Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Review (JSSHR) Vol. 5, No. 3 (146-167) © Author(s) 2020 ISSN: 2279-3933 Original Article DOI: http://doi.org/10.4038/jsshr.v5i3.45

Safeguarding linguistic and ethnic diversities in the Hill Tracts, : A study on state policies and initiatives Arafat Rahaman Department of Abstract International Relations, Bangabandhu Sheikh Indigenous peoples in the (CHT) of Bangladesh have Mujibur Rahman Science distinct mother tongues differentiating each of the eleven indigenous ethnic and Technology groups from one another with exclusive features and cultural traits. University, Gopalganj- 8100, Bangladesh However, the increasing dominance of the in the CHT appears to pose a substantial threat to the linguistic and cultural diversities of the [email protected] indigenous peoples. The Constitution of Bangladesh and several national policy documents, on the other hand, explicitly mention the state’s obligation to protect and promote indigenous languages and cultures. Therefore, this study aims to explore the initiatives, with a special focus on providing primary education in the mother tongue, that have been implemented by the state to provide safeguards to the native languages and discuss the probable consequences of practicing the Bangla language on indigenous languages and cultures. Twenty-one in-depth qualitative interviews and two focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted in this regard. This article illustrates how indigenous peoples struggle to maintain their indigeneity because of the ethnolinguistic and cultural hegemony of the Bengalis as well as deeply ingrained inequalities within the state mechanism.

Keywords: Indigenous peoples; identity; minority; language; Chittagong Hill Tracts

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INTRODUCTION Bangladesh. According to Adnan (2004), the indigenous peoples Indigenous peoples in the Chittagong constituted about ninety percent of the Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh have population in 1956. A striking been dealing with external demographic change took place after domination, first by the Mughal and the independence of Bangladesh when British empires and later by Pakistan the Bengalis started shifting in the and Bangladesh nation-states, since CHT. the seventeenth century (The Chittagong Hill Tracts Commission, Consequently, indigenous peoples of 1991, p. 10). The existence of the the CHT are directly facing the indigenous peoples was confronted gradual domination of the majority with many threats in the past which culture especially the use of the Bangla finally resulted in ethnic conflicts with language in their regular life. the ethnic majority of Bangladesh, i.e., Moreover, according to Article 3 of Bengalis. As a consequence of the state Part I of the Constitution of policies implemented by the Bangladesh, Bangla is the state successive governments since its language of the country. It is also the independence in 1971, the traditional medium of instruction in the public lifestyle of the indigenous peoples has education system, which makes considerably been affected by the Bangla an obvious language for the increasing number of Bengalis indigenous people to learn as the only relocated in the CHT. To date, eleven means to ascertain their position in the indigenous ethnic groups live in the mainstream society and claim their CHT known as Chakma, Marma, rights given the fact that social and , Mro, Tanchangya, Bawm, economic benefits are often associated Pankhoa, Chak, Khyang, Khumi and with the official language(s) of a state Lushai. In total, there are 12 ethnic (Dorian, 1999). However, the groups including the Bengalis living in Constitution of Bangladesh guarantees the CHT (Ministry of Chittagong Hill the protection of indigenous languages Tracts Affairs, 2019; Tancred, 2019, p. and cultures through several articles 5). According to the data by the within, despite no official recognition Ministry of Chittagong Hill Tracts of ‘indigenous’ identity, it explicitly Affairs (MoCHTA) (2019), the addresses the state to “protect and population of the CHT is 1,586,141 develop the unique local culture and based on the 2011 Census, and 890,435 tradition of the tribes, minor races, people (fifty-six percent) among them ethnic sects and communities” in belong to the indigenous ethnic Article 23A of Part II. The Constitution groups. However, this demographic also ensures “equality of opportunity representation was never the same to all citizens” in Article 19 (1) of Part before the independence of II and prohibits discrimination

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“against any citizen on grounds only mentioned in Article 33 (b), Section of religion, race, caste, sex or place of ‘Kha’ of the CHT Peace Accord, 1997 birth” in Article 28 (1) of Part III. (The Chittagong Hill Tracts Commission, 2000, p. 62). Moreover, Moreover, in November 1999, the National Education Policy 2010 UNESCO declared 21 February to be highlighted specific policy celebrated as International Mother recommendations on providing Language Day. It was an education in mother tongue and acknowledgement of the effort of the promoting indigenous languages and Government of Bangladesh (GoB) in cultures. Some of the key commemorating the historic event of recommendations addressed in this the Language Movement of 1952 policy include: (United Nations, 2020). It also implies the responsibility of the state to • Promote and develop the languages safeguard linguistic diversities within and cultures of the indigenous and the state boundary by creating small ethnic groups. opportunities for speakers of all • Facilitate learning in the mother languages. It is important to mention languages of the indigenous peoples that three out of eleven indigenous and small ethnic groups at the languages in the CHT are classified as primary level of education. ‘definitely endangered’ (Bawm • Measures will be taken to ensure the language) ‘severely endangered’ (Sak availability of teachers from ethnic or Chak language) and ‘vulnerable’ groups and to prepare texts in their (Kokborok or Tripura language) by the own languages so that ethnic UNESCO Atlas of the World's children can learn their own Languages in Danger (UNESCO, indigenous languages. In these 2020). It leads to a very rational initiatives, especially in preparing question; that is, does Bangladesh, a textbooks, the inclusion of country that has a glorious history of respective indigenous communities language movement and sacrifices for will be ensured. establishing the rights of its people, • Special assistance will be provided fully safeguard the linguistic and to the marginalized indigenous ethnic diversities of the indigenous children. communities in CHT? • Indigenous people and other communities who observe different Besides, providing safeguards to religious faiths, other than the four indigenous languages through major religions, will have education in the mother tongue is a opportunities to learn about their fundamental responsibility of the own religions and concerned values. state. Indigenous children in the CHT (Ministry of Education, 2010, pp. 3- are supposed to receive primary 22) education in their mother tongue as

