Ecology and Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e00988 Digital Object Identifier (DOI): 10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e00988 Link: Link to publication record in Edinburgh Research Explorer Document Version: Version created as part of publication process; publisher's layout; not normally made publicly available Published In: Global Ecology and Conservation General rights Copyright for the publications made accessible via the Edinburgh Research Explorer is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. Take down policy The University of Edinburgh has made every reasonable effort to ensure that Edinburgh Research Explorer content complies with UK legislation. If you believe that the public display of this file breaches copyright please contact [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 09. Oct. 2021 Journal Pre-proof Conservation status of oyster reef ecosystem of Southern and Eastern Australia Chris L. Gillies, SarahA. Castine, Heidi K. Alleway, Christine Crawford, James A. Fitzsimons, Boze Hancock, Paul Koch, Dominic McAfee, Ian M. McLeod, Philine S.E. zu Ermgassen PII: S2351-9894(19)30555-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e00988 Reference: GECCO 988 To appear in: Global Ecology and Conservation Received Date: 9 September 2019 Revised Date: 25 February 2020 Accepted Date: 25 February 2020 Please cite this article as: Gillies, C.L., Castine, S., Alleway, H.K., Crawford, C., Fitzsimons, J.A., Hancock, B., Koch, P., McAfee, D., McLeod, I.M., zu Ermgassen, P.S.E., Conservation status of oyster reef ecosystem of Southern and Eastern Australia, Global Ecology and Conservation (2020), doi: https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e00988. This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2020 Published by Elsevier B.V. 1 Global Ecology and Conservation 2 3 Title: Conservation status of Oyster Reef Ecosystem of Southern and Eastern Australia 4 Chris L. Gillies*1,2 , Sarah.A. Castine 3, Heidi K. Alleway 4, Christine Crawford 5, James A. Fitzsimons 1,6 , Boze Hancock 7, Paul 5 Koch 8, Dominic McAfee 4, Ian M. McLeod 2, Philine S.E. zu Ermgassen 9 6 7 1 The Nature Conservancy, Suite 2-01, 60 Leicester Street, Carlton VIC 3053, Australia 8 2 TropWATER, the Centre for Tropical Water and Aquatic Ecosystem Research, James Cook University, Townsville QLD 9 4811, Australia 10 3 Marine Solutions, 110 Swanston Street, New Town TAS 7008, Australia 11 4 University of Adelaide, Adelaide SA 5005, Australia 12 5 Institute of Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, 20 Castray Esplanade, Battery Point TAS 7004, Australia 13 6 School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood VIC 3125, Australia 14 7 The Nature Conservancy, c/o Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, 215 South Ferry Road, 15 Narragansett, RI, 02882, USA 16 8 Future Ecosystems, Hahndorf SA 5245, Australia 17 9 University of Edinburgh, School of Geosciences, Changing Oceans Group, Grant Institute, James Hutton Road, Edinburgh 18 EH9 3FE, UK. 19 20 *Corresponding Author : Suite 2-01, 60 Leicester Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia. 21 E:[email protected] M: +61 412 663 506 22 23 24 Highlights 25 ● The Oyster Reef Ecosystem of Southern and Eastern Australia was once common across eastern and 26 southern Australia prior to the mid-twentieth century. 27 28 ● Historical decline over the last 200 years has led to concerns over itsr conservation status 29 30 ● The ecosystem was assessed as Critically Endangered using an IUCN Red List of Ecosystems 31 assessment. 32 33 ● The assessment found historic decline in ecosystem extent, low area of current occupancy and risk of 34 collapse from future threats. 35 36 ● The restorable nature of oyster reefs ecosystems provide a compelling case for new investment and 37 protection mechanisms that can arrest their decline. 