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PUBLISHED BY FAUSA Vol. 27. 1983 No.2 ISSN 0042-4560 those
to Journal of the Federation of Australian University Stall Associations
ir:adwJ's Vol. 27, 1983 No.2
EDITOR Vestes IS published twice a year, in Apni and In November Mr, J, E. Anwyl, \(ildnC lor ;,1 D)ploma ut .1',(iU(atlO!i Editorial Policy Centre for the Study of Higher Education, University of Melbourne Vestes IS the journal of the Federation 01 Australian University Staff Associations, It aims to be a forum for the discussion of issues con BUSINESS MANAGER fronting Australian universities with particular referenr::e to those Miss C. P White, matters which concern FAUSA and its member associations, These CI· Federation 01 Austratian University Staff Associations, can broadly be categorised as instltutionat issues and stall issues 33 Bank Street South Metbourne, Vic 3205 The institutional Issues are those covered by such topics a~ unlve( Phone, (03) 690 1855 sHy funding and the role of funding bodies, government education policy, commonwealth/state relationships, Co-ordination and ra REVIEW EDITORIAL COMMITTEE tionalisation of tertiary education, education inquiries, recurrent and further education in universities, proposals for amalgamation of in Dr B Bessant stitutions, tuition fees, research funding, state tertiary education Dr. A. D, Spaull co-ordinating bodies, university autonomy and accountability and Mr, L B. Wallis university and departmental government. The staff issues cover such topics as academic freedom and tenure, fixed-term appoint ISSN 0042·4560 ments, study leave and conference leave, academic salarias and conditions, promotion procedures and assessment of teaching The views expressed in articles in this publication, unless other wise stated, are those of the authors and do not necessarily In each of these areas articles will be assessed on their intrinsic represent the views of the editor or the publishers. merit, by the use of independent referees, and the contribution which they make to the important issues of the day confronting the Federation, whether the articles in themselves support or oppose Federation policies: although the Editor will strive to achieve a balance 01 views in cases where an article takes an attitude directly opposed 10 mat ot the Federation. A lower priority will be given to articles which are restricted to particular disciplinary areas, which are particularly oriented to student rather than staff needs or prob lems, or which deal with the details of educational techniques rather [ than with broader university problems ( Notes to Contributors
Manuscripts should normally be limited to 4000 words although longer articles will be considered. Contributors should be gUided by the Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers of Australian Government PublicatIOns, 3rd edn" Australian Government Publishing SerVice, Canberra, 1978. Books lor review should be addressed to the Editor; the policy 01 Vestes is to review only books dealing with universities and tertiary education generally $SG Subscriptions mc' Annual subSCription. surtace postage paid, $12,50 Australian currency (airmail $6 extra per year), Overseas payments should be made by bank draft In Australian currency
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Rates available on application to Business Manager Current circula· tion approx, 9000 copies per issue FAUSA PUBLICATIONS APPROACHES TO LEARNING J.B. BIGGS ""d HI. KIRBY University of Newcastle A limited number of copies of the following FAUSA publication are available to interested IN UNIVERSITIES AND CAE!> persons:
Price Introduction (surface postage paid) Given the context of enforced amalgamations for the profession in question; subject units are not between some universities and CAEs, the question studied for their intrinsic value. Staff are appOinted A Critical Response to the TEC Working Party on the Supply and of the existence of real differences between the two for their teaching ability and their professional expe sectors in terms of academic ethos, function, and Demand for New Teacher Graduates in the 1980s: Merv Turner (1980) $6.00 rience; they are not required to undertake research, impact on students, is particularly pertinent. and with some notable exceptions, few do so.
Initial Submission to Academic Salaries Tribunal General Review (1980) $10.00 The characteristics typical of Australian colleges Collis and 8iggs 3 have analysed the matriculation and universities are summarised in the CTEC requirements, sequencing of courses, degreestruc Final Submission to Academic Salaries Tribunal General Review (1980/81) $7.50 Report for the 1982-4 Triennium. ' This general pat tures, and teaching and examining procedures of tern was established in the sixties, following the universities and colleges in terms of their SOLO Martin Report,2 in which advanced education and Taxonomy, and argue that the university structures Submission to 1981 Academic Salaries Tribunal General Review university functions were defined and allocated to are higher up the taxonomy and make more com (May 1982, July 1982) $4.00 e.a. the two different sectors. In North America, on the plex and higher level cognitive demands on stu other hand, the advanced education function is in dents than do CAE structures. Biggs4 compared the Benefits from Basic Research: Some Results from a Hindsight Survey effect shared between the universities and the eqUi motivational patterns and learning strategies used valent of TAFE. Now that CAEs have grown well of ARGC Projects in 1970 (1981) $2.00 by college and university students and found that beyond their original remit to the pOint where they students conformed to these expectations. College duplicate some university functions, it is worth ask students were more pragmatically motivated, and Submission to the Inquiry into Tenure by the Senate Standi~g ing if they implement these functions any differently more likely to use a strategy involving the rote repro Committee on Education and the Arts from universities. If such differences do exist, there duction of selected parts of their coursework, while - November 1981 (full set) $8.00 would be obvious implications, for example, for allo university students were more intrinsically moti (without attachments) $4.00 cating teaching responsibilities in advanced educa vated and more likely to read widely around course tion or university sectors of amalgamated institu work in order to deepen their understanding of tions. - March 1982 $4.00 content. Organised study skills were related to aver Functions of universities and colleges age and above average functioning in both univer Submission to the Inquiry into the Tertiary Education Commission (1982) $4.00 Essentially, universities are discipline oriented. sity and college students, but excellent perform Their major function is to promote the study of a ance was related to organised study skills in CAE students only; excellent university students were Summary of Evidence - Tenure Inquiry (a 40 page ~ummary of the diScipline in depth; to extend that discipline through research; to teach both the reasons for and the fruits not so much organised as highly intrinsically moti full transcript of evidence heard by the Tenure Inquiry) $4.00 of that research; and to train others in the ways vated. Achievement motivation was actually higher appropriate to researching that discipline. Courses in CAE students only; excellent university students Response to recommendations of the Tenure Inquiry (1982) $2.50 are deSigned to build successively on each other. were not so much organised as highly intrinsically Staff are appointed and promoted for their expertise motivated. Achievement motivation was actually Response to Ralph Report on Management Education (1982) $2.00 in a discipline, in adding to that diSCipline through higher in CAE students in the first year, but it then their own research, and in teaching and otherwise rapidly declined and by third year was well below that of university students; an organised approach Student Loans - Submission to Senate Standing Committee (1982) $2.50 publishing from their expertise. The government of universities, and the protection to academics to study likewise declined from first to third year in accorded by tenure and academic freedom, make CAE students but remained high and stable in uni FAUSA Policies and Attitudes Handbook (1983) $4.00 sense only in that context staff need protection to versity students. In general, college students were carry out their research, and to publicise their find five times more likely to claim that they were dissat The Crisis in Basic Research (1983) $1.50 ings, to allay the fear of sanctions if their findings are isfied with their performance. These findings were unpalatable to the government or to other estab least marked in Arts and SCience, and strongest in Higher Education in Crisis (published by Higher Education Round lished interests. Professional training in areas that Education. Table) (1983) $4.00 require an in-depth, enquiring, orientation arose as In this paper, we look at differences between college a natural extension of the university ethos. and university students in what have been termed In addition back copies of most issues of "Vestes" and the FAUSA "Newsletter" are available; Colleges of advanced education are vocationaJly deep and surface approaches to learning. price on application, oriented. Their major function is to mount Courses that supply a community need for tertiary trained For further information and orders, write to: professionals, the demand for which may change Approaches to Learning The Office Manager with market forces. Consequently, courses are The distinction between meaningful and rote learn FA USA monitored in each state by a higher education ing is an old and familiar one: it underlies a rather 33 Bank Street board, or its equivalent, and coJlege governance is broader distinction - between deep and surface SOUTH MELBOURNE. VIC. 3205 Australia designed to be responsive to ministerial influence. approaches to learning - that is applied to the kind Courses are designed to make a suitable package of learning undertaken by tertiary students. 5 2 3 Following are some aspects of these approaches: Desirability Deep approach = intrinsic motivation + meaning In the university sector, students from all faculties It seems almost unnecessary to say that the deep strategy + achievement motivation + organising are high on deep approach, with Science students Learning quality approach appears to be more academically desir strategy. also scoring high on surface. In the college sector, A deep approach implies that the student deliber able. The evidence bears this out very strongly. The students from aJi facuities are lower on deep, with ately attempts to make learning as meaningful as deep approach leads to better learning, whether Surface approach = instrumental motivation + Education and Science students high on surface. possible, that he or she is intrinsically interested in "better" is defined in terms of complexity of out reproducing strategy + achievement motivation The interesting switch here is for Education stu the subject matter, purposeful and organised in stu 9 come, a satisfaction, self-rated performance in dents, who not only drop on deep, as do Arts and dies, prepared to read beyond the set references Results comparison with peers,9 or examination results. 10 Science students, but who quite drastically increase and to relate what is being read about or lectured In general, universities students tended to be higher On the other hand, to the student concerned, a on surface. This finding has important implications about to previous relevant knowledge, to search for on deep, and lower on surface; while CAE students surface approach may be the more desirable if it tended to be lower on deep and higher on surface. that are addressed later. analogies and applications, and so on. achieves personal goals with minimal pain, regretta This finding is, however, equivocal because there Figure 2 shows a similar analysis for year of study. A surface approach involves the interaction by the ble though others might deem such an approach to are strong faculty differences on the surface student to learn the necessary minimum, with as be. This example emphasises that to change a stu approach, and the faculty mix differed between col little effort as possible, consistent with sufficient dent's study behaviour it will be necessary first to try leges and universities. The data are therefore pres to get him or her to re-order priorities. A second and Deep FIG 2 marks to achieve his or her purpose. This is ented first by faculty (Figure 1). It should be noted Approach accomplished by restricting learning to what is more positive sense in which a surface approach that an analysis of variance showed reliable differ judged to be essential (e.g. "in the exam") and then may be useful is where accurate reproduction of ences between institutions on the deep approach, to reproduce that as accurately as possible, or in a facts and details is academically important, as it is in but no faculty difference; institution and faculty 87 way thought to be approved ("giving the examiner most undergraduate science courses; 11 as will be effects, as well as their intereaction, were all highly what is wanted"). Also included in the suriace seen below, university science students do indeed significant on surface. This picture is presented in approach is a concentration on detail and fact, tend to utilise both deep and surface approaches. Figure 1. 86 rather than the attempt to see "the big picture". Ideally, then, students should have recourse to both strategies, and the wit to judge when which is the Situation-dependence more approapriate. Deep FIG 1 85 Approach Some learning environments tend to elicit a deep, and others a surface, approach. Didactic teaching, The Present Study 84 emphasis on accurate recall of trivia, a heavy Responses from over 2,000 students in fourteen emphasis on final examinations in an anxiety tertiary institutions were collected to obtain norms 87 arousing context, and the lack of opportunity of for the Study Process Questionnaire (SPO).12 o 83 pursuing particular subjects in depth, are some Respondents were necessarily volunteers, with a wastage of about 60%; fortunately, however, the characteristics of tertiary teaching that have been 86 82 associated with a surface approach. Such teaching wastage rate was the same in universities and CAE's alerts the student to the importance of "getting by", so comparisons between them are valid. Complete which then duly becomes the intention. A student details of the sampling and administration may be 81 85 ® may adopt a deep approach to the major subject, obtained elsewhere. 13 and a surface approach to the subjects that are Deep and suriace level approaches were obtained 80 unimportant except as fillers forthe degree pattern; from the SPQ scale scores. This instrument nor 84 or a student may adopt a deep approach only mally yields six scale scores: instrumental motiva towards those aspects of the major subject of inter tion (M1), intrinsic motivation (M2), and achieve 79 est; or he or she may adopt a deep approach only ment motivation (M3); reproducing strategy (81), when "in the mood", which may not be often. meaning strategy (82), and organising strategy (S3). When these scores are factor-analysed two Individual differences 61 62 63 64 65 66 A student's approach to a particular learning epi factors emerge, identifiable as deep and suriace: Surface 82 sode is Approach not, however, entirely attributable to the Table 1 immediate teaching environment. Students have Ptincipal componems analysis; with vatimax rotation of spa o University preferences for one or the other approach, and tend scale scores 01 2,141 college and university students. D CAE to emphasise that preference across different learn Factor 1,2,3 First, Second, Third year ing episodes and even different subjects. 6 These Deep Surface of undergraduate course preferences are partly due to motivational factors Instrumental Motivation .01 .80 what a student in general wants from his or her Intrinsic Motivation .79 -.13 University and CAE Undergraduate Course on Deep and studies (a piece of paper, the satisfaction of curios Achievement Motivation 52 .54 Surface Approaches Reproducing Strategy -.17 .81 ity, an ego-trip on high marks; any or all of these) Meaning Strategy .86 -.13 but also to intellectual and cognitive ones. To use Organising Strategy .73 .14 the deep approach students need to be: intelligent, Percentage Variance 37% 27% There are strong institutional differences on both already knowledgeable in the area, able to concen deep and surface, and strong year effects on deep, trate for long periods without being easily dis but none on surface. The interaction between year tracted, able to organise themselves and their In obtaining deep and surfacescores, we decided to and institution is not significant on either deep or resources planfully, and so on. Some students are give each significant factor loading a weighting of surface. The institution effects are clear, and similar not capable of, or interested in, meeting some or unity because of convenience and because this will to those in Figure 1. The year effect on deep is most of these requirements. However, it is possible be in keeping with projected use (the correlation University and CAE Faculties/Schools on Deep and Suriace interesting and counterintuitive. The third year stu to help students change from a surface to a deep between factor scores and unitary weight scores is Approaches dents are lower on deep than first and second years. approach, given appropriate conditions. I .94). Thus: 5 4 Even in universities, students are not more oriented The positions of three universities and one CAE are Education Students from all the universities scored relatively towards a deep approach by their final year than in plotted. Students from one university (1) stand out This faculty is perhaps the most interesting with Iowan the suriace approach with students from six the first year, but rather the contrary; this is the more as high on deep and Iowan surface; students from respect to institutional differences. The picture is CAEs exceeding the universities on the surface surprising given the degree of attrition that has the remaining institutions form a cluster. It should clouded, however, because of the preponderance score. One CAE with a concurrent programme (9) taken place, with the more likely retention of stu be painted out that CAE Arts students were enrolled of concurrent (Oip.Teach.lB.Ed.) courses falling in scored Iowan suriace and moderately on deep. dents with a deep approach. Possibly this reflects a in courses in Fine Arts, Drama and the like. the CAE sector, and end-on (Dip.Ed.) programmes Three CAE end-on programmes were Iowan deep cynicism that is felt towards the middle of the final (15,9,11) and one university (3). Two concurrent Science in the university sector These two types of pro year, when students' main thoughts are to get out gramme are therefore depicted separately (concur CAEs have now merged (10, 11) and are now one and into the work force, apart from the minority who rent are double-edged in Figure 5; end-on, programme; these two institutions were as high as will be staying on for higher degree work. Alterna single-edged). the universities on deep, but also high on surface. tively, a number of highly idealistic, though not ter However, 11 also offered an end-on programme, ribly adaptive, students might have been eliminated the students of which scored the lowest of any on through exams and assignment pressures over the Deep FIG 5 deep. While several universities offer concurrent first two years of study. Approach programmes, unfortunately none figured in the present sample in sufficient numbers to enable a In the remaining results the data refer to the facul 88 useful comparison. ties and programmes of individual institutions. Only those institutions are retained where numbers are 87 ® As a matter of interest, it might be pointed out that in sufficient to be meaningful statistically. The institu Figure 5, two institutions, a CAE (concurrent) and a tions are referred to by code number, to preserve 86 university (end-on), are currently billed for amalga anonymity. The same numbering is preserved mation. Individual t-tests were conducted on deep through all figures. 85 and surface approaches in these two institutions, and the university students were significantly Arts 84 higher than the CAE students on deep, and signifi 83 cantly lower on surtace. Deep FIG3 Approach Implications and Conclusions 82 In view of the larger numbers involved, the most 81 stable generalisations should be drawn from the 91 analyses comparing institution types, rather than 80 individual institutions, as represented particularly in 90 Figure 1. 79 It is clear that there are highly significant differences 80 78 between CAEs and universities in the extent to which students report using deep and surface 77 approaches to their learning. Given the functions, 88 ~~'Ti--r--r--ri--r--r~--'i--Ti--r--r aims, staffing and course structures within each 58 W 00 61 ~ ~ M ~ ~ ~ ® 76 Surface type of institution, these differences are in line with expectations. With faculty held constant, universi 87 Approach o University ~\i iii iii , i ties appear to develop, or attract, students with a 55 ~ ~ ~ ~ 00 61 ~ ~ 64 65 66 D CAE deep approach to learning, and CAE students with 86 Surface a surface approach. Deep and Surface approach mean scores for Science Approach students in particular institutions o Uni-end-on Such a pattern is not necessarily inappropriate. A 85 D CAE-end-on deep approach to learning is important in many Students from one university (2) are high on both professions, particularly where the student plans to ICJI CAE-concurrent 84 deep and surface, compared to the others, with become involved in research. However, it may well students from two CAEs falling lowest on deep (9, Deep and Surface approach mean scores for Education be that surface learning in CAEs is adequate atthe students in end-on and concurrent programmes in parti pre-service stage of professional preparation. A 8). There is a middle band of students from five cular institutions institutions on deep, but they show a spread on deep approach may follow when the "smorgas surface, with students from one university (3) being bord" of courses at the CAE becomes integrated the lowest on surface. Unfortunately there were insufficient numbers to with practical experience. 14 Such a hope underlies compare the two types of programme within the the thinking behind the "3 + E + 1" degree structure one institution, so strong conclusions cannot be currently being adopted in many CAEs (the drawn about the effects of type of programme. numbers refer to years of fulltime study, and the "E" However, some general observations may be made. for professional experience). There is, however, no
Deep and Surface approach mean scores for Arts students in particular institutions
6 7 .~------.. ---~ ..--.-- .. -
