Frank 1 This thesis has been approved by The Honors Tutorial College and the Department of Political Science __________________________ Dr. Nukhet Sandal Professor, Political Science Thesis Adviser ___________________________ Dr. James Mosher Director of Studies, Political Science ___________________________ Dr. Cary Frith Interim Dean, Honors Tutorial College Frank 2 Terrorism, Boundaries, and Belonging in American and British Cinema _______________________________________________________________________ A Thesis Presented to The Honors Tutorial College of Ohio University ________________________________________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Graduation from the Honors Tutorial College with the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Political Science ________________________________________________________________________ by Zakary Frank April 27, 2018 Frank 3 Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction Page 4 Previous Research Page 6 Methodology Page 27 Chapter 2: American Films Arab & Muslim Extremists in American Film Page 29 Non-Arab or Muslim Terrorism in American Film Page 52 Discussion Page 74 Chapter 3: British Films Arab & Muslim Extremists in British Film Page 89 Non-Arab or Muslim Terrorism in British Film Page 109 Discussion Page 129 Chapter 4: Conclusion Page 144 Works Cited Page 159 Film Citations Page 165 Frank 4 Chapter 1: Introduction “Italian novelist Umberto Eco once claimed that 70 percent of our knowledge derives from watching Hollywood movies” (Riegler, 2010). Eco’s point is further emphasized by the work of scholars like Jack Shaheen, Hafiz Qasir Abbas, Fatima Tuz Zohra, and Abu Sadat Nurullah who state that television and film have a direct impact on how people view the world around them. The impact that film has on ideology is not inherently problematic until one looks at the various ways that media stereotypes and dehumanizes various “suspect communities” (Hickman et al., 2011). Generally, film will depict these “suspect communities” as the “other” and portray the values of these groups as being in direct contrast to that of the general population. For example, American and British cinema have had a long history of portraying Arabs and Muslims in a negative light. Shaheen states that many films depict Arabs as “brute murderers, sleazy rapists, religious fanatics, oil-rich dimwits, and abusers of women” (Shaheen, 2001, 2). The negative depiction of Arabs and Muslims in cinema has a direct impact on how society as a whole views this community. It is especially important that we pay attention to the portrayals of groups, like Arabs and Muslims that are consistently depicted as terrorists in film, because the western world is engaged in a “War on Terror”. In his article, The War on Terror in American Grand Strategy Michael Boyle discusses how the post 9/11 world has “constituted the single most ambitious reordering of America's foreign policy objectives since the Second World War” (Boyle, 2008, 191). He states that September 11th reshuffled “the alliance system that had served as the foundation of US foreign policy since 1945 and [made] the defeat of terrorism the chief object of American power” (Boyle, 2008, 191). The restructuring of policy is important, because it has made the world more aware of terrorism. As a result, those groups whom are often associated with Frank 5 extremism in film, i.e. Arabs and Muslims, are more likely to be discriminated against due to international anxieties. This comparative study conducts research similar to that of Jack Shaheen and Noura Alalawi in order to analyze how terrorism is portrayed in film following September 11th. My research is specifically interested in analyzing how the United States and United Kingdom portray terrorists in film and how these depictions impact the citizenship and sense of belonging of groups portrayed as extremists. My thesis will contribute to the discipline of political science and media studies by providing a critical examination of the cinematic portrayal of terrorism and “suspect communities” (Hickman et al., 2011). So far in my research I have not found any articles that make the connection between portrayal in film, belonging and citizenship. Most of these articles simply state that American and British cinema portray groups like Muslims in a negative way and that this leads to the development of stereotypes. I have not yet seen a study that takes the next step and analyzes how these stereotypes directly impact an individual’s claims to belonging or citizenship in a community. Therefore, my research will help scholars take the next step in understanding the power that cinema has over understandings of citizenship and belonging. The following section discusses previous research surrounding film, social/ethnic boundary making, and suspect communities (Hickman et al., 2011). It starts by discussing how film is an impactful tool for educating individuals around the world and how this tool is sometimes utilized to promote harmful stereotypes. Next, the research discusses how terrorism is often portrayed in film and more specifically how Arabs and Muslims are depicted. The research then transitions into discussing social/ethnic boundary making mechanisms and how these might lead to the creation of suspect communities (Hickman et al., 2011). Lastly, the previous research Frank 6 will focus on suspect communities and how they negatively impact an individual’s citizenship and sense of belonging in a community. Previous Research When attempting to understand how film impacts the citizenship and belonging of those depicted as extremists it is important to first understand how film impacts the perceptions of people in the real world. According to Henry Giroux (2011, 687), “films do more than entertain; they offer up subject positions, mobilize desires, influence us unconsciously and help to construct the landscape of our culture”. This is easily illustrated by the estimate that “a successful film is seen by 10,000,000 people in theaters” (Giroux, 2011, 691). Millions of people are consuming cultural and political messages that are often depicted in film. Giroux (2011) believes that, because films are so widely consumed they act as a perfect medium for public pedagogy. He also states that film is particularly impactful as an educational tool, because it helps link personal experiences of the audience to the politics illustrated in film. This enables viewers to connect with film in a way that Giroux believes is not possible with other educational mediums. In this vein, the use of film as an educational tool can be useful when trying to promote positive messages through cinema. However, film’s impact on education can also be problematic if it depicts specific groups or ideas in a negative or overly simplified manner. This could lead to stereotypes or misinformation being spread widely throughout society. A similar study led by Karin Wilkins is interested in how media can be used to impact the way that people perceive the world. She conducted a study on 120 participants that was developed to test how action-adventure films impacted an individual’s interpretations of the world (Wilkins, 2009, 566-568). During the study, Wilkins found that Arab Americans were “quite critical” of films that featured Middle Eastern scenes. These individuals wanted films to Frank 7 present the Middle East in a more “realistic” way and have more “complex situations” pertaining to the region. Wilkins (2009, 59) mentions that “the Middle Eastern setting appeared to them as unnecessarily backward and foreign, dark and mysterious”. Individuals from other ethnic groups are recorded as seeing “an advantage in accentuating the exotic aspect” of the Middle East. Wilkins (2009, 569-570) even mentions that some individuals felt that these “exotic” representations were “realistic”. Her study also found that non-Arab participants often showed a fear of the Middle East. When asked “what countries they would like to avoid when traveling”, many participants gave answers centered on this region (Wilkins, 2009, 570). Some participants specifically mentioned that “Islamic terrorists” were a central factor in their disdain for the Middle East. Others suggested that traveling in this region would endanger their life in some way. On the other hand, Arab American participants constructed “a world relatively open for travel” (Wilkins, 2009, 570). When answers were given, Arab Americans would often mention Israel of Iraq as countries to avoid. However, Arab Americans did not share the same anxieties about the Middle East stated by non-Arab participants (Wilkins, 2009, 571). Ultimately, Wilkins’ study does seem to suggest that media can impact an individual’s interpretations of specific regions around the world. As mentioned, films can be a great medium for educating people about the world, but if this education promotes false information problems can occur. Samuel Peleg is a scholar who is particularly invested in eliminating false depictions of terrorism in film. He argues that terrorism is a complex topic that deserves to be properly portrayed in cinema. Peleg (2003) states that there are 10 components of terrorism, which help illustrate the complexity of the phenomenon. The ten components are that terrorism is “purposeful and rational”, “primarily a political act”, “mostly about change”, a “form of political participation”, a “weapon of the weak”, “challenges order Frank 8 and confronts the government”, a “collective undertaking”, “communal