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Given the context highlighted above, presented to have a contextual some essential research questions understanding of the study. came into being. They are (i) what Identity specific initiatives have been implemented by the state to ensure the Identity, like many other terms in practice of the native languages of social sciences, is a highly ambiguous diverse indigenous ethnic groups in one that scholars use to indicate a the CHT? (ii) what are the direct plethora of notions based on their impacts of practicing Bangla on the perceived contexts and theoretical linguistic and cultural diversities of understandings. Academics often the indigenous peoples? To find discuss different identities emanated answers to these questions, this from ethnic, national, religious, class qualitative study examined the range and individual features and traits etc. of actions implemented by the state Brubaker and Cooper (2000, pp. 6-8) agencies toward protecting indigenous classified five major approaches in languages, and also the impact of which the scholars of social sciences majority culture and language on and humanities have used the concept indigenous languages and cultures. of identity: a) identities as non- This paper consists of five major parts. instrumental processes of social and The first section presents the existing political actions; b) identities as literature on relevant concepts and collective experiences of sameness studies. The second part discusses the among group members; c) identities as methods applied to collect data from essential and basic aspects of selfhood; the field. This is followed by the d) identities as processual, interactive findings and discussion in separate products of social and political actions; sections. The final section presents the and e) identities as unstable, multiple, conclusion. fluctuating and fragmented forms of the ‘self.’ They further argued that LITERATURE REVIEW these five approaches to perceive identity can be divided into ‘hard’ and To understand the context of this ‘soft’ conceptions of identity - where study, it is important to clarify the ‘hard’ uses of identity principally relevant concepts that have been prioritize sameness among people employed in the discussion. Therefore, over time while ‘soft’ uses of identity concepts such as identity, ethnicity, explicitly reject the notion of sameness indigenous peoples, multilingualism by theorizing identities as fluid, and multilingual education have been multiple, flexible and open-ended. succinctly described in this section. These multiple conflicting meanings of Also, some relevant studies on identity do not lead one to make a language shift and challenges in substantial conclusion about it. education for indigenous peoples are However, Heywood (2011, p. 183)

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proposed a relatively simplified result of dynamic and processual definition of identity by describing it interactions between individuals. as a ‘sense of selfhood’ which is, to a Eriksen (2010, p. 17) defined ethnicity certain degree, solid and persistent as a product of social connection while this sense can be perceived among a group of individuals who individually, shared with a particular regard themselves as distinguishable group of people or the whole from other groups of individuals humanity. Connecting language whom they are conscious of. These models with identity formation, Evans distinct groups must have some sort of (2015, p. 15) argued that language social relations to be considered as plays a crucial role in developing distinct ethnicities. different forms of identity ranging from a comparatively steady sense of Explaining the link between languages selfhood to dynamic and evolving and the maintenance of ethnic identity, multiple self-concepts (identities). Dorian (1999, p. 26) argued that social and economic opportunities are often Ethnicity tied to the official language(s) of a state that may influence the speakers Following the traditional approach, of unofficial languages or ethnic Schermerhorn (1996, p. 17) defined minorities to reduce the differences ethnicity as a collective entity within a between themselves and other greater society that has actual or ethnicities by learning and using the imagined common descent, a shared official language(s) in everyday life. In history, and distinct cultural traits contrast, recurring political and/or (language, religion, nationality, economic domination by state kinship pattern etc.) that signify a mechanism may have an opposite certain group of people. However, effect creating consciousness amongst Dorian (1999, p. 25) and Gill (2014, p. minority ethnic groups to defend their 23) argued that ethnicity is a socially ethnic identities and languages. constructed identity that is fluid. Therefore, people may voluntarily Gill (2014, p. 24) identified three want to change their ethnic affiliation distinct perceptions in connecting the for particular motives or external role of languages in the maintenance factors that may force them to change of ethnic identities in multi-ethnic their ethnic identity. On a similar note, societies. First, some advocates believe Schaefer (2008, p. 457) claimed that that protecting languages is an defining ethnicity or ethnic groups indispensable part of ethnic identity. based on ‘shared’ ancestry, culture or Second, proponents of national unity language and conceptualizing the term argue that promoting minority as a ‘thing’ or an ‘entity’ can misguide languages and ethnicities in a multi- someone to develop a ‘static’ ethnic society may divide the nation. understanding. Ethnicity is rather the Third, some believe that language is