evidence that this deepening of approach with figures to the bottom right; i.e. from deep to surface 7 J. Biggs, and B. Rihn, 'The effects of intervention on 12. J, Biggs, Student motivation and study strategies: experience actually does take place. If anything, the approaches, given the diminution of resources and deep and surlace approaches to learning', in J. Kirby, Handbook for Teachers and School Counsellors, (ed.), Cognitive Strategies and Educational Perfor ACER, (in preparation). evidence is the other way; the "socialisation" of consequent staff freezes, and given too, that most mance, Academic Press, New York, (in press). teachers begins when, as freshly qualified gradu amalgamations have been conducted in an indus 13. op. cit ates, they enter their first staff room and are told to tria! atmosphere with guarantees preventing re 8. F. Marton, and R. Saljo, op. cit.; J. Biggs, 'Individual "forget that academic nonsense; you're in the real trenchment. Such a situation can only mean that differences in study processes and the quality of learn 14. Collis and Biggs, op. cit. world now." 15 staff, within and across the advanced education and ing outcomes', Higher Education, 8, 1979 pp. 381-394, university sectors, will have to "retrain"; their teach 15. A.R. Crane, 'The Occupational Socialisation of Alternatively, it might be argued that a deep 9. J. Biggs, 'Learning strategies, motivation patterns and Teachers', The South Pacific Journal of Teacher Edu approach is unnecessary in some professional ing loads wil! increase; their involvement in research subjectively perceived success', in J. Kirby, (ed.), Cog cation, III, 3, 1975, pp. 57-64. practice. In the case of CAE science gradates, for will inevitably decline. mtive strategies and educational performance, Aca example, many would be heading for a "hands on" demic Press, New York, (in press). 16. As evidenced by periodic claims by manufacturers These data certainly do not encourage much opti and employers in the daily press. career in agriculture and industry, where the mism about the likely effects of university-CAE emphasis would be on the application of existing 10. R. Schmeck, 'Learning styles of coliegestudents', in R. mergers. They do, however, act to define a goal for Dillon and R. Schmeck, (eds.), Individual difference in 17. G. Butland, The rationalisation of resources for higher knowledge and techniques in fairly standard set such mergers: if amalgamations are to proceed, cognition, Academic Press, New York, (in press), education in the Hunter Valley, NSW Government tings: the need is to know the broad area well efforts must be made to keep students functioning Printer, Sydney, 1978; P. Correy, Teaching for tomor enough to keep things going. Indeed, some indus at a deep level, where that is indicated as both 11. R. Schmeck, op. cit. row: Continuity, Challenge and change in teacheredu trialists have complained about the deep approach cation in New South Wales, NSW Government Printer, academically and professionally desirable, as it Sydney, 1980. displayed by university graduates: they ask too surely is in the case of Education. It is to be hoped many questions, don't know enough about the that the decision-makers involved in making the details of the immediate context, and want to try out best of this very bad job will make their decisions on new ways of doing things rather than sticking with academic grounds rather than on those giving pre the system as it exists in the present firm. 161n short, eminence to industrial and political considerations, many employers require a surface rather than a or to personal empire-building. Thus, one alterna deep approach. tive, since universities are currently encouraging a It is Education that gives rise to most concern, deeper approach to learning, is that the university where the difference between university and col sector should, for educational reasons, and wher lege sectors is most marked. While there are some ever appropriate, teach undergraduate (UG1) and CAE students in concurrent programmes who postgraduate awards leaving UG2 and UG3awards score reasonably well on the deep approach, none to the advanced education sector. If that is not to be do in end-on programmes, and almost all CAE stu the case, then academics from both types of institu dents are high on surface, whether end-on or tion should work to promote a deep approach to concurrent. learning, regardless of which staff do the actual teaching. It remains to be seen, however, whether These data, and those of the earlier study, J are of industrial and political factors will not in the event particular relevance when considering the recom prove to be those used in decision-making. mendations of two fairly recent Committees on teacher education in NSW, 17which, if implemented, would effectively restrict the preparation of teachers to the advanced education sector. A likely result of this would appear to be that the bulk of teachers References entering high schools by the late 1980s would be 1. Commonwealth Tertiary Education Commission, Re likely to be uninterested in their subject matter, port for 1982-4 Triennium, 1981, Vol. I, Part 2, para. 2.9. prone to use reproductive, short-term learning strategies, and dissatisfied and disillusioned with 2. Tertiary Education in Australia, Report of the Commit their own learning experiences as students. tee on the Future of Tertiary Education in Australia, Government Printing Office, Canberra, 1964. It is hard to imagine a teacher with a preference for the surface approach teaching in a manner that is 3. K. Collis, and J. Biggs, Matriculation, degree struc likely to stimulate a deep approach in his or her tures and levels of student thinking, Australian Journal students. Given, too, that deep or surface learning of Education (in press). strategies are acquired at least as early as high 4. J. Biggs, 'Student motivation and study strategies in school, and possibly even earlier 18, the decision to university and CAE populations', Higher Education locate teacher preparation in this or that sector Research and Development, 1,33-55, 1982. could have resounding effects on the development of deep or surface approaches in students. Such a 5. F. Marton, and R. Saljo, 'On qualitative differences in decision should surely be made on education learning!: Outcome and processes It: Outcome as a function of the learner's conception of the task.' British grounds, not industrial or political ones. Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, pp, 4-11, and The same point applies to enforced amalgamations pp. 115-127, 1976. between universities and colleges. It is difficult to conceive how any effective amalgamation could 6. P Thomas, and J. Bain, 'Consistency in learning strate gies', Higher Education, 11, 249-259, 1982. result in anything but a slide from the top left of our 8 9 ------
THE PRIVATE DOLLAR - GRAHAM W, JACKSON I think that the increasing reliance of aca @ the benefit may be long delayed, University Accountant demic institutions on commercial enterprises FUND RAISING FOR The Australian National University for the funding of research can only lead to @ if the donor has written into his or her will a disaster .. . large companies can change their bequest for some particular purpose connected COLLEGES AND '"0 money, money, money, I'm not necessarily one of those minds and have no public accountability what with the institution, there is a chance that the UNIVERSITIES who think thee holy ever. Large companies, however altruistic, are needs of the institution may change before the not responsible to the citizens as a whole: bequest is received. But I often stop to wonder how thou canst go out so fast governments are. when thou comst in so slowly." (Ogden Nash) Other Types of Funds: There are many other ways Commerce is concerned largely with the pro in which an educational institution can raise funds Introduction motion of consumer goods in one way or "$750,000 donation to the University of Sydney; matter is the failure of government grants to cover another: the concern of academic institutions including: courses for fees, conferences, letting of $250,000 donation to the University of Queens the real costs of current operations. This can be is with objective assessment. The two do not accommodation, hire of sports facilities, regular giv land", These are recent newspaper headlines which illustrated by considering just one major example. readily mix. 3 ing plans, support from philanthropic and welfare should make all colleges and universities think foundations, sponsorship of research and through about the potential of fund raising. Most Australian colleges and universities do not indirect cost money added to research grant depreciate their buildings and equipment. To this The important point is that institutions which seek applications. Fund raising by Australian colleges and universities extent, they are not reflecting their true costs of and accept private contributions should seriously is a relatively recent development. In other coun operations in their annual financial statements. In consider the motivations of those who contribute Participation in Fund Raising tries, such as the United States of America, the general, these institutions are also not creating and be wary of any risks which may be involved. A college or university should look to a number of activity has a long history. It has been suggested' reserves of cash for the replacement of buildings The concerns of Professor Bishop, while real, groups as potential partiCipants in the fund raising that fund raising for American higher education and equipment. As in the past, institutions are con should not discourage colleges and universities program. These groups include: dates back to the seventeenth century when Har tinuing to hope that the Commonwealth Govern from considering organised fund raising. vard University sent three clergymen off to London ment will supply the necessary funds for the • the members of the governing body, for money. One was hanged, one was never heard replacements as they fall due. There is no sign in the The Types of Funds which may be sought • the chief executive of again, but the third managed to struggle back foreseeable future that the necessary funds will be Funds may be sought for immediate benefit or for • members of the academic staff: postponed benefit The types of funds may be clas with five hundred pounds. available,.' It is generally agreed that the use of the academic sified as follows: Australian colleges and universities are being Attempts to seek funds from non-government sour staff should be limited to certain roles, such as the encouraged to think of fund raising from non ces will have their difficulties and dangers. These Outright Gifts of Cash or Negotiable Securities: provision of information on academic activities, as government sources by the real reductions now wi!! be considered later. However, the financial state These are obviously the most desirable type of these staff usually have neither the time nor the occurring in the size of the annual government of Australian colleges and universities in the early funds because of their immediate availability and expertise for fund raising, because they may be converted into forms which grants. In addition to the real reductions which are 1980s requires that serious consideration be given • the financial promotion office: occurring, part of the total funds available have to actively seeking sources of funds other than the give the best possible return. They also usually give been committed for specific purposes to satisfy the government grant. complete control to the institution. This is a group of specialist fund raisers who carry out the staff work for the fund raising programme. Commonwealth Government's election promises. Pledges: The pledge takes the form of a promissory The office may alternatively be known as the devel Some examples of such commitments have been: note, payable in instalments over a period of years. opment office. - research centres of excellence Some Theories on Fund Raising There is obviously delayed benefit to the institution - additional nurse education places The Implications of Fund Raising and there is the risk that the pledge will not be • professional fund raising consultants, -- development of community language courses. Fund raising by colleges and universities has a fulfilled, • graduates and friends of the institution. number of potential benefits. It also has some The real reduction in government grants and the potential risks. Annuities: An arrangement of this kind 4 provides Special mention should be made of the role of the practice of having tied amounts within those grants that the actual title to certain assets is transferred chief executive in fund raiSing. The chief executive reduces the autonomy of institutions. The Vice The benefits are: from the donor to the institution, in return for a already has many demands on his or her time. How Chancellor of the University of Sydney, Professor contract by which the institution guarantees to pay ever, just as many writers emphasise the need for • fund raising may give the institution a degree of a stated annual income to the donor during his life. John Ward, has commented as follows: independence which is otherwise lacking, involvement of the chief executive in corporate The assets given on an annuity basis are not avail planning, there are those who emphasise the key Unfortunately, what has long been predicted e fund raising may strengthen the graduates' bond able for the stipulated purposes until the contract role of the chief executive in fund raiSing. This view as the consequence of the growth of almost matures on the death of the annuitant. The institu was strongly put by James L. Fisher, President of total reliance on federal funding is now com to their alma mater, tion is expected to keep the assets of the fund the Council for the Advancement and Support of ing to pass. Universities are having their deci e fund raising fosters the community's interest in invested and to use the income from the invested sions taken from them, even in strictly Education (CASE), to a recent seminar on fund academic matters. The piper who pays wants the institution's affairs and prosperity. This com assets to meet the annual payments to the annuI raising conducted by the Conference of University increasingly to call the tune .. . We have to try munity interest may also have important political tant. The rate of payment to the annuitant, however, Administrators (U.K.), CASE, which is based in hard to increase our own independent value in these times when tertiary education is normally expected to be somewhat larger than Washington D.C., is primarHy concerned with advis funding.2 seems to be low in government priorities, the earnings of the invested assets. ing American colleges and universities about fund • fund raising can act as a barometer of the institu- raising . We will see later that the University of Sydney is tion's standing in the public eye. Bequests written into Wills: While bequests are Dr. Fisher stated: having notable success in fund raising. desirable and should be sought, they have a The Chief Executive is the essence of the Insti There may also be risks in fund raising. While peo number of disadvantages, viz: tution. He is its personification, and his leader The absence of any growth in government funds is ple like Professor Ward see independent funding as ship role is critical to the fUnd raiSing serious because it reduces the opportunities for a means of increasing an institution's autonomy, • the will is subject to change, program. The Chief Executive must have a new innovations. Reallocation of resources is a there are some who warn of the dangers of commer vision for the Institution, a clear concept of his solution in theory, but this is not easily achieved in cial sponsorship. Professor John Bishop of the U ni • the collection of bequests in favour of the institu Institution's mission. The Chief Executive, tion may be difficult, practice. A further serious, and perhaps neglected, versity of New England has said: more than anyone else, creates the climate in 10 11 For example, the University of Wollongong and recent years have begun to recognise the impor which fund raising takes place. What the two principal objectives - the development of a Monash University have appointed development tance of these groups in the life ofthe institution and Chief Executive says and does affects aca recently acquired university farm and extensions officers. also their importance in relation to fund raising. demic, fiscal and student affairs, and this, in and improvements to the University Centre (which part, establishes the context in which fund includes an 800-seat theatre, fine arts gallery and raising functions. Many more aspects of Australian fund raising could A Mode! for Fund Raising classics museum). At the time when the appeal was be mentioned. However, the final development that The stages in fund raising and the alternative fund Prospective donors want to hear what the reported, a little under $500,000 had been collected. will be mentioned is the formation of "Friends" raising activities can be presented in a mode! as Chief Executive wants to do with the Institu organisations. The Universities of Newcastle, Wol shown in Figure 1. tion, see how he manages its affairs) then Merchandising of expensive items has been under !ongong and Adelaide have each established such sense and finally measure the results. taken. The University of Sydney and the University organisations. At the University of Wollongong, the of Queensland have sold limited edition silver "Friends of the University" organisation is "aimed plates. The University of SydneyO offered silver Fisher went on to say: primarily at securing support for the University; suc plates to graduates, staff and students in 1980 and cess with fund raising will depend on the generation raised $35,000. The offer went out, limited to one per of support from the community, local industry and In the development and implementation of a customer, to some 70,000 people, of whom 2,370 good fund raising program, there are three leading citizens (local and national)". 13 key factors over which the Chief Executive took it up at $196 per plate. can exercise some influence and control: It will be seen from the above discussion of Austra Another form of fund raising is to seek sponsors for lian fund raising practice that there is already a (1) The Trustees (Members of the scholarships. A representative of the London good deal of experience developed. Administrators Governing Body of the Institution) Schoo! of Economics g has recently visited Australia therefore have opportunities to draw on the expe he can ensure that this group is com seeking this type of support. A similar approach is rience of those who have entered the field of fund prised of individuals who are eager to the establishment of a Fellowship fund. The West raising. playa leadership role in fund raising. ern Australian Institute of Technology 10 (WAIT) (2) The Staff - it is the Chief Executive's established a Fellowship fund to bring eminent Theory versus Practice in Fund Raising responsibility to recruit and build a international scholars to the Institute and the fund Given that Australian colleges and universities are strong, qualified fund raising staff. had reached $200,000 six months after it was primarily government funded, it will take a long time launched: The WAIT Council started the fund with a before non-government funds are of such a size as (3) The Budget - Adequate resources donation of $100,000 and then invited six sponsors to provide a significant degree of independence. of both people and money must be to contribute to the fund, four of whom donated However, a start should be made, and is being made available to accomplish the $20,000 each. They are the R and I Bank, Alcoa of made, in the process of acquiring non-government goaf.5 Australia Ltd., TVW Enterprises and Wesfarmers. funds. Some Australian educational administrators may An important aspect of fund raising is the establish Insofar as fund raising can act as a barometer of the have doubts about whether we are ready for these ment of the appropriate organisation. In Australia, institution's standing in the public eye, a degree of American ideas. However, in these difficult times, the usual approach has been the establishment of a competition may be introduced between institu we need to consider the ideas of specialists in the foundation. This approach has been used at the tions. Competition between Australian institutions field of fund raising. University of Sydney, the University of Adelaide, has not been a feature in the past and it may be a This section has considered just a few aspects of Deakin University and The Australian National good thing for the future. University. the theory of fund raising. There are many other There are possible dangers in fund raising and in issues which could be considered. These include: In the University of Adelaide Foundation 1', the man particular in relation to commercial sponsorship. • image-building as a prerequisite of fund raising: agement and conduct of the business affairs are the The solution may be to avoid dependence on one responsibility of a Board of Governors that has a supporter whether it be one government or one Fisher has suggested that: President, who is the Chancellor, and who acts as commercial sponsor. Ideally, anyone project Chairman of the Board, and a Vice-President, who should have at least a pool of sponsors. "Universities should concentrate on improv is the Vice-Chancellor, and who acts as Chairman in ing their image rather than looking for quick The best type of funds are those which are imme 6 the absence of the President. This is clearly a good returns from fund raising exercises. illustration of the chief executive playing a leading diately available for use or investment. This makes role in fund raising. public appeals an attractive proposition. Merchan dising can be lucrative, but is unlikely to be as • the organisation and management of fund The University of Adelaide Foundation has several profitable as a direct appeal. raising, classes of membership that are open to individuals, Fund raising is an activity for the top management • the staffing of fund raising, including the qualifi- firms, companies, institutions and associations. of the institution, including the governing body and cations and training of staff, Each member must make an annual donation to the Foundation. the chief executive. This view is receiving recogni • the motivation for giving. tion in Australian institutions. At the University of Sydney 1~, the recently formed Fund Raising in Practice Chemical Engineering Foundation is the seven There may be a useful role for external, professional Australian educational institutions, and particularly teenth foundation to be set up within the university, fund raising consultants. Deakin University has the universities, are now putting the theory of fund Firms belonging to the Foundation will pay an made use of a leading firm, National Fund RaiSing raising into practice. annual donation to the university ranging from Counsellors. Other institutions may choose in $2,000 for ordinary members to $7,000 for gover future to look to professional consultants. Public appeals have been launched by the Univer nors. sity of Sydney, the University of Tasmania and oth Graduates and friends are an important part of an ers. During 1980, the University of Tasmania 7 The appointment of specialised staff for fund rais institution's community. Australian institutions in launched an appeal to raise$1.2 million. There were ing is beginning to happen in Australian institutions, 13 12 Conclusions References The state of government funding suggests that ter W tiary institutions in Australia must seek a new bal The Times Higher Education Supplement, "Speakers 0:,.. to disclose the art of fund raising", 11 September 1981, "zUlW ance between government and non-government p6 :I" funding. Money available from non-government sources CQuid more than offset the decline in the 2. J, M. Ward, Comment by the Vice-Chancellor, The Uni " government grants. Institutions have the opportu versity of Sydney News, 13/24. 29 September 1981 nity to become financially stronger and at the same Ul time become more widely accountable. However, 3 J. Bishop, "University independence - from what and "W institutions must be careful not to become the ser from whom?". An address in the series: Australian CZ):Z-- Universities in the 1980s, Canberra Times, 9 June .....:::>~~ ,.. vants of new masters. For example, anyone project 1980, p 2. An edited version of this address was pub a:().. should ideally have at least a number of sponsors. lished in Vestes. 24. 1, 1981 . There are significant sums of money available in the 4. J.D. Russell, The Finance of Higher Education, Univer Australian community to support tertiary educa sity of Chicago Press, Chicago. Revised Edition 1954. tion. The question is how that money might be Second impression 1967, p 346. Z ";:: attracted to tertiary education. w 5. James L Fisher, "Presidential Leadership in Universi a: !n the past, Australian institutions have depended ties", Conference of University Administrators (UK.) ..'" on the government to meet the replacement costs Newsletter, November 1981, 28. P 2. " of capita! items. Thissupport may not be availab!e in 6. James L Fisher. "A tip from the image makers", The the future. The problem is current!y being con Times Higher Education Supplement, 18 September cealed by unrealistic accounting practices, such as S~ 1981,463, P 3. C) ()() cash accounting. A realistic picture of the financial z Zw state of institutions will only be revealed by the use 7. Report from the University of Tasmania, Administra iii ....ZUl of accrual accounting, which reports the cost of tive Staff Conference 1980 . :( it" depreciation and various commitments outstand 8. The Australian, 23 July 1980, p 13. a: ing. ~C Ul 9 "London School of Economics plots a financial stra ""Z w Fund raising should be an important and presti a::) > tegy", Australian Financial Review, 3 October 1980, :)IL ;:: gious activity in the life of an institution. It requires p 27. C)a: () the active involvement of the governing body of the _0 ,w 10. The Australian. 2 July 1980, p 12. ILIL III institution and of the chief executive. ...J 0 Detailed planning is required for fund raising. Each 11, Adelaide University Graduate Union Monthly Newslet C ter and Gazette, November 1981, p 10, "" Ul institution should develop an appropriate model for 0 _w u () its fund raising. This model can act as a guide and a :IE 11 '5. Q) ~ 12. The Gazette and Letter to Graduates (University of ~ ~E '" c ~c -wwz .. •• ., erno 0·- check-list for the total fund raising process. Sydney), 4. 2, September 1981, P 24 . «