38 39 Abstract 40 Reef ecosystems all over the world are in decline and managers urgently need information that can assess 41 management interventions and set national conservation targets. We assess the conservation status and risk 42 of ecosystem collapse for Oyster Reef Ecosystem of Southern and Eastern Australia, which comprises two 43 community sub-types established by Saccostrea glomerata (Sydney rock oyster) and Ostrea angasi (Australian 44 flat oyster), consistent with the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems risk assessment process. We established: (i) key 45 aspects of the ecosystem including: ecological description, biological characteristics, condition and collapse 46 thresholds, natural and threatening processes; (ii) previous and current extent of occurrence and current area 47 of occupancy; and (iii) its likelihood of collapse within the next 50-100 years. The most severe risk rating 48 occurred for Criterion A: Reduction in Extent (since 1750) and Criterion D: Disruption of biotic processes (since 49 1750), although assessment varied from Least Concern to Critically Endangered amongst the four criteria 50 assessed. Our overall assessment ranks the risk of collapse for the ecosystem (including both community sub- 51 types) as Critically Endangered with a high degree of confidence. Our results suggest the need for rapid 52 intervention to protect remaining reefs and undertake restoration at suitable sites. Several restoration 53 projects have already demonstrated this is feasible, and Australia is well equipped with government policies 54 and regulatory mechanisms to support the future conservation and recovery of temperate oyster ecosystems. 55 56 57 Keywords 58 shellfish reefs; oyster; marine conservation; ecosystem collapse; IUCN Red List of Ecosystems; risk assessment 59 Introduction 60 Shellfish reef ecosystems develop when high densities of shellfish, typically oysters or mussels, occur and form 61 biogenic structures that function as ecosystem engineers and the foundation of the ecosystem. Shellfish reef 62 ecosystems support important environmental characteristics, such as unique assemblages of associated fauna 63 and valuable ecosystem services, including fish production, coastal protection, erosion mitigation, pH buffering 64 and nutrient cycling (Coen et al. 2007). These services have been valued at between US$5,500 and $99,000 ha - 65 1 (2011 dollars; Grabowski 2012). Because of these valuable services, the protection and restoration of shellfish 66 ecosystems are of interest to coastal managers as one potential natural solution to ameliorating the impacts of 67 climate change, coastal eutrophication and habitat degradation (zu Ermgassen et al. 2016; Cohen-Shacham et 68 al. 2019; McLeod et al. 2019a). 69 Shellfish reefs are globally distributed occupying intertidal and shallow subtidal zones in estuaries and on open 70 coastlines across temperate and tropical environments. Today, however, over 85% of oyster reef ecosystems 71 globally have been lost or degraded (Beck et al. 2011). Mechanisms for losses include: overharvest of shellfish 72 and reef degradation from physical removal or breaking up reefs during harvest, changes in abiotic conditions 73 such as salinity, sedimentation, hypoxia and flow due to upper catchment and shoreline modification, disease 74 and pollution (Holmes 1927; Kirby 2004; Beck et al. 2011; Gillies et al. 2018; Pogoda 2019). Consequently, 75 oyster reef ecosystems are considered one of the most imperilled and threatened marine ecosystems globally 76 (Beck et al. 2011). Although their decline and associated need for conservation is increasingly recognised as a 77 priority amongst conservation groups and professional science networks (e.g. Beck et al. 2011; zu Ermgassen 78 et al. 2016; Fitzsimons et al. 2019; Pogoda et al. 2019; https://www.shellfishrestoration.org.au) there is a 79 ubiquitous absence of protection (be it legal or policy) or global recognition of the threat of ecosystem 80 collapse. 81 In Australia, oyster reef ecosystems can be formed by at least 14 different oyster and mussel species and occur 82 in both tropical and temperate regions (Gillies et al. 2018). Of these species, there is reliable evidence that 83 reefs formed primarily by Ostrea angasi (Australian flat oyster) or Saccostrea glomerata (Sydney rock oyster) 84 have undergone considerable decline from historical distributions (Kirby 2004; Alleway and Connell 2015; 85 Gillies et al. 2014; 2018; Ford and Hamer 2016). Here we provide a description of the ecosystem these species 86 form and complete a risk assessment using the IUCN Red List
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