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not the only marker of ethnic identity, regarded as a basic principle to other cultural aspects can also endorse ascertain the status of indigeneity (the the exclusivity of an ethnic group. quality of being indigenous) of a group. Jacob, Liu and Lee (2015, p. 40) Indigenous peoples mentioned that very few indigenous In the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples peoples constitute the majority Convention, 1989 (also known as population while most of the C169), the International Labour indigenous peoples are considered Organisation (ILO) defined indigenous minorities in the contemporary nation- peoples based on the following state systems. criteria: Multilingualism and multilingual education (a) tribal peoples in independent countries whose social, cultural Maher (2017, p. 3) defined and economic conditions multilingualism as a societal condition distinguish them from other where individuals of different sections of the national language groups exchange community, and whose status information, ideas and thoughts with is regulated wholly or partially each other in more than one language by their own customs or besides the official language(s) of a traditions or by special laws or nation-state. Competence in speaking regulations; different languages varies for (b) peoples in independent individuals in such cases. countries who are regarded as Multilingualism has, in general, two indigenous on account of their aspects: societal and individual. descent from the populations which inhabited the country, or Multilingual education is a relatively a geographical region to which new concept. The member countries of the country belongs, at the time the United Nations Educational, of conquest or colonisation or Scientific and Cultural Organization the establishment of present (UNESCO) adopted a resolution in state boundaries and who, 1999 (30 C/Res. 12) and defined the irrespective of their legal concept of ‘multilingual education’ status, retain some or all of (MLE). Multilingual education stands their own social, economic, for the use of three languages at the cultural and political minimum as the medium of institutions. (International instruction in education: the mother Labour Organisation, 2020) tongue(s), a regional or national language and an international The convention also stated that self- language (UNESCO 2020). Later, the identification as indigenous should be concept has been updated as mother

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tongue-based multilingual education centered; and d) an outcomes-based (MTB-MLE) where the mother tongue curriculum. is primarily used as the medium of Language shift among the Chakma instruction in the classroom and, after people developing a solid literacy foundation in the mother tongue, children Afreen (2013) discussed the eventually acquire proficiency in phenomenon of language shift taking national and international languages place among the in the as they progress in primary education CHT. They are the largest among the (Wisby, 2015, p. 4). This ensures that eleven indigenous ethnic groups in the certain components are essential for CHT, and the number of formally the sustainable success of MTB-MLE educated Chakma people is higher programs which include: than any other indigenous ethnic group. Language shift takes place 1) a guiding policy framework where the speakers are bilingual and coordinated by the government live with different language-speaking and adhered to by all pre- people. Afreen (2013) showed that primary and primary education Chakma people are bilingual and they providers (public and private); use Bangla in their daily life, as 2) a strategic plan based upon the Bengali people constitute the majority policy framework; of the population in the CHT. She also 3) ensuring that schools are places mentioned that the usage of the Bangla of safety; language as the medium of instruction 4) ensuring that language learning in the education system also acted as a is stigma free; significant factor to prompt language 5) strong advocacy at all levels shift among the Chakma-speaking from the government, media, people. However, she primarily and other stakeholders; and focused on the experience of the 6) sustained funding for quality Chakma people. Information and in- teachers, curriculum materials, depth analysis about the rest of the and adequate school ethnic groups could provide more infrastructure for the delivery of insights into this phenomenon, which education. (Jacob, 2016, p. 1) inspired the author to conduct the current study. Jacob (2016, pp. 1-2) further mentioned about four key areas crucial for Challenges in education for ethnic optimal MTB-MLE delivery. They are: minorities in Bangladesh a) extensive support from government, Kalam (2003, p. 16) found that, in the families, communities and secondary education system, it was development partners; b) qualified particularly difficult for ethnic teachers; c) needs-based and student- minority students in Bangladesh to

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follow the instructions given in Bangla method of qualitative research where because they were not as competent as semi-structured in-depth interviews, Bengali students in understanding and focus group discussions, observations, comprehending the Bangla language. narratives, document review and It also affected the ethnic minority informal conversations were employed students’ performance vis-à-vis their as tools to collect the primary data Bengali peers in several criteria (Johnson & Christensen, 2012). including completion of education, Adoption of the case study method dropout rate, class attendance and was very helpful in this regard as it academic results in different intended to investigate the state examinations. However, the author initiatives in safeguarding indigenous selected ethnic minority students who languages and how the use of the state were not residents of the CHT area, language affects the indigenous which is why the contexts of the CHT languages and cultures through in- were not included in this paper. depth explorations of the perceptions constructed by the peoples residing in Durnnian (2007, pp. 3-6) found that the the CHT. dropout rate among the indigenous children in the CHT was significantly Altogether, twenty-one in-depth higher than the national rate and interviews and two focus group language played the most pivotal role discussions (FGDs) were conducted in in this case. In addition to highlighting the three hill districts: Khagrachari, the fact that indigenous children did and Bandarban, where not receive education in their mother research participants came from tongue, he emphasized the design of diverse socioeconomic backgrounds the school curriculum and overall including government officials, education system, which did not teachers, students, NGO workers, promote ethno-cultural diversities at indigenous language experts, any level. He further mentioned that journalists, political activists etc., and most of the school teachers in the CHT their ages ranging from 20 to 65 years were Bengalis while many schools did with 80% identified as indigenous not even have any indigenous teachers peoples and 20% identified as Bengali at all. This created discrimination ethnicity. Two local indigenous against indigenous students as schools inhabitants worked as research failed to identify and cater to the assistants in two phases who helped to educational needs of indigenous identify the willing research children. participants from the three hill districts, which ensured representation METHODS of all the ethnic groups in the research process. All the interviews were This study followed the case study conducted in the Bangla language as