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14 15 WOMEN IN AUSTRALIAN JENNIFER M. JONES and JOSIE CASTLE Female bachelor enrolments doubled in the'decade of men either tor service in the armed forces or University of Wollongong 1950-1960 (to 8,984) and doubled again in the next because of manpower restrictions on civilian UNIVERSITIES 1945-80 five years, to 17,989 in 1965, the highest rate of labour; thus the relative position of females shows increase for any five year period (see Table 1). The startling improvement. In 1945, tor every female improved partiCipation rate for females is not evi bachelor's degree conferred there were 2.2 male Since 1945 it has becomecommonr.>!acefor interna sector the most noticeable feature is the absolute dent until 1955, and is most marked by 1965, a degrees, a ratio never achieved before the war tional planners and policy makers to view education increase of numbers and the relative narrowing of period commensurate with the heightened federal years, and not again until 1970. (See Table 1). Enrol as a panacea for social and economic problems. In the discrepancy between males and females at all commitment following the Murray Report and the ments for higher degrees show the same distortion 1975, International Women's Year, the United levels, though most obviously at the lowest levels of increase in the numbers of Australian universities to in 1945 (male/female ratio, 5:2). But even the war did Nations, addressing itself to improving the status of undergraduates and junior staff. In the 30 years 13 in 1966. not eradicate the pattern of female under-represen tation. women, stated that education was 1950-1980 women increased their share of bachelor Women have also improved their position relative to enrolments from 18.3 per cent to 43.9 per cent; of men, despite large increases in the numbers of male This pattern is even more marked at honours level, the most effective channel for achieving postgraduate enrolments from 6.9 per cent to 28 per bachelor enrolments. In 1950, for every female where females do not maintain the same improve equality between men and women and ensur cent; of academic staffing from 11.9 percent in 1961 bachelor degree conferred there were 4.8 male ment. It is difficult to obtain figures for honours ing the full participation of women in to 16.2 per cent in 1980. degrees broken down by sex in the postwar period, development. I degrees; in 1960 the ratio was 1:3.4; in 1970, 1 :2.5, and by 1980, 1:1.4 (see Table 2). either from the Australian Bu reau of Statistics At bachelor level female enrolments increased from (ASS) or from individual universities, 7which makes 4,352 in 1950'to 56,955 in 1980. In the period 1955- Since then most western countries have enacted TABLE 2 comment on long run trends at best speculative. 1970 the increase for females was nearly double the anti-discrimination legislation and publicly commit DEGREES CONFERRED BY YEAR AND SEX, 1945-1980 Occasionally there are sample studies for individual rate for males: 552 per cent as against 274 per cent ted themselves to policies of equal pay and equal Doctorates years, e.g. 1970 and 1973 (see Table 3). Using these (see Table 1). The upsurge of feminine enrolments opportunity in employment. Such commitment has as a guide, some estimation of postwar trends and no doubt reflects changes in the career aspirations engendered an increasing volume of resarch on the Ratio: male/female relativities can be made. It seems that of women, in work force participation rates, and in Males Females Total unequal status of women in the home, workplace Year Males/ female gains at bachelor level are more faintly social expectations of women as wives and N % N % N % and education. If education is the key to improve Females reflected at honours level. The under-representa mothers; 6 tion of females in postgraduate enrolments lends ment in social status, then it is salutary now to ask 1945 17 100.0 0 0 17 100 what progress women have made towards equality TABLE 1 1950 42 93.3 3 6.7 45 100 14:1 some weight to this argument. with men in education itself, and to relate this to a 1955 92 91.1 9 8.9 101 100 10:1 ENROLMENTS, BACHELOR'S DEGREES, 1945-1980 TABLE 3 wider social context. 1960 148 93.1 11 6.9 159 100 13.4:1 1965 287 91.7 26 8.3 313 100 11:1 HONOURS DEGREES CONFERRED, MALES AND Ratio: 1970 602 91.0 61 9.0 663 100 9.9:1 FEMALES, SELECTED FIELDS This paper concentrates only on university educa Males Females Total 1975 703 88.3 93 11.7 796 100 7.6:1 Year Males/ 1970 tion and examines changes in the participation of N % N % N % Females 1980 721 81.3 166 18.7 887 100 4.3:1 women and changes in the proportions of men and 1945 8,163 69.0 3,664 31.0 11,827 100 2.2:1 Master's women at all levels of university education in Aus Field of Study Males Females Total 1950 19,376 81.7 4,352 18.3 23,728 100 4.5:1 N % N % N % tralia since World War Two. In general terms there 1955 16,960 78.7 4,579 21.3 21,539 100 3.7:1 has been a significant increase in the numbers of 30,182 77.1 8,984 22.9 39,166 100 3.4:1 Ratio: 1960 Males Females Total Arts· 459 55.9 362 44.1 821 100 1965 51,552 69.8 17,989 30.2 59,540 100 2.9:1 Year Males! women participating, and in the proportion of N % N % N % Humanities 0 0 1 100 1 100 women to men, at all levels of university education 1970 63,492 68.0 29,865 32.0 93,357 100 2.1:1 Females Lew 59 84.3 11 15.7 70 100 1975 74,793 62.3 45,326 37,7 120,119 100 1.6:1 Commerce 46 93.9 3 6.1 49 100 in the post war period. This period contrasts 1980 73,709 56.1 56,955 43.9 129,664 100 1.3:1 1945 109 79.6 28 20.4 137 100 3,9:1 Medicine/ 67 83.7 13 16.3 100 markedly with the long period of stasis in female 1950 166 86 27 14 193 100 6 :1 Surgery 80 1955 148 86.5 23 13.5 170 100 6,4:1 participation rates between 1920-1950, where the ENROLMENTS, HIGHER DEGREES, 1945~1980 Education 2 100 0 0 2 100 1960 223 87.8 31 12.2 254 100 7.2:1 Science 711 80.3 174 19.7 885 100 percentage of female university students hovered 1965 394 83.0 81 17.0 475 100 4.9:1 ~--.--."------.--.-.----~~-.------.-.-".-.".,,~ around twenty per cent at the beginning and end of Ratio: 1970 751 85.0 137 15.0 888 100 5.5:1 Total 1,344 70.4 564 29.6 1,908 100 Males Females the period 2 (with a slight relative increase in the war Year Tolal % Males/ 1975 1,308 83.9 252 16.1 1,560 100 5.2:1 N % N % years). N Females 1980 1,557 74.4 537 25.6 2,094 100 2.9:1 'Pass Degrees F 1912: M 1480. 1973 In economic terms the period 1920-1940 is one of 1945 90 60.0 36 40.0 126 100 2.5:1 Bachelors 1950 436 87.9 60 12.1 496 100 7,3:1 slow growth when annual increases of GOP did not 10.0 1,026 100 9.0:1 1955 923 90.0 103 Females exceed per cent and where there were intervals 1960 2,407 86.9 363 13.1 2,770 100 6.6:1 Ratio: Field 01 Study Males Tolal 2.2 Males Females Total N % N % N % 3 1965 5,238 84.9 931 15.1 6,169 100 5.6:1 Year Males! -.----~----- of negative growth. The years 1945-1975 were a N % N % N % ._----.--._------"-----.-"'.-.~ 1970 9,648 83.5 1,901 16.5 11,549 100 5.0:1 Females period of boom; annual rates of growth in GOP 16,676 3.6:1 Humanities 499 52 460 48 959 100 1975 13,044 78.2 3,632 21.8 100 Social! averaged 4.4 per cent, 4 making possible a high level 14,807 5.767 20,574 100 2.6:1 1945 875 65.9 453 34.1 1,328 100 1.9:1 1980 72.0 28.0 Behavioural 58 63 34 37 92 100 of federal funding for universities. Since 1975 with 1950 3,513 82.6 738 17,4 4,251 100 4.8:1 Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Staff and Students, 1955 2,490 79.4 647 20.6 3,137 100 3.8:1 Science the end of the long boom, federal funding has con 1945-1980. 1960 3,229 77.0 963 23.0 4,192 100 3.4:1 Lew 78 82.1 17 17.9 95 100 tracted, and the period of marked expansion for 1965 5,857 74.5 2,002 25.5 7,859 100 2.9:1 Education 8 61,5 5 38.5 13 100 But its coincidence with increased levels of federal 1970 9,684 71.9 3,800 28.1 13,484 100 2.5:1 Economics 134 84.3 25 15.7 159 100 universities is over. Are we now entering another Science (NEC.) 653 78.7 177 21.3 830 100 period of stasis for women in universities? Will the funding, and the expansion of the numbers of Aus 1975 14,033 64.0 7,877 36.0 21.910 100 1.8:1 15,199 10,660 Other Science 149 60.1 37 19.9 186 100 increased participation be maintained or gradually tralian universities from six to nineteen, suggests 1980 58.8 41.2 25,859 100 1,4:1 that significant improvement in the life chances of Total 1,803 72.8 672 27.2 2,475 100 diminish? -."".~.-.. women is a result of the sustained growth in the Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Staff and Students, ---.-.- 1945-1980. Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, University Statistics, In examining female participation in the university national economy in the thirty years after the war. Staff and Students, 1970, 1973. Note In all of the above comparisons 1950 is the starting The A.B.S. Statistical Categories often change, e.g. _in point of the five year series rather than 1945. Enrol- 1973, SOCial work and SOCial sCience are labelled SOCial ments and graduations in 1945 reflect the absence and Behavioural Science. Thus comparisons may not be 16 17 precise and should be interpreted cautiously. The figures fields, Indeed, there is no faculty where women cent, and a substantial increase to 25.6 per cent in the decade '1970-1980. '" used are lor first. second and third class honours (A. B.S. exercise a monopoly at honours level as do men, for 1980 (see Table 2). With or without higher degrees, women were ligures do separate theJirsts. but place seconds and thirds example, in Engineering. Even in Arts, women face mainly recruited to university staff at junior levels, in the one category) There are, therefore, substantial gains for women at In 1970 women gained only 29.6 per cent of all stiff competition not only from other women, but especially as tutors. Thus, in 1961, 46.7 per cent of from males. master's level, but the implications for the status of al! female university staff were tutors, 39.7 per cent honours bachelor's degrees and 27.2 per cent in women must be treated with caution since the 1973 (see Table 3). Even in Arts, where females took in 1970, and 30.7 per cent in 1980. 1~ Throughout the The skewed distribution of females across faculties increase in the female share took place at a time period, around 10 per cent of all male staff were the majority of pass degrees (1,912 as against 1,480 means a smaller pool of good honours graduates to when the value of master's degrees was declining, for the males) they gained only 44 per cent of tutors (1961 : 10.3 per cent; 1980: 8.6 per cent)." A provide candidates for postgraduate training; but being overtaken by the rising prestige of the Ph.D. greater proportion of female than male staff now honours degrees. In Science (19.7 per cent), Law as a qualification for an academic career. It is possi the numbers of women enrolling for higher degrees cluster at the next lowest grade that of lecturer, (15.7 per cent) and Commerce (6.1 per cent), ble, that the master's field became more open to has nevertheless increased since 1945. In 1980 which probably accounts for the declining propor women were only a small proportion of the honours women took 41.2 percent of bachelor's degrees and females because of male desertion. graduates. Despite increases in female participation tion of women at tutorial level. In 1980 a report from 23.6 per cent of higher degrees; in 1950 the percen the University of Melbourne showed that 83.5 per rates overall, they were not proceeding to honours tages were 17.4 per cent and 12.2 per cent respec In 1980, 18.7 per cent of doctorates went to women, degrees at the same rate, at least in the early '70s. treble their percentage share in 1950 (6.7 per cent) cent of female staff were at lecturer level or below. tively (see Tables 1 and 2). The rate of increase of Only 43.5 per cent of male staff were in this cate female participation at both levels is therefore sim (see Table 2). The growth in the female share at Another factor which affects the proportion of doctoral level is more uneven than growth at mas gory. A higher percentage of female staff is un female honours graduates is the distribution of ilar - more than double at each level. The net result tenured, 71.6 per cent, compared with 37.5 per cent for women is much less significant at higher degree ters level. In 1955, the female share of doctorates females across faculties. It is well established that grew to 8.9 per cent, but fell in 1960t06.9percent, in of males, that is three times as many men than women confine their studies to certain subject level because of the much smaller starting base. effect back to 1950 levels. And in the fifteen years women had tenure. 16 areas, and that this pattern begins at secondary Men have never taken less than 75 per cent of mas 1950-1965, women made slow progress at doctoral The tendency for female staff to cluster at the lower level. 8 At university they cluster in Arts and Social ter's degrees, or 81 per cent of doctorates conferred level. The five years 1975-1980 was the time of grea levels has been a marked trend since 1961, and Science and are most markedly absent from fields by Australian Universities in any year since 1945 test growth; women doubled their percentage share therefore the decline in the percentage of female like Engineering. This pattern of female concentra (Table 5). As Over III remarks, of all master's degrees to 18.7 per cent. Most of the increase comes in the staff from the all-time peak of 17.5 per cent in 1975 to tion is the same in broad outline for the whole and doctorates awarded in Australia since the five years 1975-1980 (11.7 per cent in 1975). 16.2 per cent in 1980 is probably directly attributable postwar period. In 1980, as in 1950, most female 1940s, men have gained more than 80 per cent and to the cutbacks in tertiary education funding, which university students enrolled in Arts: 2,520 of the 90 per cent respectively. In 1945 there were no Levels of participation at postgraduate level are have hit hardest at tutorial levels. The downward 4,352 female enrolments were in Arts. The 1980 female doctorates, but 20 per cent of master's important in determining access to university teach trend began in 1978 and is unlikely to be arrested in figures show 9,064 out of 20,276. g But in 1950 there degrees went to females. In 1955, the percentage ing positions. Over argues that the current ratio of the foreseeable future, despite increased female were proportionately fewer females enrolled in the was only a little higher (23 per cent), and represents women to men academics matches the participa participation at postgraduate level. There is stil! a behavioural sciences and education. (See Table 4.) a drop from 1950 (27 per cent). tion rates of the two sexes in postgraduate training heavy imbalance between female participation at in Australia since the war. 11 This argument needs the lowest level of the university hierarchy, bachelor There have been substantial changes in the propor TABLE 5 qualification, as the following table shows. tion of females to males within faculties. In Arts, DEGREES CONFERRED BY YEAR AND SEX, 1945-1980 enrolments, and their representation on the staff. women have moved from the minority, 38 per cent, Table 6 In 1980 women were 43.6 per cent of bachelor enrol to the majority, 63 per cent, of students. In 1980, as DOCTORATES MASTER'S BACHELOR'S Women as % of Academic Staff In Australian Universities and ments and 16.2 per cent of staff. Men made up 56 in 1950, they are in a minority 'In all other fields, but Year Males %Females% Males %Females% Males %Females% as % of Doctorates and Master's Degrees Conferred: 1960~1980 ------_.- per cent of bachelor enrolments and 83.8 per cent of the relative proportions have altered. In Medicine, 1960 1961 1965 1970 1975 1980 staff. Given the economic recession and cutbacks women have moved from 12.4 per cent of students 1945 100 0 79.6 20.4 65.9 34.1 1950 93.3 6.7 86 14 82.6 17.4 Staff 11.9 12.5 13.6 17.8 16.2 in tertiary funding it is unlikely that these relativities to a substantial 39 per cent. In Law, from 5 per cent 1955 91.1 89 86.5 13.5 79.4 20.6 Doctorates 6.9 10.4 8.3 9.0 11.7 18.7 will alter in favour of females in the immediate to 34.7 per cent. In no faculty has the female propor 1960 931 6.9 87.8 12.2 77 23 Masters 12.2 9.1 17.0 15.0 16.1 25.6 Doctorates future. tion decreased: 1965 91.7 8.3 83 17 74.5 25.5 10.2 9.5 13.6 12.8 14.6 23.6 1970 91 9 85 15 71.9 28.1 & Masters 1975 88.3 11.7 83.9 16.1 64 36 Table 4 Note: In comparing staffing levels with higher degrees awarded in Conclusion 1980 81.3 18.7 74.4 25.6 58.8 ----_._----41.2 Australia, there is an assumption that staff are largely recruited The long term trend since World War II shows Female Enrolments by Faculty· from Australian trained postgraduates. Over (op. cit.. p. 169) cites 1950: % 1980: % Source Australian Bureau 01 Statistics, University Statistics. evidence that this has been the pattern of staff recruitment. with increased female participation at all levels of univer Staff and Students. 1945-1980. Arts 38 63 some input from overseas sity education, but there are still heavy imbalances L~ 5 M7 Source: ASS Statistics, 1960, 1961, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, of male/female numbers at al! levels: least at the Commerce 17.6 26 Arguably, 1945 and 1950 reflect the enrolment patt bottom - undergraduates; greatest at the top - Education 21 65.6 The match is by no means perfect, for men hold Science 12.4 36 erns of wartime when women took up their studies professors. The reasons for increased participation Medicine 12.4 39 relatively more staff positions compared with their are complex, butthe main cause of the rapidly rising in unusual circumstances ~ the relative absence of share of postgraduate degrees, and while this was Engineering .04 4.7 men, the increased importance of women as female participation rates appears to be the long 'adapted from figures in ABS University Statistics 1950. 1980. true for women in 1961, 1970 and 1975, it was not boom itself. workers in a period of desperate labour shortages, true in 1965, 1978 and 1980. Other variables, how the lifting of some occupational and familial restric ever, ensure that the correlation is not perfect. First, The low and unchanging levels of female participa In Law, women are just over one third of students, tions on women, and an enhanced social status. staffing levels reflect the reality of much earlier peri tion in the period of poor economic growth, 1920- compared with one twentieth in 1950. In Science, These temporary alterations to the social environ ods, since the age of most staff is between 35 and 1940, strengthens this argument. I n the eighties the ment provided some women with wider career the increase is from just over one tenth to just over 50. 12 Second, in the 60s and early 70s, some staff at effects of the recession which began in 1975 are one third. Despite this more even faculty mix, there choices and altered views of participation in the tutor, and even lecturer level, were recruited with already apparent in lowered female staffing levels, workforce. is still a heavy concentration of female talent in good honours degrees, because of the demand although bachelor enrolments are holding. As the certain fields, making competition in these areas The female percentage of master's degrees remains created by an unprecedented growth in enrol recession deepens, will other gains be maintained? tougher, and probably causing a greater number of at about 14 per cent until 1960, where there is a drop ments. In the decade 196(}-1970, enrolments for all It seems doubtful that education can be "a channel promising women to drop out As already noted, to 12.2 per cent, despite an absolute increase in degrees increased two and a half times, compared for achieving equality" between men and women very few women are proceeding to honours in these enrolments. In 1965 there is an increase to 17 per with 1.7 times in the decade before, and 1.4 times in without the cushion of economic growth, and when 18 19 George Szlawskl even the heightened participation rates since 1945 10. R. Over, "Women Academics in Australian Universi THE UNIVERSITY VISITOR: ties", Australian Journal of Education, 25, 2, 1981, Senior Industrial Officer have not brought the same improvement to the A GUEST FROM ANOTHER Health Commission of Victoria status of women in society at large. p. 170. (Formerly FAUSA Industrial Officer) References 11. ibid., p. 170. AGE 1. Cited in E. Byrne, Women and Education, Tavistack, London, 1978, p. 11. 12. ibid., p. 174.
2. Sydney URiversity Union, Recorder, July 1982. 13. Enrolments, all degrees: Australian universities, being largely modelled on ment in the Court of Kings Bench but which was 1950 1960 1970 1980 their British counterparts, have in the majority of subsequently approved by the House of Lords 3. E. Boehm, Twentieth Century Economic Develop 24,224 41,836 108,906 151,238 cases acquired the office of University Visitor. The when reversing the judgement of that Court, stated: ment in Australia, Longman, 1971. ASS University Statistics, 1950-1980. purpose of this paper is to examine the need, the The office of Visitor by the common law is to 4. ibid. implications and the extent of recourse to the Visitor 14. ibid., 1961, 1980. in Australian universities so that an opinion can be judge according to the statutes of the cof/ege and to expel and deprive upon just occasions 5. 1945 figures are excluded from the long term compari formed about the usefulness of this office. and to hear appeals of course. And from him sons because of the relative absence of men in and him only the party grieved ought to have wartime. 15 Table a HISTORICAL BACKGROUNO Teaching and Research Staff, Universities redress; and in him the founder hath reposed The function had its origins in the remote pastas an so entire confidence that he wif/ administer 6. J. Jones and F. Lovejoy, ''The perceived role of Austral Males Females essential ingredient of the Constitutions of eleemo ian female academics", The ANZ Journal of Socio justice impartially that his determinations are Tutors etc. Total synary institutions which appear to be one of the logy, 16, 1980, pp. 97, 98. Tutors Total final and examinable in no other Court Male Siaff Female Staff earliest examples of corporate identities. The dis whatsoever. J 7. Sydney University does not have figures for male/fe No. % No. % No % No % tinction between eleemosynary and other types of In substance the English Courts still follow the male honours degrees until 1980. 1961 301 10.2 2,952 100 187 46_7 400 100 corporations was succinctly summarised by Shel gravemen of that statement. In more recent times 1964 501 12.3 4,063 100 245 42.8 574 100 ford in his Law of Mortmain1 as follows: the law pertaining to Visitors was consolidated and 1970 793 12.5 6,366 100 398 39_7 1,002 100 8. J. O'Neill, "Women in Biological Sciences in Victorian enlarged upon by Sir Richard Kingersly VC. in the Universities in 1981: An attempt at Perspectives", 1980 770 8.6 8,983 100 534 30.7 1,739 100 Lay corporations are again subdivided into ANZAAS paper, May 1982, is a recent study confirm Source: ASS University Statistics, 1963, 1964, 1970, 1980 two classes, eleemosynary and civil, Eleemo case of Thomson and University of London.4 ing this. synary corporations are such as are consti Whatever relates to the internal arrangements 16. Melbourne University, Sectional Report No.3, 1980: tuted for the perpetual distribution of the free and dealings with regard to the government 9. ABS, University Statistics 1950-1980, AGPS, Canberra. "Women Academics in the University, 1974-79". alms, or bounty of the founder of them, to and management of the house, of the domus, such persons as he has directed. These are of of the institutions is properly within the juris two general descriptions; hospitals for the diction of the Visitor, and orlly under the juris maintenance and relief of poor and impotent diction of the Visitor and this Court will not persons,' and colleges for the promotion of intervene in those matters; but when it comes learning, and the support of persons engaged to a question of right of property, or rights as in literary pursuits; of which the greater between the University and a third person number are within the Universities, being cor dehors the University, or with regard, it may porations within a corporation of which they be, to a breach of trust committed by the form a component part; and other colleges corporation that is the University, and so on, are out of the Universities and are not neces or any contracts by the corporation, not being sarily connected with them. matters relating to the mere management and arrangement and details of their domus then It is unclear exactly when the divisions between indeed this Court wifl interfere,S various corporations occurred but the differences were well established in England at the beginning of From these two quotations, but especially from the the 19th century so that ecclesiastical and eleemo latter, a number of conclusions can be drawn about synary corporations were subject to visitation the extent of the visitorial jurisdiction before the whereas other lay corporations were not. A further beginning of the 20th century. difference that can be observed between the two • In the beginning, only a member of the corpora kinds of corporations subject to the Visitor's juris tion can instigate a complaint orappeal, Thus, in the diction can be seen in the type of a person first instance, the jurisdiction of the Visitor is con appointed to that office, Whereas the ecclesiastical fined to questions arising between members of the corporations followed theestablished hierarchy, the corporation and cannot be invoked in any disputes eleemosynary corporations left the identity of the arising between corporations and non-corpora Visitor up to the legislator who passed the enabling tions. This is established Jaw and is stated, among legislation. others, by Bridge. 6
This is but a brief historical outline of the rise of the Visitorial jurisdiction is therefore essentially visitorial jurisdiction. Any such historical synopsis limited to corporations and does not extend to would be incomplete, however, without a review of other persons within or outside the corpora the early cases which shaped the extent of the Vis tion. itor's Office. Thus, for example, a dispute between a laboratory One of the earliest cases to define the powers of a technician and the university that employs him can Visitor was Phillips and Bury.2Sir John Holt J.e., in a not be settled by a Visitor but recourse must be judgement which was actually a dissenting judge- made to the appropriate court.7 20 21 To avoid misunderstandings it must be made clear Such are the limits of the Visitor's jurisdiction as a Section 30 provides for a Visitor along the same ® Oeakin University that the rule that the Visitor's functions can only be result of the historical formulations of the office and lines as the University of Sydney Act. Enabling Act; Deakin University Act, 1974. involved in questions between corporators, does the early cases fleshing out its duties. Since then, not exclude the exercise of his or her jurisdiction in we have seen a number of changes in the nature \9 University of New England Section 3(2) incorporates the University. Section cases where corporators challenge their expulsion and the method of definition of the office in Enabling Act; University of New England Act of 3(1) provides that the University shall consist of from the corporation, as where a member of aca Australia. 1953. such members of academic staff as may be pre demic staff questions the right or the justice to expel scribed. Section 38 provides for a Visitor. or remove them from the position which would The Visitor's Office in Australian Universities Section 4(3) provides incorporation for the Univer make them a corporator; fortheir status as a corpor A brief outline of the relevant legislation is provided sity, Section 15(1), includes academic staff as South Australia ator is then at issue. Conversely, it is within the for all Australian universities. As the matter of corpo members of the Convocation. * University of Adelaide Visitor's jurisdiction to determine whether an appli rate identity and the extent to which members of Enabling Act: University of Adelaide Act, 1971-1978. cation to gain corporate status has been wrongly academic staff are corporators is important, these There is no specific provision for a Visitor in the This Act repealed the previous Act of the same sections are included as well. Enabling Act but specific persons are mentioned as name which was in force from 1935-1964. rejected. Hence one of the functions of the Visitor is s to decide all questions of disputed membership of University Ombudsmen in the list of apPointments. New South Wales It is interesting to note that in the 1980 CalendarSlthe Section 4(1) provides for a continuation of the Uni the corporation. • University of Sydney Governor of New South Wales is mentioned as the versity being a body corporate. Pursuant to section • The Visitor exercises a special jurisdiction over all Enabling Act; the University and University Col Visitor under the section headed Officers and Staff 18, the Senate is established which includes all private disputes within the corporation according to leges Act of 1900 which was enacted pursuant to a of the University. In 1980, as today, no specific graduates of the University and all persons in full the special statutes and code of law governing the Royal Charter of the University of Sydney dated 27 enactment was provided for the Visitor in the ena time employment who are graduates of other uni corporation. February, 1858. bling Act and one can only speculate why that entry versities or who have attained equivalent qualifica was dropped from the 1982 Calendar. tions. Section 20 provides for the establishment of Thus the principle that the Visitor can only be con By section 6 the University of Sydney is incorpo the Visitor's office. cerned with the domestic affairs of the corporation rated. By section 7 the Senate is established as the • University of Woflongong and the corporators carries with it two limitations governing body. Enabling Act: University of Wollongong Act of 1972. e Flinders University of South Australia Enabling Act; The Flinders University of South Aus over the range of matters that can be dealt with. The Section 17 states: first is that matters arising out of any dispute Section 9(1) provides incorporation for the Univer tralia Act. 1966-1973. between the corporation or corporators and outside The Governor of New South Wales shall be sity. Section 29 allows academic staff to become members of the Convocation. Section 36 provides Section 3(3) establishes a corporate identity for the parties, or concerning the rights and liabilities of the visitor of the University, with authority to University whereas section 3(2) states that the Uni outsiders in relation to the institution or its corpora do all things that pertain to visitors as often as for the appOintment of a Visitor along the same lines he deems meet. as the other Acts. versity shall consist of a Council and a Convocation. tors, cannot be the subject matter of the Visitor's Section 17 outlines the membership of the Convo determination. In chapter 5 of the By-laws the members of the Victoria cation which includes all academic staff. Section 24 The second limitation is that matters arising convocation are deemed to include fellows, officials • Monash University provides for the Governor of South Australia to be a between the corporation and its corporators alone deemed to have the same rights within the Univer Enabling Act; Monash University Act of 1958. Visitor. which concern compliance with the demands of the sity as masters and doctoral graduates, master and doctoral graduates of the University and bachelor Section 3(2) provides incorporation for the Univer Queensland public law, that is to say law that is applicable to all sity. Section 3(1) outlines what the membership of e University of Queensland persons, or to classes of persons without regard to graduates and their equivalents. Exemption is pro vided (section 1(2)) on the grounds of conscience. the University is which includes professors and Enabling Act; University of Queensland Act, 1965- their character as insiders of the institution, travel members of the teaching staff and there is also a 1981 which consolidated and repealed a series of 11 beyond the limits of the Visitor's jurisdiction. • University of Newcastle provision for some members of Council to be Acts going back to 1909 • Thus, with respect to the maintenance of order, the Enabling Act; University of Newcastle Act of 1964. elected from the incumbent professors and other By section 4(2) the University is incorporated. Sec teaching staff of the University.lO Section 42 pro Section 5(1) establishes a corporate identity for the Visitor has cognisance only of offences against the University. Section 5(2) outlines the composition of foundation instrument and not offences against tion 14(1) includes academic staff as members of vides for the Visitor to be the Governor of Victoria the Convocation. and uses an identical formulation to the other acts. the body corporate and Section 15 establishes a some other statute or at common law. That is not to Convocation which includes all full-time members say that an overlap may not exist between the com • University of Melbourne of academic staff. No specific statutory provision mon law or other statutes and the statute of the Section 31 provides for the Visitor along the same Enabling Act; Melbourne University Act of 1958 can be found in the University Act although, on foundation, but rather that the founding Act con lines as the University of Sydney Act. which consolidated the previous Acts and which page 9 of the 1982 Calendar12 the Visitor is specified tains a reasonably exhaustive list of matters that a was enacted pursuant to a Royal letters Patent as the Governor of Queensland, Visitor may properly deal with. These matters must • University of New South Wales issued on 14 March, 1859. impose duties that are owed between corporators Enabling Act; University of New South Wales of • James Cook University of North Queensland or to the corporation itself rather than to the public 1968 which consolidated four prior acts, the earliest Section 4(1) provides a corporate identity for the Enabling Act; James Cook University of North at large. This would be very much a matter of being enacted in 1949. University. The same section outlines the member Queensland Act 1970-1981. degree and would depend on the interpretation of ship of the corporation which includes members of the founding Act. There is no provision for a Visitor in the Enabling the academic staff. Section 47 provides for a Visitor Section 4(2) provides incorporation and Section Act. Although there are provisions for the election 4(1) outlines the membership of the corporation o Lastly, by the very nature of determining his/her to the University. of members to the Council, there is no convocation which includes academic staff. No provision is duties the Visitor has to interpret the founding act of academic staff as such in the enabling Act or • La Trobe University made for the Visitor in the enabling Act, the statutes and ascertain what rights and obligations flow statutes or in the by-laws enacted thereunder. Enabling Act: La Trobe University Act of 1964. and by-laws enacted thereunder or even, as is the therefrom and whether these rights and obligations case at the University of Queensland and the Uni involve his/her jurisdiction. Such issues are, of • Macquarie University Section 3(2) provides for incorporation of the Uni versity of New England, under the heading outlining course, threshold matters and, if wrongly deter Enabling Act; Macquarie University Act of 1964. versity. Section 3(1) states that some members of the officers of the University. mined, would give rise to an appeal to an appro Section 4 provides a corporate identity for the Uni academic staff are corporators and section 26' priate court, most likely a Supreme Court of the versity. Section 14(1) includes academic staff of the establishes a Convocation. Section 42 provides for f) Griffith University State or the Territory. University in a convocation. a Visitor to the University. Enabling Act: Griffith University Act 1971-80. 22 23 Section 4(2) provides incorporation whereas Sec No provision is made for a Visitor. only solid support cited is a passage from Shelford comes to trial, is that a Visitor has a right to dis tion 4(1) specifies the membership of that corpora Conclusions on extent of provisions which states that a school which is founded by charge the functions of his office even if no specific tion. Given the above information, a number of conclu charter or by an Act of Parliament must be regu provision is made in the enabling act but to read lated, in the first instance by the charter and not by down the importance of the Visitor and the matters Section 19 establishes a Convocation of the Univer sions can be made about the extent of statutory provisions for the Visitor, namely: application to a Court of Equity16. Since that article over which he can preside. sity (includes academic staff). No provision has no cases have arisen which would settle this been made in the statute for a Visitor and none has • Only six out of nineteen universities do not have a question. Case law on the Office of the University Visiter in been appoirrted. Visitor specifically provided for in the enabling Act. Australia Of the six, a further two (University of Queensland Bridge is not very helpful on this question, although To determine the direction of this jurisdiction, as Western Australia he does stateY and until 1980, University of New England) have a well as its future role, wherever possible, only the til University of Western Australia Visitor specified in the body of the University most recent cases are examined and only those Enabling Act; University of Western Australia Act of But the modern universities, being eleemony concerning academic staff. As a corollary, a brief 1911. Calendar under a heading of "senior officers" of the sary corporations, have, or are entitled to University. have, a Visitor. examination is undertaken of the attempts made to Section 5 provides that the Senate shall be the use the fact that a Visitor is specifically provided for governing body of the University. By Section 6 the • Most universities have a Convocation of some Where no such petition has been received and in a number of universities as an argument against type which outlines the membership of the corpora no appointment made the sovereign, as the jurisdiction of the state industrial commissions University is made a body corporate. Section 17 founder, is the Visitor. establishes a Convocation and outlines its member tion, but only eleven or so of the universities have all over the universities concerned. ship; all members of the Senate, all graduates of the academic staff included as corporators. Other uni Although these two quotations by no means settle versities have a membership which is predomi Visitor as an industrial arbitrator University and members of other institutions that the matter, they tend to indicate that a right for the In two recent cases, the university administrations are authorised to grant degrees. nantly based on persons that have graduated from Visitor to perform the duties of the office can be the university or possess equivalent qualifications. sought to obtain exemption from the jurisdiction of inferred from the nature of the institutions. These the state industrial commissions by arguing: Section 7 provides for a Visitor along similar lines as Some confusion could arise because of this multi influences are not placed any more highly than as provided in other Acts. plicity of entrance requirements for members of an indication of the view the British Courts would • that the University Act is a special Act which vests academic staff to become corporators. These provi take if asked to decide this matter. A similar view is in its governing body an exclusive power to deter • Murdoch University sions have certainly impeded an easy identification Enabling Act; Murdoch University Act. 1973-1978. taken by Davidson J. in Ex parte McFayden18 where mine all conditions of employment for its academic of persons within the university who are or are not he states: staff and by the maxim of generalia specialibus non Section 4(2) provides incorporation for the Univer eligible for corporate status. It is interesting to note derogant the special provisions of an earlier act do sity. Section 19(2) outlines the membership of the that some universities have undergraduate students It is true that, where no visitor is appointed to not repea! the general provisions of a later statute. Convocation which includes, among others, all per as corporators, but the majority do not. an eleemonysary corporation, or if the office sons that are full-time members of academic staff. becomes vacant, his duties fall to be dis • that the Visitor of the University has exclusive If ever the Visitor's Office becomes a successful charged, in England, by the King, who acts in jurisdiction to determine any dispute between the forum for the settlement of industrial disputes, the that connection through the Court of Kings Section 9 provides for a Visitor in the person of the 19 University and the academic staff employed by it. Governor of Western Australia. entry requirements for corporate membership Bench. ought to be streamlined and basically include the This leaning towards the presence of the Visitor in • that academic staff are not engaged in an industry Tasmania governing, teaching, research and studying popula universities where no specific provision has been or a calling and their work cannot be deemed • University of Tasmania tion of the university. made must be set off against the reluctance of the industrial. Enabling Act; the Tasmanian University Act of 1889. Australian Courts to give as wide powers to the The most recent consolidation occurred in 1951. • All nineteen universities mentioned are corpora Visitor as is the case in England. To use the words of In the first case, the University of Western Australia tions of a eleemonysary type and as such, are eligi Halse Rogers J, in McFayden's case: Academic Staff Association (Union of Workers) Section 4(2) provides incorporation for the Univer ble for the visitorial jurisdiction. applied for an award before the Industrial Commis sity. Section 4(3) provides that the University shall I think also that probably nobody, until Ex sion. The University then gave notice that it wanted consist of a Council and a Convocation. Section 10 • All Visitors cited in the above pages are State parte King; Re University of Sydney (1943) 44 the three pOints mentioned above discussed as outlines the membership of the Convocation which representatives of the Crown. S.R. 19 ever thought that there was any possi threshold issues. The matter came up before Com bility of intervention by the Visitor. With regard includes all permanent members of the teaching • Given the wide formulation of the visitorial pow missioner Collier in the first instance who found for staff of the University that are employed on a full to the section dealing with the appointment of the Staff Association. The University appealed and ers, the Visitor specified for Australian universities the visitor.. ~ it was never contemplated by time basis. must be a general visitor.. The question is usually the legislature or by anybody from the time' the matter was heard before the Full Bench of the settled by the formulation of the visitorial powers in the Act was passed until quite recently, that it Western Australia Industrial Appeal Court. In a deci Section 16 provides for a Visitor in the person of the 23 13 did anything more than give the Governor an sion handed down on 5 June, 1979 all Justices Governor of Tasmania. the enabling act. The courts have generally taken the Visitor's power as general in absence of any official connection with the University."20 found for the University on the third ground above 14 and only one Justice addressed himself to the viSI Australian Capital Territory express formulation. That would mean that the Visitor, at the direc • Australian National University torial question, Wallace J, had this to say on the Given the third point above the question arises tion of this Court, might have to turn himself importance of the Visitor as an arbitrator; Enabling Act; Australian National University Act of into a Court to examine domestic matters 1940-1960. whether in fact the State representative of the which obviously are properly within the juriS ... whifsr .there is no express power to register Crown has the right, irrespective of any statutory diction firstly of the Faculty and then of the a group of academics as an association akin Section-4(2) provides for the incorporation of the pronouncements, to become a Visitor based on the Senate of the University.21 to that of the respondent or to settle disputes University. Section 4(1) provides that the University rights flowing to him/her because of the nature of between such an association and its senate This, of course, seems to be exactly the function by means of conciliation, arbitration and shall consist of a Council, a Convocation, graduate the institution. Or, to put it another way, would a mediation, it does possess a Visitor having the and under-graduate members of the University. member of the corporation at, say, the University of which the Visitor is meant to discharge, as outlined 22 exclusive jurisdiction to hear and determine Section 16 outlines the membership of the Convo New England, be able to invoke the Visitor's jurisdic in Thomson and University of London. complaints and appeals relating to the inter tion to settle an internal dispute? Matthews15 is cation which includes graduates of this and other Thus this matter remains undecided but, in my nal affairs, membership, government and management of the appellant. 24 universities and members of Council but there is no somewhat inclined to the view that universities that opinion, the most likely course for the Australian blanket provision for academic staff to be admitted do not appoint a Visitor do have one as a matter of Courts to adopt, if a case raiSing these issues even This would seem to be cold comfort to the Staff as members. strict law but the matter is by no means settled. The 24 25 .- ...... -.-.------.. ~------.------~