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indigenous peoples live in easy task for the author to secure multilingual societies where most of access in such a conflict-prone them have to use Bangla for environment and ask questions that communication, education, business are very sensitive for both the Bengalis and other purposes. In some cases, and indigenous peoples as ethnic questions were explained by research conflicts often spark from trivial assistants in the respective indigenous matters in this region. Personal language and then the participants relations and contacts were employed replied in Bangla. to gain access in this case. Furthermore, the presence of frequent Participants were informed that the military camps and other security data collected from this study would forces makes the indigenous peoples only be used for academic purposes. uncomfortable talking about their The research objectives and experiences. The episodes of procedures were thoroughly explained abduction, unlawful killing, arson, in both verbal and written forms to land grabbing and oppression by the ensure the informed consent of the Bengali settlers and security forces participants. The author briefed them have become part of life for the about the application of recording indigenous peoples, which is why the devices and asked for permission discussion about linguistic and every time before recording the cultural domination could evoke past interviews or group discussions. In trauma of the participants. Therefore, addition to that, notes were taken by to minimize the risk of harm, the author and research assistants respondent confidentiality were during the interviews and the maintained very rigorously discussions. Secondary data were throughout the study, and participants collected from a systematic review of were thoroughly informed that they published literature, such as, academic had the right to withdraw at any point books, journal articles, NGO reports, of the interviews or discussions. newspaper articles and editorials, government documents and electronic To maintain the rigor of the study, resources. several strategies were implemented. First, after each interview or Severe mistrust is a common discussion, the author and research phenomenon among the Bengalis and assistants participated in follow-up indigenous peoples in this region; discussions and went through the hence conducting interviews and interview notes to better understand group discussions in such a condition the perspectives of the participants. was an extremely difficult undertaking Second, after finishing the fieldwork, for the author in some cases. Being a all the audio recordings were Bengali himself and an ‘outsider’ to transcribed by the author and then the indigenous peoples, it was not an

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cross-checked with the field notes to toward building a hegemonic ethno- confirm the accuracy of the nationalist identity based on the information. Third, the interview Bengali nationalism. Government transcripts, field notes and other officials often deny the existence of materials were systematically ‘indigenous peoples’ in Bangladesh in organized, and after reading all the various international forums and documents word by word, discussions (Jahan, 2015). However, unnecessary data were cleaned up. the civil society, academics, Fourth, the remaining data were researchers, media, local NGOs and codified to generate similar patterns international human rights and interconnecting themes within organizations who are outspoken them (Rossman & Rallis, 2012). Next, about indigenous rights often address those themes were interpreted and the ethnic minorities of the CHT as coherently presented in this paper. Adibasi. In addition, ethnic minorities Expert consultations were sought at of Bangladesh have explicitly every stage of this process including mentioned in various national and developing interview and discussion international forums in recent years guides, and the findings had also been that they prefer to be recognized as discussed with fellow researchers for Adibasi instead of ‘tribal’ or ‘small better analysis. In addition, a reflexive ethnic groups’ (Ahmed, 2019; Rahman, journal was always carried by the 2011). The author also found the author to incorporate the reflections as authenticity of this statement in the a researcher during the entire process. field study as participants often mentioned that the repudiation of the An ethical dilemma, faced throughout Adibasi or Indigenous identity causes the study, was acknowledging the social, economic and political indigenous peoples as Adibasi (Bangla marginalization of the ethnic term for indigenous peoples) as the minorities. Therefore, to eliminate any Constitution (Fifteenth Amendment) further complications, this paper Act, 2011 (Act XIV of 2011) of the addresses the ethnic minorities of the Constitution of the People’s Republic CHT as ‘indigenous peoples’ following of Bangladesh officially classified the the working definition of Indigenous indigenous peoples as “tribes, minor and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 races, ethnic sects and communities” (No. 169) of the ILO. in 2011. Although the indigenous peoples prefer to identify themselves FINDINGS as Adibasi or Pahari (hill peoples) to express their collective identity, the The status of written languages among term Adibasi carries a political demand the indigenous peoples of ensuring indigenous rights that many Bengalis perceive as a threat Even though all the indigenous ethnic