Association, especially given the fact that a Visitor tor at the University of Melbourne and concluded Wallace, J. seems to have followed the spirit of the definition of the corporators under its influence, do could manifestly not provide them with a resolution generally that the members of the University, if they British cases and what appears to be the correct we need a Visitor at all? of their application. come within the ambit of the legislative powers of interpretation of the Visitor's jurisdiction - to look the University must do so at their own risk and in full at the fact whether the dispute is internal to the I believe we do. The Visitor still serves a useful The second case arose in New South Wales where appreciation of the extent of control the University workings of the university and is between corpora function, especially in States where the prospective the University of Newcastle disputed the ability of can exercise over them, including the jurisdiction of tors rather than whether it is contractual in scope or petitioner does not have any access to the state the University Academic Staff Association of NSW, the Visitor.29 not. With respect, this sort of interpretation severely industrial commission. I believe, however, that this a registered State union, to apply for an award. The limits the usefulness of the Visitor as a majority of ancient office should be streamlined and rationa The Federation of Australian University Staff Asso points of objection taken were similar to the ones in cases arising in modern universities can be classi lised as follows: the Western Australian case. The case was origi ciations recently instituted a case on behalf of a fied as contractual. nally heard before Macken J. of the Industrial Com lecturer whose tenure application was refused by II By ensuring that all full-time members of aca mission who found on 5 May 1981 forthe union. The Council. The Federation, on legal advice decided to In any case, in the matter heard before the Visitor on demic staff are included as members of the University of Newcastle then appealed to the Full commence the case by a writ of certiorari in the 5 May 1980 the Visitor held for the University in the corporation. Supreme Court. The case has not come up for Bench of the Industrial Commission. matter in which he had jurisdiction. In the course of • By ensuring that the Visitor does not have any hearing yet, but it is interesting to note that the his decision he stated: In a joint judgement, the Industrial Commission University's Statement of Defence included the fol jurisdiction over matters involving logs of claims or 25 awards for all members of academic staff. The fact handed down its decision on 26 October 1981, and lowing ground: In my ruling on the preliminary point of juris found for the union on all of the jurisdictional pOints diction on 12 December 1979 I accepted that a that such matters are generally brought by the Staff in dispute. ... the matters complained of by the Plaintiff Visitor has no authority to interfere with the Association which is not a corporator should suffi in this action concern the internal affairs or exercise of a discretionary power unless that ciently distinguish this case from the case of an The Full Bench, at the end of their decision outlined government of Deakin University and are power has been exercised 'from motives, ille individual bringing a petition before the Visitor (in what they considered to be the scope of the visitor within the exclusive jurisdiction of its Visitor. gal or corrupt'.32 which case the Visitor would have jurisdiction). ia! jurisdiction and then stated; The case is scheduled for hearing sometime in Needless to say that it is very difficult to find for the • By applying the test as outlined in Thomson and As far as claims and complaints are con 1983. petitioner if that sort of test is used. the University of London.J4 ! would go as far as to cerned, the jurisdiction of a visitor is confined Lastly, we have the following statement as to the say that no appeal should lie from the Visitor's deci to hearing and determining claims and com Most recently of all was the case of Murdoch Uni versity v Bloom and Another.30 In that case a visitorial jurisdiction given in a recent case: sion provided that it is made within the jurisdiction plaints concerning the internal affairs of the as defined. corporation. Under the University's Act the member of the university staff sought to present a When the question is whether trust has been professors are included in the corporators a petition to the Visitor and the University sought a imposed and whether it has been breached or and dispute between professor and the a a declaration that the Visitor did not have the jurisdic when contract concerned with matters out Council of the University concerning theamo a tion to determine the matter which concerned the side domestic affairs is in issue a matter of tion of the professor would, we apprehend, be rights to study leave. By a majority (Burt G.J. and cognisable by a Visitor ... The type of ques public law is involved, the determination of which is not an internal affairs, and rights of tion we would wish to leave open is whether a Smith J.) the court held: property are for the Courts and not the Visitor tribunal under the Industrial Arbitration Act • that the Visitor had no jurisdiction to hear and to determine. J3 would be deprived of jurisdiction to deal with a dispute between a professor and his univer determine the first statement appearing in the staff member's petition that he is entitled by virtue of his Again, the test is based on the dispute in question sity cpncerning the terms of the professor's having to be internal and between members rather employment or concerning his removal from terms and conditions to a 12 month study leave. office because that is a matter within the visi than being put on a strictly contractual basis. tor's jurisdiction. We distinguish such an inter • That the Visitor had the jurisdiction to determine nal dispute from one between an association the alternative claim based upon the statement that Conclusion to which the professor belongs and the uni the Vice-Chancellor's decision to limit the period of The majority of Australian universities do possess a versity, for the association would not be a the petitioner's study leave is harsh and unjust and specific statutory enactment, usually found in the member of the corporate body and the visitor contrary to the spirit and intention of the petitioner's enabling Act, which establishes the Office of Visitor. would have no jurisdiction. 2E contract of service. Although the matter is far from settled, it is likely that even the universities that do not have a specific It is submitted that, of these two interpretations, the Wallace, J. dissenting took the view that the Visitor enactment for a Visitor would still possess a Visitor second one is infinitely more preferable as it does had the right to hear both claims based broadly on in the person of the Crown, by nature of the preserve what can be considered to be the tradi the wording of the enactment in the enabling act institution. tional area of visitorial jurisdiction while at the same (which has the word 'shall' rather than the word time allowing the Industrial Commission jurisdic 'may' which is found in other statutes). On the The British cases outline the nature of the visitorial tion to conciliate and arbitrate on industrial matters. extent of the visitorial jurisdiction Wallace, J. had jurisdiction which, to simplify somewhat, include all The former decision effectively destroyed the this to say: domestic matters which could form a dispute access of the staff association while providing it between members of the corporation. Initially the with nothing in return. If the staff association was a The dispute between the Plaintiff and the First disputes would have been mainly a matter of status corporator then perhaps the visitorial jurisdiction Defendant is essentially an internal affair although gradually contractual elements peculiarto could be invoked even though, on McFayden's27 because it involves entitlement to study leave the university environment were included as well. interpretation of the extent of the visitorial jurisdic and therefore comes squarely in my opinion within the Visitor's jurisdiction. The Visitor is tion, that is very unlikely. In Australia, as evidenced by Bloom's case, and not an anachronism, he is the subject of others, the contractual element was never really appointment in a statute expressing Parlia Other recent cases ment's intention in the month of June 1973. I accepted and this coupled with a very strict, almost In the recent case of Clark and University of Mel endorse all that Megarry V. C. had to say in ceremonial interpretation of the nature of the Office, bourne28 the Full Court of the Supreme Court of Patel v. Bradford UniverSity Senate. resulted in a very limited application of the visitorial Victoria discussed generally the history of the Visi- jurisdiction. Thus we have a system that allows the Visitor to adjudicate on the matters of status and a 26 very limited definition of 'internal matters'. Given the problems with this jurisdiction and the very uneven 27 NOTES AND REFERENCES 15. T.G. Matthews, 'The Office of the University Visitor', PROFESSIONAL ETHICS IN J.P. Powell 1. At page 23. UQLJ. 11. 2, 152, at p. 155. Tertiary Education Research Centre 2. (1692) 2T.R 348. 16. Op. cit., at p. 336. ACADEMIA University 01 New South Wales 3. Ibid, at page 17. Note 6, supra, at p. 531. 4. (1864) 33L.J. ch 625. 18. (1945) 45 S.R. (N.SW) 200. 5. Ibid, at page 634. 19. Ibid., at p. 201. 6. Keeping peace in the Universities - the role of the 20. Ibid., at p. 205. Some years ago Eric Ashby proposed a form of such results by others thus ensuring their attribu Visitor (1970) 86LQR531. 21. Ibid., at p. 205. Hippocratic Oath for membersoftheacademic pro tion to the originator. What Ravetz calls an 'etiquette' 7. See RV Industrial Disputes Tribunal ex.p. Queen Mary 22. Supra, note 4. College, University of London (1957) 2WB 483. 23. Unreported, Appeal No.6 of 1979. fession.1 More recently the Journal of Advanced has evolved which governs citation' practices and 8. University of New England Calendar, 1982, UNE 24. Ibid., WaUace, J., judgement at p. 8. Education published a draft code of ethics for its the operation of the system of quality control which Press, at pp. 50-51. 25. In Re University of Newcastle Staff No. 286 of 1981. readers to consider.2 Many professional groups is in the hands of journal editors and referees. 9. University of New England Calendar, 1980, UNE 26. Ibid., at p. 41. have adopted a formal code of ethics or a set of Ravetz admits, however, that'etiquette' is too weak a Press, at p. xxi. 27. Supra, n. 17. principles which members are expected to observe, notion to convey satisfactorily what is involved here. 10. Monash University Calendar, 1982. M.U. Press, Statute 28. (1979) UR 66. while others have canvassed some of the Issues 9.1.5 and 9.1.6, at p. 154. 29. Ibid., at p. 73. It is the concern with property and the rewards which might arise in the course of professional which may be anticipated to come from it which 11. 9 Edw. VI! NO.7. 30. Action No. 2293 of 1979 of the Supreme Court of practice (e.g. Royal Institute of Chemistry).' In 12. University of Queens/and Calendar, 1982, Simpson Western Australia WA S.C.J. April-May 1980. leads to many ofthedjffjculties which are generated recent years there has been an upsurge of interest Halligan & Co. 31. Ibid., at p. 6 of the judgement of Wallace, J. by the operation of the quality control system. 13. See the test enunciated in St. Johns' Coil., Cambridge 32. At page 15 of the decision. in some of the ethical issues which can stem from Prominent among these is the use of the work of academic work largely because of revelations of v Toolington (1757) I Burr. per Lord Mansfield, at 33. Petition by J. De Simone and others on 16 October others without adequate acknowledgement. This is fraud and improper applications of research p.201. 1979 at the University of Melbourne. often unintentional, for few of us are able to recall 14. Note 13, supra, at p. 200. 34. Supra, n. 4. expertise.4 the origins of all our thoughts, but sometimes it is The topic is a large one and somewhat daunting deliberate as in acts of plagiarism. Referees some because of its complexity and the manner in which times take advantage of their access to the unpub many of the issues interconnect. Here I shall only lished work of others to plunder both ideas and attempt a sketch of the outlines of its scope and data. Supervisors have been known to fail to accord indicate the general character of some of the issues. full credit to the efforts of their postgraduate stu An academic has responsibilities in five major dents.7 Name-ordering on publications at times areas: research, teaching, the institution, the profes does not reflect accurately the contributions made sion, and the community. I shall say a little about by each author.8 The Royal Society has attempted each of these but give most attention to the first two. to avoid this problem by insisting upon alphabetical order only. Some workers neglect to publish results Research promptly out of a concern for secrecy in order to A quite fundamental issue which arises here con promote self-interest. cerns the general thrust of research efforts and the choices which face an individual in determining his Because of the advancement of knowledge depends or her own priorities. 5 We are all familiar with the upon the authenticity of published results it is moral dilemmas which can arise, for example, in obvious that the integrity of research workers is of relation to weapons research versus work aimed at crucial importance. In recent years, however, there enhancing human welfare, and I do not propose to has been a spate of allegations and revelations con discuss this topic despite its great importance. cerning instances of scientific fraud. One of the most publicized cases is that of Cyril Burt9 but there Many problems have emerged from the manner in have been many others.lO (see Manwell and Baker, which research is conducted and the ways in which 1981). Indeed, Brush has argued that the history of results are published and it is this area which has science is so replete with disreputable acts and attracted the most attention during the past decade, practices that it offers a most unsuitable model for although there is certainly nothing novel about such students to be encouraged to follow.ll controversies. Charles Babbage, the founper of computing science, published in 1830 his Reflec The gate-keepers of science are the editors and tions on the Decline of Science in England in which referees of the papers which constitute the journal he discussed varieties of hoaxing, forging, trimming literature and Ravetz has stressed the fundamental of results and what he called cooking.6 significance of their role. It is helpful to view many of these issues as having If their concern is no more than the creation of their origins in a conception of the results of scien intellectual property which can be cashed for material and social benefits, then there are no tific work as being the property of scientists in internal barriers to the rapid degeneration and which they have certain rights. This approach has corruption of a field at alllevels. 12 been developed in considerable detail by Ravetz who argues that the protection of these rights is There is another aspect of intellectual property necessary if scientists are to be confident that their rights which has received little attention in the litera efforts are to be rewarded. This protection is ture. This concerns ownership claims, ortheascrip achieved through the mechanism, developed in the tion of ownership rights, to objects and locations late eighteenth century, of publishing authenticated rather than to discoveries or results. For example, results and so enabling the subsequent citation of there is a sense in which anthropologlsts 'own' the 28 29 tribe whose way of lIfe they are studying, archaeolo A few examples will illustrate some of the ways in not directly related to the intellectual virtuesY The The Profession gists 'own' the site which they are excavating, and which ethical issues can arise from the manner in answer to this lies in the view one takes of teaching: Some codes of professional ethics contain ele plant taxonomists 'own' the plant group which they which research is conducted. 14 Some psychological is it intended to provide part of a student's education ments which appear to be designed to serve sec are classifying. Such claims are commonlyacknow experiments involve deceiving or misleading parti or is it solely directed at offering a professional tional interests rather than a more general good. ledged by fellow-workers who are normally careful cipants: Stanley Milgram's work is a case in point. training in a set of intellectual skills? I hope that I not to trespass or intrude. Often such claims make The use of placebos in medical research inevitably shall be forgiven for not pursuing that question For example, the code of ethics adopted by the good practical sense: an archaeological site can requires the deception of patients. Thetechniqueof here! Australian Psychological Association in 1970 con only be excavated once and there would be little participant observation often involves deceit if it is to tained the following: point in severa! botanists engaging simultaneously be used effectively. Even the use of questionnaires Students have a right to be taught in a professional and skilful manner just as they have a right to be Should a member have cause to disagree with in the re-classification of a plant group. sometimes leads to invasions of privacy and always a colleague on professional issues he must imposes a degree of inconvenience upon those taught a genuine view of the discipline. An aca nevertheless refrain from criticizing him in However, ownership claims of this implicit type are who are asked to complete them. The reporting of demic who adopts a neglectful careless approach public in a manner which casts doubt on his far from being unproblematicaL It is not unknown results can adversely affect those concerned espe towards teaching is failing to meet a basic profes professional competence, for researchers to 'stake out' a site but do little cially if confidential information or identities are sional obligation towards students. serious work on it for many years. This prevents disclosed. Evaluation studies in educational and others from working on it and so impedes the A further dimension is that of the relationship The nature of academic work is such that it requires other social contexts frequently give rise to quite between teachers and students. The nature of this public disagreement and rigorous criticism of the advancement of knowledge. There is also the diffi serious ethical issues when one group is seen to be culty, often the impossibility, of replicating orcheck relationship is now less clearly defined than it once products of others since careless or incompetent making judgements about another. work cannot serve the advancement of knowledge. ing results because sites and social groups are was: not everyone would agree that academics unique. It is worth noting that the reverse holds of Enough has been said to indicate that the research stand in loco parentiS. Whatever one's view on that may be there can be no justification for a relation Peer review is the basic mechanism of quality con many other fields of inquiry. In philosophy and activities of academics are often far removed from trol both in the advancement of knowledge and in ship which is exploitative in character and which mathematics intractable problems have been the ivory tower neutrality enshrined in the folklore, the procedures governing academic preferment. makes improper use of the power which academics worked on by successive thinkers for many centur but instead are shot through with moral problems The products of peer review processes are usually have in their teaching role. Exploitation can take a ies. In the physical and biological sciences it is and dilemmas. confidential and are thus open to abuse. The refe number of forms: the seeking of sexual favours in commonplace for several groups to work on the reeing of papers, research proposals and applica Teaching return for unjustifiably high examination assess same problem in fierce competition. tions for positions all call for the highest standards Ethical issues which might arise in connection with ments, the use of students as 'subjects' in experi of impartiality and integrity. Lapses from such A basic assumption of science and scholarship is an academic's teaching responsibilities have re ments and investigations,18 and the improper use of standards are not unknown and self-interest has that knowledge is subject to infinite revision and ceived remarkably little attention. The topic is not the work of postgraduate students and even per sometimes taken priority over objectivity.2!l extension. The truth of this is far from obvious, even mentioned in the draft code referred to ear haps delaying their progress in order to obtain an however, to the members of some communities lier,15 yet there are several dimensions of the teach advantage for the supervisor or department.'9 who fear that outsiders will resolve all their prob ing role which can readily generate ethical During difficult times, such as the present, there is a lems before they themselves are in a position to concerns. Finally, there is the making of judgments about the great temptation to denigrate the work of col tackle them. This has led some Pacific islanders, for characteristics of students and the quality of their leagues in order to secure more of the limited example, to claim ownership rights to problems on In the teaching of any discipline the academic has a work. This constantly arises in assessment proce resources which are