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groups have their distinct languages, () and occasionally use the Mizo not all of them have the written form alphabet to write their language. A or scripts of their vernaculars. It is limited number of Pankhoa people evident from this study that seven out sometimes use the Roman script to of eleven indigenous ethnic groups write their spoken language. Khyang possess distinct scripts while others people are also envisaging developing have not yet developed any writing the alphabet of their language. Small systems of their spoken languages. For population size is a common feature of example, Chakma and Tanchangya these ethnic groups that stands as the people use the same alphabet, though primary obstacle in developing the their spoken languages are different scripts of their spoken languages. while Marma and have Opportunities for using native unique alphabets of their languages. In languages in everyday life 1985, Menlay, a religious preacher who started teaching a new religion As Bengalis constitute the ethnic named Krama, developed the script of majority in the CHT, indigenous Mro language which is now widely peoples are therefore indirectly forced used to represent the spoken form of to practice Bangla for communication, Mro language. On the other hand, education, business and other Tripura and developed purposes. Moreover, Bangla and their alphabets based on the Roman English are used as official languages script. It is also noteworthy to mention in Bangladesh. It is, therefore, that despite these languages having significant for indigenous peoples to scripts, the indigenous peoples do not acquire the capacity to speak, read and have traditions or functional write them. Also, different indigenous institutions to practice their spoken ethnic groups have been living here languages in written forms. In most together in mixed language cases, only a tiny portion of the communities for a very long time. All population with specific knowledge or these factors narrow down the interests practices the written forms of opportunities to use native languages these languages. only at home and with people of the same ethnic group living nearby. On the contrary, have been working on developing the On the other hand, most of the alphabet of their language by indigenous peoples, who developed collecting ancestral scripts from writing systems of their spoken . It was also mentioned by a languages, lack proper opportunities participant that, in some cases, they to learn and practice the written use the Mro alphabet. Similarly, scripts. For example, the written Lushai people consider themselves as Chakma language is only exercised by part of Mizo ethnic group of traditional ‘Baidya’ or ‘Ojha’ (‘healers’

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who practice herbal medicine-based the written codes in Mro language, treatment) for archiving purposes. In and also the Mro Language Committee parallel, only a few set up around 150 community schools who received education in the Kyangs with donor support to teach Mro (Buddhist temples) in their childhood children acquiring this language. can read and write the Marma Role of state agencies to safeguard language: indigenous languages Can you read and write your There are three ‘Cultural Institutes for spoken language? Ethnic Minorities’ functioning in the We had a tradition of learning the CHT. The activities of cultural Marma language in the Kyangs institutes in Rangamati and (Buddhist temples), the monks Khagrachari districts are used to teach us the Buddhist predominantly limited in organizing values and customs through short-term language training books written in the Marma programs with a handful of language; it was more like participants, mostly on Chakma, Maqtabs (mosque-based Marma and Kokborok languages, and elementary education in Arabic). occasionally publishing a few numbers Sadly, that practice has lost its of books, journals and dictionaries. appeal as parents find no value in Limited funds and shortage of staff learning the Marma language make it difficult for these institutes to that can be applied in real life. It conduct large-scale projects on can be said that the use of the indigenous languages, as mentioned Marma alphabet among Marma by the officials of these institutes. people is next to nothing nowadays. The Cultural Institute for Ethnic Minorities of Bandarban is more A similar case is written Bawm consistent than the other two language, which was first developed institutes. This institute conducts by the Christian missionaries about a regular language courses (two months century ago and taught in church in length) on Marma, Bawm, Mro and schools, however, the situation had Tanchangya languages. One of the changed since many missionaries shut major successes that this institute down their activities in Bawm- accomplished in 2006 was publishing inhabited areas. There is also an textbooks for first-graders in three exception; that is, around 60 percent of different indigenous languages. The Mros in Bangladesh are literate in their institute was also working on language (Tripura, 2020). It became preparing textbooks for grade II, III, IV possible because the followers of the and V students in various indigenous Krama religion are expected to learn

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languages which stopped because of Mass Education (MOPME), National the lack of funds. Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB), and HDCs were responsible The International Mother Language together to prepare and publish the Institute, another state agency, is textbooks within January 2014. responsible for conducting regular However, these agencies failed to meet research programs and protecting the deadline once in 2014 and again in endangered languages from extinction. 2015. After much delay, in 2017, the This institute was also expected to government started distributing complete an ethnolinguistic survey textbooks in these languages. and publish the reports by 2014, but it Interestingly, one participant has published only one of the ten mentioned that during the selection volumes by 2018 (International Mother process the government agencies Language Institute, 2018, p. 8). should have started working on the State initiatives to ensure primary endangered languages first: education in the mother tongue It is like applying oil on an oily The 1997 CHT Peace Accord head! Some of these languages established three Hill District Councils are relatively enriched than those (HDCs) in three districts of the CHT which are already vulnerable. region. Hill District Councils are The speakers of the vulnerable mandated to deliver primary languages are afraid of losing education in the mother tongue for their languages soon. They indigenous children. The GoB is also should have been given priority accountable to ensure primary by the government. education in the mother tongue for indigenous children as recommended Although books in three languages in the National Education Policy 2010. have been published, this project has In 2012, the GoB decided to publish some major deficiencies. First, most of textbooks in different ethnic languages the indigenous teachers in the CHT so that the indigenous students would can speak their native languages but have the opportunity to study entirely they are unable to read or write them. in their mother tongue from pre- Also, not all the teachers are recruited primary to the second grade of from indigenous ethnic groups, a primary education and then gradually substantial number of teachers come study Bangla from third grade. To from the Bengali community. There start with, five ethnic languages were are training programs for indigenous selected, three from the CHT region – teachers that merely provide basic Chakma, Marma and Kokborok (the knowledge of the alphabet. The native language of Tripura people). teachers who attended these programs Therefore, the Ministry of Primary and do not find them helpful to develop an

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in-depth understanding of the written supposed to be ‘education in mother languages, let alone decipher the tongue’ or MTB-MLE for at least the textbooks and prepare lessons for first three grades of primary students. So far “only 38.60 percent of education. Additionally, teachers find the 4,204 ethnic community teachers in it extremely difficult to conduct the three hill districts have attended a lessons in multi-ethnic classrooms and 14-day training on their respective there is no precise guideline on how to languages in the last three years” conduct the teaching-learning process (Chiran, 2020). On the other hand, one in mixed language schools. Therefore, participant mentioned that it is the indigenous students are, indeed, challenging and costly to recruit experiencing difficulties in this teachers for different indigenous puzzling education system. languages: Moreover, the national curriculum for Why do you think it is difficult primary education promotes Bangla and costly? language and Bengali culture that There are schools where students carry no relevance to the context of come from different ethnic indigenous children: backgrounds, for example, Chakma, Marma and Tripura You mentioned difficulties you ethnicities. Now, if the faced in school. Can you please government wants to recruit give us some examples? teachers for such schools, then When we were studying in the cost will be huge as these primary schools, we could not schools need teachers for understand most things because students of each language group. of the language barrier. Textbook So I think it is a slow process and contents were also unfamiliar to it will take some time to ensure us. For example, there was a education in the mother tongue poem in the Bangla textbook that for all indigenous children in the describes the Palmyra Palm tree, CHT. we could not recognize this at first because we have no such It is relevant to mention here that the trees here in the hills. There was GoB has not implemented the MTB- another article about jute fibre, MLE method in any government also known as the golden fibre of primary schools to date. Therefore, Bangladesh, but we never saw some research participants have anything like it here. One day our severely criticized the current practice teacher, who was Bengali, in government primary schools by brought a sample for us in the identifying it as ‘learning the mother class, yet we had difficulty tongue.’ According to them, it was understanding why that was important for us!

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In most cases, indigenous children for Ethnic Children (EEC) program. Its cannot comprehend the Bangla educational activities are conducted in textbooks, yet they have to memorize two methods. The first one is known everything to complete primary as ‘Education through Mother Tongue’ education. They may read and write where basic instructions and Bangla after completion of primary explanations are given in mother education, but lack the necessary skills tongue and then the subject matters to comprehend the texts. Added to are taught in Bangla. The second this, they have to learn English, which method is distinguished as MTB-MLE, is another foreign language to them. first introduced in 2008, where Consequently, the indigenous children students get the opportunity to read witness exceptionally limited use of and write their mother tongue. The their mother tongue in the learning educational materials have also been process. It sometimes makes them developed by BRAC in relevance with indifferent to practicing their native the cultural and linguistic context of languages, let alone learn to read and the indigenous children. Currently, write them. Jacob, Liu and Lee (2015) BRAC is only working on Chakma and also mentioned that emphasizing the Marma languages and planning to national language may lead develop such textbooks and materials indigenous peoples to not develop a for students of other native languages comprehensive understanding of the following the MTB-MLE method. significance of being fluent in native languages. Zabarang Kalyan Samiti is a local NGO working to implement the MTB- Non-state initiatives MLE method in cooperation with Manusher Jonno Foundation and the Many international and local NGOs Hill District Council, Khagrachari. have been active in the CHT region This organization has developed since the signing of the 1997 CHT textbooks and teacher guides in three Peace Accord, but very few of those indigenous languages (Chakma, have programs dedicated to ensuring Marma and Kokborok) based on the education in the mother tongue. Two MTB-MLE method. It is currently NGOs particularly, BRAC and conducting training programs for Zabarang Kalyan Samiti (Zabarang indigenous teachers and providing Welfare Society) are actively working supplementary teachers in case of a to develop textbooks and other shortage of teachers in more than 70 educational materials based on government primary schools. A few indigenous languages and culture, other NGOs also run similar teacher although such initiatives are not wide- training programs in the CHT, but ranging. BRAC Non-Formal Primary they cover only fragments of what Schools have been operational in the needs to be done. It is also important CHT since 2001 under the Education