available for one's own depart the grounds that once these have been solved - responsibility to present the student with a genuine dures and the composition of letters of recommen ment or faculty. There is a growing risk that support usually by foreigners with superior resources - view or account of it - genuine in the sense that dation. Here it is necessary to observe the highest for the wider purposes of the institution and the there will be nothing left for their own people to personal bias does not distort the reality of the standards of honesty, impartiality and accuracy in profession wi!! be subordinated to powerful sec study. For example, a student at the University of current state of development of the discipline. order to avoid unjust treatment of students and the tional interest groups. Papua New Guinea has argued on these grounds There are, of course, sometimes differing views on deception of others. how a discipline should be conceived and approa for the exclusion of foreign research workers from The Institution The Community his home region: ched but all of these should be presented to the student together with the reasons for believing As a member of a university or college an academic The responsibilities of the academic profession to What will there be left for us to research, if we some of them to be more productive, supportable, has an obligation to act in such a way asto serve the the wider community which provides the materia! want to get a PhD. or even an M.A.? We feel and so on, than others. Failure to do this constitutes purposes which the institution exists to serve and to resources to support its work may besaid to encom nothing will be left. This is already come into practising a form of deceit upon students. refrain from actions which will corrupt it or bring it pass all of the areas touched upon so far: theeduca effect. Are PhD.s and Masters of Arts into disrepute. Academic life is fraught with conftict tion of students, the advancement of knowledge, designed only for Europeans or for Papuan In addition, an academic must at all times display ing interests and it is no easy matter to maintain a and the enhancement of the reputation of the insti New Guineans as well? !ffor all, we kindly ask, 13 and attempt to cultivate in students the intellectual balance between the demands of teaching, re tution and of the profession. But in addition, aca if you would leave some for US. virtues which are constitutive of scholarly stand search, consulting activities, community service demics have a responsibility to use their knowledge ards. These would include respect for evidence, and the maintenance of institutional vitality. Exces and skills to mount a continuing critique of the The adoption of such a position is frequently asso 21 ciated with allegations that research workers are exactness, judgment, carefulness, critical thinking sive concern with one of these areas can readily society which supports them. This important role engaged in a form of exploitation in order to further and, in general, resoluteness in attempting to arrive result in the neglect of the others. Careerism in the is facilitated by the provisions of tenure and the their own careers at the expense of others. If the at the truth.'" (Passmore, 1980). Failure to exemplify search for personal prestige and power, together principle of academic freedom because social criti products of intellectual work are viewed as the pro and constantly stress the fundamental importance with the political activities which often aids its attain cism fS seldom welcomed by those at whom it is perty of the producer then it could be argued that of these standards and qualities would defraud stu ment, can easily tempt academics away from their directed. Unfortunately, there have been many his there is a sense in which all research, especially in dents in that it would not lead to their acquiring the responsibilities. Maintenance of the vitality and torical and contemporary examples of academics the social sciences, involves an element of exploita skills and attitudes which are required for an under integrity of the institution often calls for the frank losing their jobs and even their freedom as a conse tion. Indeed, this was suggested during a sympo standing of how knowledge is advanced. To accept expression of views which may be unpopular. The quence of fulfilling this responsibility. To remain sium at the 1975 ANZAAS Congress. I believe that shoddy efforts or to suggest that it does not really expression of such views can sometimes require a silent may often be convenient but it inevitably there are difficulties in this view but there can be no matter how intellectual work is pursued would be high degree of moral courage, especially in times of tends to the corruption of both the profession and doubt that many of us have not been sufficiently highly irresponsible on the part of any teacher. retrenchment. our institutions of higher learning. aware of the need to respect the rights of others, More contentious is the question of whether it is including animals, when designing experiments, part of an academic's responsibilities to attempt to 31 collecting information and publishing results. change the values and attitudes of students in areas
30 Conclusion 5. D.W. Morley, The Sensitive Scientist, Report of a Brit THERE IS STilL A LONG WAY Jim Hyde Many of the issues which have been touched upon ish Association Working Party, S.C.M. Press, London, Department of Politics 1978. TO GO: University of Adelaide earlier are not peculiar to the academic profession 6. J.R. Ravetz, Scientific Know/edge and its Social Prob but arise in all forms of intellectual work and institu lems, Oxford UP., London, 1971, p. 310. A Comment on the Conference tional life. Those that are perhaps characteristic of 7. R. Witton, 'Academics and Student Supervision: of University Governing Bodies, the academic life arise from teaching, the unique apprenticeship or exploitation?', in Australian and University of Melbourne, AugusI15-17, 1982 nature of universities and colleges as institutions, New Zealand Journal of Sociology, 9, 1973, pp. 70~73. and the task of engaging in social criticism. 8. Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States, Collier Macmillan, London, 1977. Finally, there is the question of how adherence to 9. L.S. Hearnshaw, Cyril Burt, Psychologist, Cornell U.P., As an outsider observing post-secondary education tries, and for that matter indifferent sectors in Aus~ New standards of professional conduct is to be enforced. York, 1979. in Australia in the mid~1970s, Barbara Burn came to tralia. We heard about the issue from government I must confess to some scepticism about the value 10. Manwell and Baker, op. cit. the conclusion that it was surprising that the univer 11. S.G. Brush, 'Should the history of science be rated X?', ministers, a variety of vice-chancellors and academ~ of legalistic formulations and the codification of sities, in particular, had not organized in the face of ics, businessmen, senior members of university ethical principles. Communities of scholars, like all in Science, 183, 1974, pp. 1164~1172. 12. Ravetz, op. cit. increasing government erosion of their autonomy. governing bodies, and the chairman of a State co other communities, can only function if there is a 13. K. Talyaga, 'Should we allow research workers and She wrote 'The Australian Vice-Chancellors Com ordinating authority. widely shared commitment to common values and tourists into the Enga District?', Discussion Paper No. mittee has not performed this function or attempted We did not hear from trade unionists, teachers aspirations. 1, Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, 1974. to do 50.'1 This is not to say that attempts have not charged with preparing students for university, par 14. P.O. Reynolds, Ethical Dilemmas and Social Science been made in this direction, for there is, in fact, a Either an academic polity has that common Research, Sage, Beverly Hills, 1979. ents of students or prospective students, nor inter commitment, in which case no published debate on the issues around an Association of Aus~ estingly, students themselves. What we did not hear 15. Anon, op. cit. tralian Universities which has continued for some rules are necessary; or it lacks that common 16. J. Passmore, The Philosophy of Teaching, Duck - at least in the papers - was the fundamental commitment, in which case no published worth, London, 1980. years. reason for hearing about autonomy and its erosion. rules can save it. 2~ 17. S. Hook et al (eds.), The Ethics of Teaching and Scien~ Why? tific Research, Prometheus, Buffalo, N.Y., 1977. One of the prime movers behind this debate is Harry REFERENCES 18. D. Horrobin, Science is God, Medical and Technical Medlin, who, through the Council of the University This is perhaps not surprising when one is dealing 1. E. Ashby, 'A Hippocratic Oath for the Academic', in Publishing, Aylesbury, 1969. of Adelaide, and FAUSA, has ensured that it has with a concept like autonomy which can be a diffi Minerva, 7, 1 and 2, 1968~9, pp. 64-66. 19. E.Z. Ibrahim et al, 'Doctoral Supervision at Sydney been kept in the minds of university governing cult concept to grasp. It is not the same thing as 2. Anon, 'Ethics: here is a code to consider', in Journal of University, hindrance or help?', in Vestes, 23, 1980, pp. bodies. the AVCC (Australian Vice-Chancellors' Advanced Education, 1, 2, 1978. independence and it does not include non 18-22. Committee) and academics generally. Medlin is a 3. Royal Institute of Chemistry, Professional Conduct: 20. Manwell and Baker, op. cit. accountability or total removal from the community Guidance for Chemists, RI.C., London, 1975. past national president of FAUSA, and currently a in which one exists. Nor is it surprising when a 21. J.P. Powell, 'Universities as sources of socia! criticism: Deputy Chancellor of the University of Adelaide. 4. See JA Barnes, Who Should Know What? Penguin, hot beds or cold feet?', in T. Hore et al (eds.), The group representing the status quo talks among Harmondsworth, 1979, and C. Manwell and C.M. Ann Future of Higher Education in Australia, Macmillan, He was also a delegate to the recent Conference of itself. Baker, 'Honesty in Science', in Search, 12,1981, pp. Melbourne, 1978. 151-160. University Governing Bodies, which was held at the 22. Hook et aL op. cit. 2 But it is surprising when it is patently obvious that a University of Melbourne. It was surprising (espe struggle is underway within the governing group. cially to a fellow-member of his delegation) that he And it is equally as surprising in the most specific was not more vocal there on the subject. This is example that we were encouraged to discuss - particularly so given the outright refusal of the research. AVCC to consider a request from the Council of the University of Adelaide for the matter to be given This session was entitled 'The Control of Research'. space on the agenda. At it, Professor Max Brennan of the Australian Research Grants Scheme (ARGS). gave the most Nevertheless, the conference proved the paint that professiona!!y presented paper of the conference. such an Association is both necessary, but also (It almost made us forget the agony students go possibly doomed to failure. Necessary because the through in badly designed lecture theatres). Hewas seeming acceptance by the conference of an overt followed by Professor Louis. Davies, and the discus but generally unrecognised political argument that sion was introduced by the Vice-Chancellor of all is well in the universities, and that the misgivings Flinders, Professor Keith Hancock. It was Hancock that we all - councils, vice-chance!!ors, staff and who came closest to grappling with the real issues students - have over the events of the last seven at hand, though in the end it was Sidestepped. years stem from our inability to come to grips with 'steady state'. Possibly doomed because the dele None of the three, nor any of the questioners, gations reflected not just the AVCC but the very addressed the issue of the political control of governing bodies which would have to be the back~ research. Why is it that the direction of research bone of such an organisation. funding has been so drastica!!y altered in the !ast few years? Why is it that the ARGS has been unable This is not to say that complacency was totally the to continue to fund at reasonable levels? Why is it order of the day. There was a great deal said about that the ARGS has chosen to support projects par university autonomy, how it had been eroded and tially thus effectively removing some of the control by whom. We were treated to many good state which universities are supposed to have over their ments about autonomy and its relationship to aca internal research funds? Why is it that even where demic freedom, to the special relationship it had committees monitoring the nature of research exist with responsibility and to the different perspectives in the universities, they limit their investigations to with which autonomy is viewed in different coun- that relatively small area of contract research? 32 33 For the tertiary or post-secondary education but it would be a pity if a forum as potentially valua 3. I have addressed the question of the political control There may, of course, be many answers to these of research at some length in J. Hyde, The Future of questions.3 They have, however, a fundamental con system in Australia there has been no clear ble and powerful as this were to be abandoned statement of an accepted set of purposes for without an attempt to nurture it. Research - a Postgraduate View', Paper delivered at nection - the notion of autonomy. And it was here, a.Forum on the Future of Australian Research, orga the system, no clear ordering of priorities, and FOOTNOTES in a concrete way, that the issues which were being no allocation of purposes and priorities in a nised by the Council of Australian Postgraduate Asso implied earlier could have been confronted. They way which differentiates the three sectors or 1. B. Burn and P. Karmel, Federal/State Responsibilities ciations, University of Melbourne, 3 December 1982. were not. their constituent institutions.s for Post-Secondary Education; Australia and the Uni 4. J. Hyde, 'The Structure of Higher Education in Austra ted States, International Council for Educational lia', in P. Sheldrake and R. Linke (eds), Accountability Our chance did come again that afternoon. Ron I am not interested in supporting a binary system Development, Conference Report Number Four, New in Higher Education, George Allen and Unwin, Syd Parry, Chairman of the NSW. Higher Education which perpetuates unwarranted prestige, unneces York, 1977 quoted in Bob Bessant, Book Review, ney, 1979, pp. 1-16. Vestes, 22, 2, 1979, p. 49. Board, challenged the very notion of autonomy of sary hierarchy or other non-educational differences 5. A. Lindsay and G. O'Byrne, 'Accountability of Tertiary 2. The conference papers have been published by the which we have become so fond. The signs have Education at the National Level: A Chimera?', in in tertiary education. But I do not believe that the AVC.C., and are avallable from its Canberra Office. Vestes, 22, 2, 1979, p. 27. been there for some time of course, but here was a inequities which exist will be eliminated by levelling senior State bureaucrat outlining explicitly a pro the institutions in the system to the median point. posal for universities to be absorbed into state sys And that is what Parry is suggesting. Notonly is it an tems of post-secondary education. His justification attack on the autonomy of the universities, but on rested on the old argument of accountability, and to the emerging autonomy of the colleges of advan an assertion that the binary system in highereduca ced education, with which we are beginning to live tion had failed. much more comfortably. Parry's arguments - at least as he outlined them to The real way to attack the problems confronting us us - were open to serious objections. The first is to give that emerging autonomy our support. As relates to his notions of accountability. In a way the colleges develop they too should be released which has become typical of educational planners from the shackles of State co-ordinating mecha in Australia and elsewhere, he equates this with nisms. It is in the interests of both the universities economic cost-benefits and fiscal measurement. and the colleges - indeed in the interest of educa The number of times that it has been pointed out tion generally - to make sure this happens. that in education, as in so many other areas, quanti tative measurement (however justified) is only one The question to ask again is why is this not the side of the coin, and that qualitative factors must option being put before us? In whose interest is also be recognised, is beyond recall (or perhaps stricter and tighter control of the universities, the even research). And, very seriously, the idea that colleges and education in general? accountability relates somehow only to an institu Attempts were made at the conference to lay aside tion's operations vis-a-vis government is both short some of the myths with which we have been living, Sighted and mischievous. and this was a good thing. For instance, a numberof
4 speakers, notably Sir Bruce Williams and Professor I have pointed out elsewhere thatto equate govern David Cara, laid to rest the old one that the AUC and ment with community, and then propose account later CTEC have acted as buffers between the uni ability solely to government is dangerous. In the versities and governments. The very nature of their case of the universities, it ignores their position vis conduit nature downwards from government to uni a-vis one another, with others outside Australia, and versities was again illustrated at the conference. with the myriad of communities which make up our The Chairman of the Universities Council, Profes society. sor Noel Dunbar, tried on us the idea that the scan The second objection relates to Parry's assertion of dalous inadequacies of student financing had the failure of the binary system. This was based nothing to do with falling participation rates, an idea upon the similarities which had developed between the CTEC has been pursuing in various forums. the university and advanced education sectors, and Fortunately for us Professor David Beswick, the which he claimed had led to the two being unable to author of the recently released report from which be differentiated. He suggested the colleges had not this surprising assertion is based, forcefully respon developed in the way the Martin Report had recom ded, assuring delegates that in his opinion student mended, but had become quasi-universities. This allowances were a major, if not the major, factor to statement in itself is open to challenge for the col blame. leges are following the Martin, rather than the Men All in all, the conference showed an unfortunate zies, plan of development. lack of perspective and displayed a certain a My objection, however, lies in Parry's failure to re historical character. Perhaps this was representa cognise the diversity which exists in the higher edu tive of its organisers and participants. In many ways, cation sectors. My support for the binary system it was not a conference at all, limited as it was in rests almost entirely on its usefulness in providing viewpoint and in time. Next time - and that should - albeit implicit - a statement of goals and objec be sooner rather than later - the AVCC should be tives for higher education in Australia. Discussing encouraged to both broaden and lengthen the the whole area of tertiary education, Lindsay and timetable. It may be too much to hope thatan Asso O'Byrne noted. ciation of Australian Universities might be co-host, 34 35 Doug Ogilvie THE INSTITUTIONALIZATION Department of Education As one would expect, the reaction of human clones knowledge in order to maintain their dominance. OF KNOWLEDGE University of Queensland to this type of threat has been programmed for With the assistance of academics and professionals thousands of years. and school teachers, they have enshrined the pater nalistic legacy of the civilized Semites, Greeks, and Wherever they are faced with a smart-ars'd kid who Romans, and downgraded and falsified theegalitar threatens to expose the indecent obscenity of the The Function of a University ian legacy of their rivals (e.g. common-wealth bar Contrary to the myth widely promulgated by vested This institutionalization of privilege derives largely emperor, they close ranks to protect the one thing barians, communistic aboriginals and monastic interests, the modern university is a forma! institu from Asia Mjnor with its tradition of paternalism, so that they have a shared capacity to understand, i.e. Christians. tion designed to serve the interests of societal domi obvious in the teachings of Zarathustra (Zoroaster), the myth. Depending on the size of the audience nants. Whether it is labelled as a university, or a Abraham, Moses and Solomon. This priestly tradi attracted by the kid, they can either crucify, pOison, The university has been crucial (and still is) in college, or an institute of technology (and the label tion (I.e. a belief that secrets are available to, and or banish him or her, or write nasty little words on imposing this one-eyed, value-laden hegemony on is largely irrelevant), its function is to: obtainable from, a lineage of privileged priests or his or her criminal or academic record. the people. masters) was absorbed by the Roman Empire via All of us who have graduated through the various e distract inquisitive people from posing questions Paternalistic Techniques the oligarchical and tyrannical states of Greece. degrees of the academic lodge have found it neces The institutionalization of knowledge within a uni that might seriously inconvenience societal domi Later, it resurfaced with the Eastern revival that char nants, sary to 'steal each other's songs' (with acknow versity is based on four manipulative techniques: acterized the Renaissance and was reinforced by ledgement to Krrs KristoHerson ef al.) or to 'regurgi • socialize such people into an uncritical accep the consequent Scientific Enlightenment (when the • scholarly diSCipline, tance of the hegemonic-society, tate each other's garbage' (source unidentified, but professional scientists became the most authorita Go professionalization, • institutionalize enquiry into academic and com possibly an ancient Babylonian temple official). tive of priests and eventually introduced us to the Some of us are naturally more adept than others at • certification, mercial research that does not embarrass the domi heavenly delights of battery vibrators, television • state legitimation nants and which generally promotes their sectional this aspect of adolescence and have been rewarded commercials and fast foods). accordingly. interests, Scholarly Discipline • institutionalize education into socialization (for In similar fashion, the professionalization of educa State Legitimation By setting up scholarly disciplines or schools of professions and trades) which does not embarrass tional administration and management is now used In promoting the professional specialization in thought (e.g. sociology, anthropology), certain the dominants and which generally promotes their to intimidate parents, teachers and workers who which they have a vested interest, universities scholars are able to claim a monopoly of knowledge sectional interests, might otherwise be tempted to assume responsibil require access to the institutionalized violence of and skill within certain parameters (although they • institutionalize common-sense understanding ity for coordinating their own activities within colle the state. Roman codified law (not Celtic common must continually fight to maintain these boundaries into scholarly knowledge (of facts and their authori gial organizations (and also to legitimate manager law) is used to ensure that the monopolies enjoyed against acquisitive rivals). Such scholars can then tative interpretations) and to deny the legitimacy of ial practices that would not have been tolerated by professions and universities can, if necessary, be claim the right to dictate what knowledge can be any interpretations which might seriously embar back in the Stone Age). safeguarded and enforced by the official violence of presented as authoritative to both children in rass the dominants. schools and adults in universities. Certification the state. The legal profession (of Roman, not Celtic origin) is an essential instrument in maintaining In this task, the university makes use of subsidiary Professionalization depends upon certification. By building up the relative status of some disci institutionalized privilege and its members are school systems and elitist professions. Together, Hence the privileged people who control a modern plines (e.g. the sciences) at the expense of others rewarded accordingly with status and privilege. they tempt able people with the extrinsic rewards of university, together with those who are privileged to (e.g. the arts), scholars with vested interests can relative status and away from the intrinsic rewards use its facilities for personal advantage, have a The Barbaric Alternative inhibit many types of enquiry. In this, they behave in of personal development. It is a temptation that our vested interest in maintaining the certification myth. It should be recognized that Europe also inherited a essentially the same way as their counterparts with intellectuals find virtually irresistible and this applies second tradition, via the ancient gentes of the Celts vested interests in particular detergents, breakfast According to this myth, examinations and assign to our left-wing trendies and faddists equally as and other 'barbarians'. This egalitarian tradition was cereals and fly sprays. ments provide an accurate measure of worthwhile much as to our right-wing traditionalists and overshadowed by the paternalistic Roman Empire, capacities and knowledge. Certification based on conservatives. but, as Kropotkin2 has shown, it was revived in Professionalization these measurements (and recorded on a ninety Medieval Christianity (in monasticism, moots and Almost all scholars have a vested interest in promot The Historical Tradition degree angle or a seven pOint scale) can then be guilds). This common-weal culture was submerged ing specialist, hermetic knowledge at the expense Essentially, the university supplements the temple used to legitimate claims to advancement, personal again with the Roman Renaissance that was spon of general, popular knowledge, and in ranking the which, traditionally, has institutionalized privilege preferment and the right to exercise authority. The sored by the haute bourgeoisie. narrow professional as more valuable than the (into oHicial church or lodge), understanding (into reality, of course, is that the tests merely measure enthusiastic amateur. Name dropping (of authori dogma) and education (into apprenticeship). Tem the statistical correlation between the examiner's This alternative culture was an expression of the ties and their particular methodologies and their ple and university thus share a common commit interpretations of reality and the student's interpre demos (Le. the consensual will of the people) and it peculiar classificatory schemes) is crucial to (and ment to: tations. I have never yet found a satisfactory answer was expressed cooperatively (in monasteries, folk sometimes sufficient for) the mastery of these to the question of who eventually examines the moots, artisan guilds and round tables) in a manner disciplines. • hermetic knowledge (i.e. facts and their authorita examiners! And, after all any ten year old child can quite distinct from the institutionalized privilege of tive interpretations, which are known to super tel! you that self-praise is no recommendation! paternalistiC society. A similar communal, mutual An unfortunate result of this is the widespread feel ordinate people who can transmit them to subordi aid society was found among barbarians through ing of powerlessness and inadequacy among lay In any case, the greatest threat to the marketability nate people if they can prove their fitness for this out the world (e.g. among Australian aboriginals) persons. For example, how many aborigina!s have privilege), of this myth is cheating; particularly cheating that before they were submerged by paternalistic been fooled into believing that qualified white • the privileged elitism that is associated with vary can be exposed. The most obvious type of discover civilization. anthropologists (who don't even understand them ing degrees of mastery over this uncommon able cheating is plagiarism. Plagiarism threatens selves and their own society) are qualified to give knowledge. the whole structure of the university and the author It seems reasonable to expect that this alternative them paternalistiC advice? How many unhappily itarian society that it legitlmates. It opens up a whole tradition will reassert itself with the inevitable col married couples seek solutions from neurotic, The ideology of the university is, hence, supple can of worms, beginning with the moral issues lapse of managerial capitalism at the end of our divorced professional counsellors? mented by that of the i=reemasons, the Rosicruci raised by the claims of bourgeois academics to the current Dark Age. ans and the Cabalists.1 private ownership of mental constructs, and ending, If we look, for example, at the professionalization of who knows where! The dominants of our Dark Age have manipulated education, we find that parents are brainwashed to 36 37 mistrust their natural ability to educate their own number-c~unching in any other way than by using * the appropriate organizational structure for such '... how our folks took care of themselves an' children. They are intimidated to depend on experts the technique of selective ignorance). This was ~nquiry is collegial (i.e. egalitarian and consensual) if they was a fight, they fIxed it theirseff,: an' (even though many of these so-called experts have clearly established in the early studies of commun In place of the present mix of academic feudalism they wasn't no cops wagglin' their guns, but children of their own who are unmitigated disas ity power in the U.S.A3 and probably dozens of and administrative bureaucracy), they was better order than them cops ever times since. give. I been a-wonderin' why we can't do that ters). ~ th~ ~ppropriate ca~djdates for such enquiry are all over. Throw out the cops that ain't our InquIsitIve adults motIvated by curiosity, rather than people. All work together for our own thing The Facefes3 Men What is more, these ambitious fellows normally acquisitive adolescents motivated by greed or the don't get funding until their detailed research pro all farm our own lan·.'G Who are the dominants serviced by the universities craving for relative status, and the professions? They are the controllers and posal is perused by their sponsor. e the time to do something about all this is now But, this They call romantic nonsense or commu directors of society; the bureaucratic managers of while some of us are still tenured rather than con~ nistic subversion, don't They? commerce and industry and service in capitalist It. i: not that our social scientists are necessarily Sinister. Most of them are merely naive. And so is tracted; and the place is here, where some of us are I wonder why? countries and their counterparts in 'socialist' lands, still enjoying academic freedom instead of man together with the elitist professionals most closely anybody who accepts their findings as authorita aged efficiency. REFERENCES associated with them in the professions of law tive. 1. Z'ev ben Shimon HalevL The Tree of Ufe, Rider & Co., (enactment and enforcement) and accountancy For example, if an academic concludes that Austra I will not hold my breath waiting for an enthusiastic London, 1972. and the military. lian society is relatively fluid in relation to most of its response to this from either authoritarian vice 2. P. ~ropotkin, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, jobs, this may be interpreted to mean that thecoun chancellors, or feudal professors, or bolshevik revo Honzon, Boston, (undated). The modern state (with its institutionalized govern lutionaries, or journal referees, or Queensland 3. D. Ogilvie, 'Community Power and the Australian Edu ment, trade, law, education, communication, health try enjoys a remarkable equality of opportunity.4 cabjne~ ministers. We Celts, by definition, are not cator', in Social Science Teachers' Association of and amusement) is most sensibly understood as an However, ~his interpretation of the facts may hide the more Important fact that a small clique has a found In the halls of power, either gOing in or com Queensland Newsletter, 7, 2, 1978. institution for the preservation and maximization of ing out. 4. See Nationat Times 19/9/82. sectional privilege. Alternatively, it may be viewed as monopoly of the relatively few jobs where the vast 5. T. Wiltshire, Australia Ripped Off, AM.WS.U., Sydney majority.of society's crucial decisions are made (e.g, ~ mechanism for the institutionalization of corrup However, sometimes we remember, with Tom, 1979. ' tIon. concerning tax laws, corporate law, libel laws). 6. J. Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath, Penguin, Har mondsworth, 1964. p. 384. Crucial to this conspiracy are the university aca Anybody s,eriously concerned about equality of demics who structure knowledge in such a way as opportunity in Australia might ask a more pertinent to perpetuate the hegemony, and the legal profes question: i.e. did 200 families (local and foreign) sionals who structure and enforce laws in such a control the Australian economy in 1970, for sec way as to perpetuate the system. In both cases, tional advantage, and if so do they still control it what is not done is much more important and con now, and if so how is this dominance maintained, sequential than what actually is done. a~d .what r?le do universities play in maintaining thiS inequality of opportunity? The inhibition of free enquiry, whether enforced by or for societal dominants, inevitably breeds and But then, neither I.C.1. Ltd., nor C.RA Ltd., (northe maintains corruption. For example, to identify C.I.A. nor QueenSland University for that matter) clearly societal dominants in Australia would would be prepared to sponsor research into that require free access to company records and taxa question, would they? tion returns and the right to subpoena witnesses, And when somebody like Raskall does and finds yet the secretive hegemony makes this virtually that 46% of the country's wealth is in the hands of impossible. Nevertheless, an educated guess can 5% of the population, and that the richest 2000 be made if one examines political patronage (e.g. people in Australia own as much as the poorest 2% via mining leases, gambling concessions, statutory million Australians5, the findings are easily ignored apPointments, industry concessions, crown land and our institutionalized academics get back to the transactions, taxation concessions, imperial trivialities that gain them professional recognition honours). and scholarly status. However, with the possible exception of the occa sional vice-chancellor, university academics are mere hacks and functionaries, in unwitting, witless Conclusion service of the dominants. If we are seriously concerned about equality of opportunity and the search for truth, we need to Social Science review the role of the university in institutionalizing As an example of academic contribution to the wel our current system of privilege. I suggest that: fare of societal dominants, we might consider the role of social scientists. Most of the research carried • the appropriate role for a university is the cultiva out by social scientists merely confirms the old tion of enquiring minds (in both staff and students) cliche that 'garbage in means garbage out' as far as rather than professional socialization as at present, empirical research is concerned. • the research that is most in the public interest is enquiry that is independent of vested interests (i.e. Social scientists can 'prove' virtually anything (and eclectic, dialectic enquiry which does not require do) by being selective in the questions they ask and massive funding (from vested interests) or high the methods they use for collecting and interpreting technology (from vested interests) or refereed pub data (and it is impossible for them to carry out their lication, (by vested interests), 38 39 Results TABLE 2: CATALOGUE SEARCHES WHY CAN'T I EVER FIND Neil R~dlord, Irene Rossendell, and Overall Catherine Sexlon A total of 2,991 library users was interviewed, of Failures Successes Total ANYTHING IN THE LIBRARY? University of Sydney Library whom 2,497 provided information relevant to the (Failure Rate) study. The remainder were either not seeking a 217 639 856 Undergraduates specific known item or declined to cooperate. (25.4%) Introduction largest and busiest university library, with holdings Table 1 summarises the data relating to the success 45 106 151 The desperate cri de coeur in the title of this article is approaching three million volumes. Postgraduates all too familiar to university librarians. It is some or failure experiences of the 2,497 users whose (29.8%) times stated more forthrightly as 'I can never find Methodology activities fell within the scope of the study. The overall failure rate was 35.9% but undergraduates, 15 57 72 anything in the library', an excuse not infrequently Following a pilot study in April, 1981 the main study Academics (20.8%) advanced by students to explain poor periormance was conduct~d during seven weeks equally spaced the largest group of library users, experienced a slightly higher rate of failure, 37.4%. 59 143 202 in tutorials or assignments. Those who utter these over the peno? June-November, 1981 (excluding Other (29.2%) phrases are not impressed by the fact that every ~eeks of vacations or examinations). For each day TABLE 1: SUMMARY RESULTS year hundreds of thousands of books were found In each survey week the University of Sydney's 336 945 1,281 and borrowed, and perhaps four times as many ?ample ?urvey ~entr~ provided a schedule specify Failures Successes Total TOTAL (26.2%) were found and used within the library. Exagger Ing the time pe~!Od(s) In which the survey should be (Failure Rate) conducted, which par:t of the Library it should cover, ated though they are, these expressions of user 661 1,106 1,767 A number of studies of catalogue use and the suc frustration do indicate the existence of a significant and the number of Interviews which were to be Undergraduates (37.4%) ~ess a.nd failure of users have employed the ques problem in access to information in universitylibrar obtained there. The Centre's advice, which was designed to ensure a valid and representative sam 95 185 280 tionnaire approach and have based their findings ies. It is a problem which should capture the atten Postgraduates on a self-selected sample of respondents. Several tion of all library administrators, and indeed of all pling of all Library users in all appropriate parts of (33.9%) the catalogue and collections, was based upon data studies, however, have employed the observation who believe that the substantial investment made in 21 75 96 of patterns of use supplied by the Library. The Academics and interview approach of the Sydney study, and it university libraries should result in a service which (21.9%) is with these that the Sydney results should be produces the goods. advi~e and .assistance of the Sample Survey Centre was Invaluable, and is gratefully acknowledged. 120 234 354 compared. Other User failure in the library is of two types. Either the (33.9%) The largest was the American Library Association's user cannot find the wanted item in the library cata F,or the catalogue component of the study, inter viewers observed users at the catalogues according 897 1,600 2,497 1958 analysis of 5,494 interviews of catalogue users logue, or, having found it there, is unable to locate TOTAL 6 to the schedules drawn up by the Sample Survey (35.9%) in thirty-nine libraries of all types and sizes. The the item on the shelves. Failure is not always the overall failure rate for known-item searches was user's fault. The library may fail by not acquiring the Centre and approached users who had just com pleted looking in a drawer of cards. The user was Because of differences in methodology it is difficult 34%. If we consider only the data from the seven wanted item, by not cataloguing it correctly, or by to compare these results with findings elsewhere. teen academic and research libraries which were not reshelving it promptly in its correct place, to cite asked whether the item which was sought had been found. For a positive response the interviewer The majority of other stUdies have used a question part of the study, the failure rate was31.7%. A similar only a few examples. On the other hand, the user naire approach and have based their results On the multi-library study was conducted in 1968-69 at the may be responsible for the failure by, for example, recorded a successful search; in the case of a nega tive response the user was asked what she or he had responses of a self-selected sample. Their findings University of Michigan (covering its General, not using the catalogue correctly or by not being have generally shown an overall failure rate of Undergraduate, and Medical Libraries) and the able to find her or his way in the collection. What b,een searching for and as full a description as pos Sible was recorded on a form, along with the status between 40% and 50%3 but it is at least possible that nearby Ann Arbor Public Library.' The overall fail ever the cause, every instance of failure in a frustrated users were more likely to respond to the ure rate for known-item searches was 28.1 %, and if research library has a detrimental effect on study of the user (und~rgraduate student, postgraduate student, academiC staff, or other). questionnaire than those who had met with suc we consider only the data from the General Library and research. cess. The actual failure rate may really be lowerthan (which would parallel the Sydney study) the failure The problem of user failure in libraries has received ~hes~ failures were subsequently checked by these studies suggest. Two studies which appear to rate was 19%. Third, in 1970 Lipetz studied cata some attention from librarians in Britain and the h~ranans on the survey team to ascertain, if pos have been conducted in a similar way to the present logue use at Yale University's Stirling Library and United States. 1 Two Australian studies have also Sible, the reasons for the user's failure. If the item one showed overall failure rates of 35.4%4 and found a failure rate of 16% for known-item s been reported.2 Most studies have found overall could not be traced in the catalogue with the infor 37.1%5; the Sydney figure can therefore be said to searches. failure rates of between forty and fifty per cent; in mation given an attempt was made to verify the be comparable to other findings. bibliographic details in standard sources. The findings of the Sydney study, that in 26.2% of other words, each time a patron enters a university The overall failure rate, although interesting, is a attempts the users of its catalogues fail to find library there is only a fifty to sixty per cent chance For the shelf component of the study, interviewers less useful statistic than the failure rates expe known items they are seeking, are generally in line that she or he will find the materials wanted. That is observed users at the shelves according to the pre rienced by library users when searching in thecata with the findings of these similar studies. a worrying statistic. determined schedule and approached people who logue and at the shelves, More important than the rate of failure are the rea This paper reports the results of a research project appeared to have finished looking for something. The user was asked whether she or he had been Catalogue Failure sons for failure occurring. Table 3 summarises the at the University of Sydney, funded by ARGS, to The Fisher Library has a number of catalogues, the results of post-interview searching by library staff to determine the extent to which library patrons fail to looking for a specific item (as distinct from brows three ma~n ones being the Name Catalogue (i.e. ascertain them. find wanted material and the reasons for their fail ing) and jf that was the case, whether it had been found. As before, a positive response was recorded authors, titles, and books about authors), the Serials ure. The study was concerned only with failure to Catalogue and the Subject Catalogue. The study, find known items - i.e. items for which the user had as a successful search, while full details were taken in the case of fail.ure. !hese failures were promptly being concerned only with searches for known a bibliographic citation. Attempts tofind material on items, covered the Name and Serials Catalogues. a subject, or success at browsing, were excluded. followed up by librarians to ascertain, if possible, the reason for failure. Failure rates in both were almost identical, being The study investigated failure both at the catalogue 26.3% and 26.2% respectively. The overall catalogue and at the shelves in the main library of the Univer The data were encoded and processed by compu failure rate was 26.2%. Table 2 summarises the data sity (the Fisher Library). The University of Sydney ter using the Statistical Package for the Social relating to the 1,281 catalogue users whose activi Library (Fisher and fifteen branches) is Australia's Sciences (SPSS). ties fell within the scope of the study. 