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to mention that NGOs need official of Bangla words used in regular permission from the Hill District conversations was also mentioned by a Councils and other state agencies to participant: initiate any education programs related to indigenous languages. Indigenous peoples nowadays Therefore, it is not a surprise that very speak in the ‘khichuri’ language few NGOs are working on this issue in here. the CHT. What do you mean by the ‘khichuri’ language? Impacts of the Bangla language on Khichuri is a dish where you mix indigenous languages and cultures many things together. If you notice properly, you will find that In most cases, indigenous children indigenous peoples use 40 have to cope with Bengali teachers and percent Bangla words, 20 percent classmates in the schools. In such an English words and 40 percent environment, they have to use the native words even when they Bangla language more than their have conversations with people native languages. As a result, the from the same ethnic group. degree of practicing Bangla is When we speak with people like increasing fast that ultimately declines you, we do not use our mother the frequency of practicing their native tongue at all. languages. Also, indigenous students who study at secondary, higher secondary and university levels Another fact is that, with the identify no application of their native increasing use of the Bangla language languages at any stage of their among indigenous peoples, the education. In higher education Bengali people often classify most of institutions, indigenous students the indigenous peoples either as become more interested in learning members of Chakma or Marma Bangla and English than their native ethnicities since they collectively languages. Education thus limits the constitute the majority among the opportunities for indigenous indigenous peoples. It refers to a languages and cultures to survive, let situation where distinct cultural alone facilitating to flourish. differences among different ethnicities are declining in the absence of their Simultaneously, because of frequent native languages, and thus they are communication with the Bengali identified with those ethnic groups people, Bangla words are directly who possess a greater number of affecting the indigenous languages, people. The United Nations (2020) also and, in many cases, replacing the mentioned that the loss of a native traditional native words to express language causes the disappearance of many daily life objects. The frequency

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the “tangible and intangible heritage” contradictions within the Constitution of a group of people. itself. For instance, the Constitution explicitly mentions that the people of DISCUSSION Bangladesh should be known as ‘Bangalees’ as a nation in Article 6 (2) It is evident from this research that the of Part I while identifying other ethnic initiatives implemented by the state groups and indigenous peoples as are inadequate to provide safeguards “tribes, minor races, ethnic sects and to linguistic and cultural diversities of communities” in Article 23A of Part II. the indigenous peoples in the CHT. On one hand, these statements deny Moreover, the distinct ethnic identities the existence of indigenous peoples of the indigenous peoples are now and other ethnicities in Bangladesh. overshadowed by the growing On the other hand, the state is population of Bengalis and the categorizing the indigenous peoples as increasing use of the Bangla language second-class citizens, depriving them in their everyday life. That is why the of exercising their agency and thus scope of practicing indigenous denying “equality of opportunity to all languages is narrowing down rapidly citizens” as stated in the Constitution. and indigenous peoples are therefore being forced to develop their literacy When indigenous peoples of a nation- in Bangla. Thus, if this process state struggle to speak their languages, continues, it may ultimately force it indicates that the state is silently some of the indigenous languages to accomplishing an inherent ethno- be critically endangered soon with nationalist scheme. The denial of only a few remaining speakers with indigenous identity in the Constitution the possibility of going missing of Bangladesh also indicates that the gradually as vernaculars even at the state is deliberately perpetuating personal level. It may also cause discrimination and inequalities against ‘language death’, a situation in which the indigenous peoples and ethnic the community of speakers of one minorities of Bangladesh to establish a language loses its last speaker by cultural hegemony of the dominant gradually shifting towards a second ethnic group. Jahan (2015, p. 8) language (Crystal, 2014, p. 1). discussed the “monolithic construction of nation” in Bangladesh where both Looking from a different perspective, language and religion played crucial it is intriguing that while the roles in developing the dominant form Constitution of Bangladesh and of Bengali nationalism. She further several national policy documents argued that the construction of Bengali precisely mention the responsibility of nationalism tended to negate the the state to promote indigenous existence of cultural pluralism and languages and cultures, there are some followed an assimilationist approach

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to create a monolithic nationalist linguistic imperialism using Johan identity in Bangladesh. The history of Galtung’s Structural Theory of ethnic conflicts between indigenous Imperialism: peoples and the Bengali people is also significant in this regard. Therefore, Linguistic imperialism is a language is a tool that the state is primary component of cultural employing both to deny the imperialism though it must be ‘indigenous’ identity and create a remembered that cultural monolithic nation-state. imperialism can also take non- linguistic forms…linguistic The education system of Bangladesh is imperialism is also central to also influencing the indigenous social imperialism, which relates peoples to embrace the Bangla to the transmission of the norms language and Bengali culture. and behaviour of a model social Specifically, indigenous children are structure, and these are forced to learn the Bangla language embedded in language. and adopt Bengali culture at an early (Phillipson, 2012, p. 53) age that the state has been systematically endorsed in the Furthermore, mother tongue-based education system. Contextualizing the multilingual education (MTB-MLE) is textbooks for indigenous peoples has a key part of indigenous education not yet been considered by the that has been systematically ignored government. Jacob, Liu and Lee (2015, by state agencies. Though some of the p. 47) showed that, in China, the NGOs are promoting this model, the national curriculum and textbooks scope of their work is limited to certain disregard including histories, cultures parts of the CHT. Heugh (2014) and religious beliefs of ethnic showed that the implementation of minorities and promote the official multilingual education in Ethiopia has doctrines by translating them into been highly successful in increasing minority languages which are often student achievement in regions where demeaning to ethnic minority cultures. students received education in three May and Aikman (2003) argued that languages (a local language, Amharic the formal schooling system has often and English). Durnnian (2007, p.8) been used as a tool to assimilate mentioned the positive outcome of indigenous peoples into a dominant MTB-MLE in India, Cambodia and national society by sacrificing Thailand which brought socio-cultural indigenous identity, language, benefits in addition to increased knowledge and cultural practices. student achievement. However, the Such ethno-nationalist schemes can be GoB has not initiated any project yet to identified as linguistic imperialism. examine this model in the Bangladeshi Robert Phillipson explained the idea of context. Implementation of MTB-MLE

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in the government primary schools approach anyway, determined to would provide the data on whether create a mono-cultural national such a model is effective to safeguard identity and impose a cultural indigenous languages in the CHT. hegemony over non-Bengali peoples. The continuous denial of ‘indigenous’ From another point of view, it can also identity, delay in the full be argued that language is not the only implementation of the 1997 Peace marker of ethnic identity. Even if the Accord along with other national members of an ethnic group stop policies and execution of hegemonic speaking their native language, it does ethno-nationalist agenda through the not necessarily mean that they would education system - all these actions entirely lose their sense of ethnic manifest the disinclination of the state uniqueness as other cultural aspects in ensuring indigenous rights in the may validate the exclusivity of an CHT. ethnic group. From this perspective, as a consequence of continuous Even though the GoB has published interaction with the Bengali some books in three indigenous population, indigenous peoples in the languages, it appears as politics of CHT may lose some of their distinct appeasement to make those ethnic ethnic features but gain new attributes. groups content who possess greater Thus, this process may trigger the populations among the indigenous creation of new, multiple identities in ethnic groups, and there is still room the future as mentioned by Eriksen for improvement. Interestingly, a (2010) and Evans (2015). Indigenous politics of resistance has also been peoples may also develop a new noted among indigenous ethnic understanding of ‘selfhood’ as they groups against such policies. Some of progress through the dynamics of the minority ethnic groups, who do changing social relations with the not possess their own scripts, have Bengali people. been active to develop writing systems of their spoken languages and trying CONCLUSION to establish their ‘ethnic identity’ despite the dominance of majority This study shows that indigenous ethnic groups. Needless to say, it peoples in the CHT are being forced to needs a collaborative effort from the be integrated into a national society government and indigenous peoples if that is based on the Bangla language these efforts are to be successful. and Bengali culture because of the ethnolinguistic domination of the The study also reveals that identity Bengalis within the state. It is also formation among the indigenous clear that state agencies have been peoples has a fluid character. First, applying a dominant assimilationist they have a strong political stance regarding the Adibasi or Pahari

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identity, indigenous peoples in the conditions, indigenous peoples spoke CHT often use these terms as a form of many times about the struggles in collective identity to claim their rights exercising their agency to change the which would be difficult for them as status quo. Unfortunately, responses distinct ethnic groups. Second, there is from the state are excessively time- a growing sense of ethnic identity consuming and often ineffective in formation among the groups that do terms of bringing positive outcomes not possess scripts of their for the indigenous peoples. vernaculars. The repeated attempts by References some ethnic minorities to develop Adnan, S. (2004). Migration, land alienation and scripts of their spoken languages ethnic conflict: Causes of poverty in the testify to their efforts to introduce Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh. themselves as unique ethnicities and Dhaka: Research & Advisory Services. claim their position within the state. Afreen, N. (2013). Factors of Language Shift from Third, indigenous peoples also adhere Chakma to Bengali: A Study on the Chakma-speaking People. Unpublished to the ‘Bangladeshi’ identity as citizens dissertation, Department of English and of the state. Although indigenous Humanities, Brac University, peoples face dominance from the Bangladesh. ethnic majority, they do not deny their Ahmed, H. S. (2019, September 27). The citizenship to protest against such politics of indigeneity and the Jumma struggle for land and recognition. The domination. An increasing Daily Star. Retrieved from understanding has been observed https://www.thedailystar.net/star- among the indigenous peoples that weekend/longform/news/the-politics- both the national and ethnic identities indigeneity-and-the-jumma-struggle- can be maintained simultaneously. land-and-recognition-1805566 Brubaker, R., & Cooper, F. (2000). Beyond Thus, indigenous peoples in the CHT “identity”. Theory and Society, 29(1), 1-47. are maintaining multiple identities Chiran, M. (2020, February 21). Education in rather than making a ‘hard’ decision mother tongue: Govt. move for ethnic about identity formation. minority students faltering. The Daily Star. Retrieved from It is also evident from this study that https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/ the CHT is a security concern for the news/education-mother-tongue-govt- move-ethnic-pupils-faltering-1870804 state; the abundance of military Crystal, D. (2014). Language death. Cambridge: camps, the growing population of Cambridge University Press. Bengali settlers and regular events of Dorian, N. C. (1999). Linguistic and ethnic conflicts provide us with ethnographic fieldwork. In J. A. Fishman enough proof to support this claim. As (Ed.), Handbook of language and ethnic identity (pp. 25-41). Oxford: Oxford a result, an atmosphere of mutual University Press. suspicion often clouds the issues of Durnnian, T. (2007). Mother Language First: this region with conflicting facts and Towards achieving EFA for Adivasi children figures. Despite such marginalized in Bangladesh. Dhaka: The Save the Children Fund.

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