40 41 7 8 TABLE 3: REASONS FOR CATALOGUE same reason , and ten per cent at Yale. Two studies shelves to leave behind details of the items sought As with failure at the catalogues, it is clear that a FAILURES at Case Western Reserve University recorded fail unsuccessfully. It is at least possible that respond majority of shelf failures occurred because of mis ure rates of 12.3% and 8.7% due to the wanted items ents in the former situation are not a representative takes made by the user. Nearly one quarter of the Reason Occurrences % of Total not being held by the library." sample of all users; in the latter situation no overall failures were due to the user having wrongly or Failures measure of success versus failure is possible. incompletely transcribed the book's call number Expressed another way, the University of Sydney library failure from the catalogue card. This represented the most Library holds 90.1 % of the items its users seek there, It is difficult, then, to compare accurately the find Item not held 127 37.8 important single reason for failure at the shelf, and but more than a quarter of the searches in its cata ings of the Sydney study, which questioned a repre the incidence of 23.9% forthis erroris very consider User failure logues will end in failure. Nearly two-thirds of the sentative sample of shelf users to ascertain their ably higher than that found in other studies, which In catalogue, as cited, failures can be categorized as user failure, for one measure of success or failure in finding known have generally been of the order of2% to 10%.14The but not found 84 25.0 reason or another. items. Such comparisons as can be made seem to present authors are unable to guess the reason for indicate that the overall failure rate of 46.1% is sim this significant discrepancy. In catalogue, as cited, Shelf Failure ilar to or higher than that experienced elsewhere. At Having found a wanted item in a library's catalogue, but retrievable 38 11.3 the University of California, Riverside10 and San More than seventeen per cent of the shelf failures the next step - and often the next stumbling block Jose State Universityll questionnaires given to were due to the user having sought a book in the Citation incorrect 50 14.9 - is to locate that item on the shelves. The present patrons asking, inter alia, whether they had found wrong collection. As all books located in collections study investigated the extent of and reasons for 10.7 wanted items revealed failure rates of 26% and 24% other than the Research Library have their locations Used wrong catalogue 36 failure to find wanted items in the two majorcollec respectively. However, a similar study at the Under indicated on the catalogue card (e.g. by a "U" prefix tions in the Fisher Library, the Research and Under Other 1 0.3 graduate Library of the University of Tennessee12 for books in the Undergraduate Library or by the -~ graduate Collections which are in adjOining wings found that 46.2% of shelf searches were unsuccess name of a branch library), this amounts to a failure Sub-total. user failures 209 62.2 of the same building. The Undergraduate Library is ful. Two interview stUdies at the Science Library of on the user's part to appreCiate the significance of TOTAL 336 100.0 an open access collection of some 130,000 Case Western Reserve University found shelf failure the location information provided. The library must volumes, most titles being in multiple copies, while rates of 45.3% and 38.6% respectively.13 take the initiative in ensuring that the various loca It is clear that the majority of failures occurred the Research Library is an open access collection of tion symbols employed are understood by its users. through user failure. More than one-third of the approximately 1.5 million volumes in a tower book The fact that almost one in two searches at the failures occurred because, although the item was stack wing. The Dewey Decimal Classification is shelves for known items which are held by the The third cause of user failure, an inability to find the listed in the catalogue and the user had sufficient used in ooth collections, with the symbol "U" library is doomed to end in failure represents a book on the shelf where it was located, even when information to enable it to be found advantage was preceding the classification numbers for Under worrying hindrance to the work of students and she or he was searching in the right collection, not taken of all the clues available, or the user did graduate Library books. staff. Pinpointing the reasons for these failures and resulted in 15% of all shelf failures. Clearly, some not use them correctly. Nearly fifteen per cent of devising remedial measures to reduce them is there users are unable to understand the arrangement of failures occurred because the user had a citation Failure rates in the two collections were almost fore of considerable importance. Table 5 summar books on the shelves of a library, a finding in accord identical, being 47.6% in the Research Library and which was too far from being correct to enable the izes the results of post-interview searching by with other studies which have found that, generally, item to be found (most commonly a misspelling of 44.7% in the Undergraduate Library. The overall library staff to ascertain this. 15%-25% of items reported as not found are in fact the author's surname). shelf failure rate was 46.1%. Table 4 summarises the on the shelf. 15 data relating to the 1,216 searches at the shelves TABLE 5: REASONS FOR SHELF FAILURES Overall, 62.2% of the failures, or 16.3% of all which fell within the scope of the study. Of the reasons for shelf failure which cannot be blamed on the user, the unavailability of the item searches attempted, were due to user error of one Reason Occurrences % of Total kind or another. This result tallies well with other due to its having been borrowed by another person TABLE 4: SHELF SEARCHES Failures findings. In the ALA study> user failure accounted is the most significant. In the present study 18.4% of User failure for 54.4% of all failures and 17.2% of all searches; at Failures Successes Total shelf failures were caused by the book being in Wrong/incomplete call the University of Michigan General Library7 user (Failure Rate) circulation. Other studies have generally found cir failure accounted for 67.8% of all failures and 12.9% no. 134 23.9 culation to be the cause of a larger proportion of of all searches; Lipetz found at Yale8 that user failure 444 467 911 their shelf failures. Undergraduates (48.7%) Looked in wrong was less serious, being 37.5% offailuresand only six collection 98 17.4 The effect of shelf failure can be expressed another per cent of all searches. This difference is possibly 50 79 129 Postgraduates way. Nearly half of the known items which readers due to the fact that at Yale the majority of catalogue (38.8%) On shelf, in correct ..seek on the shelf will not be found. and more than users were postgraduate students or academic place or close by, but 6 18 24 half of the failures can be categorized as user staff, whereas at Sydney undergraduates were in a Academics not found 84 15.0 (25.0%) failure. clear majority. Sub-total, user failures 316 56.3 61 91 152 Conclusion Other No library can possess everything that has ever (40.1%) Other reasons The results of the study overall could be summar been printed, so some failures at the catalogue were On loan 103 18.4 ized thus: The Fisher Library holds 90% of the items 561 655 1,216 ineVitably due to what might be called Library fail TOTAL its users seek, but more than a quarter of the ure - the failure of the Library to have antiCipated a (46.1%) Removed to Special searches in its catalogues and almost half the need for some items and to have acquired and Reserve 70 12.5 searches on its shelves will end in failure. Overall, catalogued them. Library failure represented 37.8% Almost all other shelf failure studies have relied Unaccounted for 32 5.7 36% of those who enter its doors seeking a known of all failures at the catalogue. Considered in terms upon responses of a self-selected sample of users item will leave without finding it, and half the time of all searches at the catalogue, library failure due to rather than approaching people actually searching On sorting shelves 25 4.4 the failure will be the user's own fault. These find the item not being held accounted for 9.9%. Again, at the shelves. Other studies have either distributed ings are, generally speaking, in line with those of this result is in line with others. The A.LA. study questionnaires to people entering the library, asking Known to be elsewhere similar studies in other libraries. found that 14.5% of catalogue searches ended in them to report their experiences and to give details or missing 15 2.7 failure because the item was not held, 6.1 % failed at of any failures before leaving the building, or have There are lessons in the present study for all who TOTAL 100.0 the University of Michigan General Library for the asked users failing to find wanted items at the 561 seek to maximise the benefits from the very consid- 42 43 erable investment which universities make in their heart of the university, and that a first quality library libraries. is essential to a first quality university. However, the ART STUDY AND THE ART Donald Brook School of Humanities library should be much more than 'a singular orna The Flinders University of South Australia Collection adequacy is very high, with the library ment in the University', to quote Sir Thomas Bod MARKET: WHAT IS THE ROLE owning 90% of all items its users seek. However, as ley's hope for the library he gave to Oxford. It should OF THE UNIVERSITIES? Swanson has pointed out, people try to use the be a partner in the processes of teaching, learning library only when they have good reason to think and research, but it will be a weak partner unless it they will succeed16 and it is plausible to suppose can deliver the goods. that repeated failures will discourage future A small group of energetic and well-intentioned enter the domain of scholarship, even to the extent attempts. REFERENCES Visual Arts students at the Flinders University of commissioning specific research. The universi 1. A useful review of the literature may be found in F.W recently set about the organization of a selling exhi ties themselves are engaging more and more in the For those who do persist, it is clear that the cata Lancaster, The Measurement and Evaluation of bition of so-called 'transitional' art on the campus, marketing of ideas and inventions, and are logue ~ and particularly a large catalogue ~ is Library Services, Washington, Information Resources with the generous intention of making the profits of extremely alert to the advantages of patent owner often an insurmountable obstacle. To an extent, Press, 1977. their enterprise available to the University's Art ship, property rights and other niceties of the busi 2. L Meek, 'Student success rates at Macquarie Univer librarians must take the blame for this. Their choi Museum for the acquisition of new art works for the ness apparatus. ces of entry and of filing hierarchies, while usually sity Library', in Aust. A cad. & Res. Libs., 9, 1978,33-36. O.G. Palmer, Reader failure at the shelf in the Biomedi Collection. This Collection, it should be noticed, consistent and logical, are not always those Resistance to the complete assimilation of univer cal Library of the University of New South Wales, has the primary function of serving the teaching and expected by the innocent user, and remain myste M.Lib. thesis, University of N.S.W, 1978. research needs of the Visual Arts Discipline, as well sity scholarship into the world's ordinary economic, rious to many for whose benefit they were created. 3. T. Saracevic, et a/. 'Causes and dynamics of user frus as those of other researchers and students of art. social and commercial routines is concentrated at Also the card catalogue is not notably hospitable to tration in an academic library', in College & Research 'Transitional' art is work displaying a marked influ two main positions: a sort of defence in depth, with alternative search approaches or to errors on the Ubs., 38, 1977, p. 7. ence of one culture on another (usually the Western more determination applied at the fall-back position user's part. The move to machine-readable cata 4. E.L Palais, 'Availability analysis report, July, 1980, influences on, e.g., North-West Coast Amerindian, than at the front line. The front !ine is drawn roughly logues providing interactive search capability on a (Arizona State University Library), in Assn. of where commercial pressures begin to determine Research Libraries SPEC Kit, 71, pp. 73-82. or Australian Aboriginal) and it is a topic of special variety of bibliographical elements is likely to bring interest within Visual Arts at Flinders. what will be researched and taught in the universi considerable improvement. Until such facilities are 5. J.L Schofield, et al. 'Evaluation of an academic library's stock effectiveness, in J. Ubrarianship, 7, ties. This line is manned principally by extremely available the library must redouble its efforts to 197.5, pp. 207-227. Of course an occasional art sale held on a university conservative academic ideologues who insist that a instruct users in the principles of catalogue use and 6. American Library Association, Catalog use Study, campus, yielding (most probably) little or noprafit, socially endorsed economic need for (let us say) must endeavour to have knowledgeable librarians (Chicago. 1958), Chap. 3. is not a dramatic sample of the art market in action. cheaper energy, or new energy sources, should in on hand to assist those who appear to be in trouble. 7. R. Tagliacozzo, and M. Kochen, 'Information-seeking Nevertheless it is a sample of the art market in no way influence the direction of scientific research behavior of catalog users, in Info. Storage & Retrieval, action, and we had better decide what significant in the universities ~ although it may legitimately do The large proportion of shelf failure which is also 6, 197.0, pp. 363-381. questions of principle, if any, are implicated. Why, so in other parts of the tertiary system and in pub due to users' errors is further proof of the need for 8. SA Lipetz, 'Catalog use in a large research library', in for example, should we not establish a regular art licly funded research organisations such as more intensive and extensive programs of user edu Library Q., 42, 1972, pp. 129-139. dealership operating directly through the Museum, C.S.I.R.O. It is not at all clear what should influence 9. Saracevic, op, cit., p. 12. cation, and for the ready availability of staff to assist to its own profitable advantage? If that is different, these directions: the conception of'pure' research is the unsuccessful searcher. Again, it is likely that 10. 'University of California, Riverside. Library User Sur vey. Final Report', in Assn. of Research Libraries precisely how is it different, apart from scale and notoriously obscure. The ultimate cash value of an librarians are partly at fault for having made their SPEC Kit, 7.1, pp. 1-12. regularity of operation? increment of knowledge is often not assessable, libraries unnecessarily complicated and difficult to 11. J.B Whitlach, & K. Kieffer, 'Service at San Jose State and provides a woefully inadequate criterion of use. The arrangement of books in a large bookstack University: Survey of document availability', in J. The first strong pOintto be made must surely be that purity. is complex and often beyond the understanding of Acad. Librarianship, 4, 1978, pp. 196-199. no Australian university can be taken to task for the user for whom it has been designed. Improve 12. R.H. Smith & W Granade, 'User and library failures in engaging in and with the normal affairs and practi The fall-back position is more vigorously defended ments in signposting and shelf layout are among an undergraduate library', in Coflege & Research ces of the external world tout court. To be more by many more academics. If the universities are to the remedial measures which should be imple Libs., 39, 1978, pp. 467-473. specific: we at Flinders see ourselves as part of the retain their distinctive character and, indeed, their mented. Again, the larger the library the more separ 13. Saracevic, op. cit. world and not as isolated from it. We are interested ultimate raison d'etre, the encroachment of ordi ate locations there are likely to be for the various 14. See, for example, Saracevic, op. cit., and JA Urqu in the things that interest everyone; we are sup nary commerce must be resisted not so much - if hart, & J.L. Schofield, 'Measuring readers' failure at the parts of the collections, and clear guidance in the shelf', in J. Documentation, 27, 1971, pp. 273-286. ported in a range of ways by public and private at all ~ at the point of determination of what is meaning and importance of location information is 15. See, for example, Saracevic, op. cit., Smith & Gra funding; we see nothing wrong in principle with the studied as at the point of determination of how it essential. nade, op. cit., and Palmer, op. cit. buying and sell'lng of works of art as contrasted with shall be studied. Very roughly indeed, it is said to be 16. D.R. Swanson, 'Libraries and the growth of know commerce in other goods and we are generally the scholar's business to perpetuate certain labor It is a cliche, though a true one, that the library is the ledge', in Library 0., 49, 1979, p. 9. pleased and grateful to have our teaching and iously acquired and correspondingly precious research supported by donors who think well of us. standards of probity in the conduct of intellectual No universal claim that scholarship and commerce business. Scientific research must be conducted are incompatible can be made to seem remotely scientifically; research in art history must conform plausible. to the principles of 'the art historical method', and so on. Moral and political considerations can ~ so it is Some comparisons may be useful. In spite of the often suggested ~ be treated either as irrelevant or ambivalence many people feel toward drugs and - as already incorporated into the methodology of quite independently ~ toward multinational corpo scholarship. For example, the testing of a new drug rations, nobody seriously argues that funding will go forward, in a university, strictly in accordance injected more or less directly by multi-national drug with a rigorous procedure built in to the methodol corporations into medical pharmacological and ogy of the subject, ensuring that certain kinds of biochemical research in the universities should all carelessness - and especially the more profitable be rejected. We are thoroughly accustomed to see kinds ~ do not occur. To put the point with crude ing the profits of commercial enterprise of all kinds simplicity: the distinctive function of the universities 44 45 within society is to maintain impeccable standards The point lies deeper, and is not yet clearly exposed; tori cal criteria, and hence that Art is a viable subject intervention in the world can be entirely neutral, but of probity in the conduct of teaching and research, it depends upon a peculiarity of Art (the subject), in its own right, with distinctive subject matter that is some degree of distancing is possible. If we are to to the ultimate advantage of everyone and not to the and not upon a generalisation about commerce. independent of art-institutional practices, and not a seek engagement in the ordinary art-institutional advantage of parties with a current particular inter mere residue of these practices.6 However, this is a practices, instead of detachment from them, we est At any rate, it is to do that rather than - more The study of the visual arts is presently in a state of position that nowadays needs to be argued for: its shall need first of all to show that our studies have a simply still - to make discoveries of a kind or to crisis that can conveniently be explained by refer correctness - whether on my own or on some rationale uncompromised by this engagement and, ence to the example of Cognitive Psychology and teach subjects of a kind that are not made or taught other criteria of art - can no longer be assumed. secondly, we shall need to show that the chosen elsewhere. To some extent we do things that other its putative reduction to Physics. Psychology is not Just possibly Art, like Alchemy before it, is an intel form of our intervention is politically justifiable. people do not do, but our justifying function is to do in crisis - or not in the same crisis - because the lectually unsupportable 'discipline'. And whether There is no way to show that it is not political. things better than they are done elsewhere envisaged reduction is confidently regarded either we incline to my own opinion, that Art is a genuine because, on the negative side, we are free from the as part of a programme for the very distant future, or subject, or to the opinion that it is a topic within !n the case of Australian Aboriginal art, in particular, grosser constraints of the profit motive and, on the as impossible. There is a shared conception, among Anthropology or Social History, etc., we cannot we must be very careful indeed to ensure that our positive side, we have an accumulated resource of cognitive psychologists, of the autonomy of central afford to display an indifference to the way in which public promotion of transitional art and artists does subject-methodologies historically enmeshed with features of their distinctive subject matter. Proposi art works are embedded in art-institutional practi not even seem to be more advantageous to us a comm'ltment to abstract virtues: truth, integrity, tional attitudes, for example, such as beliefs and ces. In particular, we must be extremely alert to the than it is to the people who are the nominal bene distinterestedness, accuracy, honesty, and so forth. desires, are not widely believed to be ripe for operations of the contemporary art market. ficiaries. We may well, as we look at one another, feel some transfer to the distinctively different treatment they would be accorded in a department of Physics. The reason why we must take extraordinary care ! conclude that we should study and be seen to misgivings; but we are surely entitled to see the study the Art Institution (which inevitably includes There are intermediate stations available ~ for can now be brought out clearly. Whereas in Bio game as beyond reproach, whatever we may pri ourselves) with as much objectivity as possible. We vately think of the players. example, in Neurophysiology ~ but psychologists chemistry (for example) scholars are entitled to do not yet believe that their own efforts are seriously some confidence? that the intellectual foundations should not encourage students to sell art for our This description of the position is radically simpli misconceived and that they lack a genuinely auto of their subject are rationally independent of the benefit, and we should not energetically promote fied and idealised, along widely endorsed liberal nomous subject. machinations of the drug industry, in Art we are marketable art - and especially new Aboriginal art bourgeois lines. I mean to draw upon only one main entitled to no comparable certainty. It may well be - without a ready and sound justification for dOing feature that would, I believe, remain recognizable Neither, it is true, do most students of Art believe the case that the intellectual basis of Art studies is it ourselves and for doing it as we do. After all, there even through a comprehensive programme of qual this. The difference is that they should believe, at not accidentally but necessarily related to the art is no shortage of examples of art-promotion and ification and elaboration. It is the idea that Science, least, that the study of Art is under serious intellec market. It may be the case, indeed, that the art commerce to examine, within the cultural ecology History, Medicine, Philosophy, etc., are subjects tual threat, and that the defence had better not take market (along with other features of the Art Institu of the art world. If we think that our own enterprise with distinctive subject-matter and methodologies the ostrich as its model. For some time, and in a tion and its behaviour) is precisely and properly our would somehow be superior, we had better try to variety of ways, it has been forcefully argued that say why. that relate in one way to more or less abstract ~ and 2 subject matter. widely shared - scholarly virtues, and in another works of art do not constitute a natural kind and way to peculiarities of the subject matter, case by that the study ca!Jed Art is ripe for redistribution as a Now it is not impossible to study one's own behav NOTES case. Perhaps Psychology is finally 'reducible' to series of topics within 'real' or 'proper' subjects such iour as an art-promotor, art authenticator, etc., 1. For an overview of some recent opinions on the puta Physics, but for the time being it seems clear that as Economics, Social History, Psychology, Politics, along with the study of the behaviour of others. tive reduction of Cognitive Psychology to PhYSics, see Jerry A. Fodor, Representations, Harvester, Sussex, they are equally subjects in their own right, and that and so on. This rot set in, perhaps, with the Marxist However, our reputation for objectivity and distinte initiative to see art works as (to put it baldly) social restedness is likely to be enhanced if we detach 1981, esp. Part II: 'Reduction and Unity of Science'. the universities are among the most plausible claim 2. One serious attempt, against the current mainstream, ants to custody of the best ways of researching and manifestations with the main ideological function of ourselves as far as possible from the practices we securing the hegemony of the currently ruling wish to place under s8rutiny. Certainly we must not to make plausible the opinion that 'art' is, after all, a teaching them.' 3 'rigid designator' of a natural kind, is to be found in cJass. However, the problem is not attributable only mistake our own indulgence in these practices for James D. Carney, 'A Kripkean approach to aesthetic What, then, have these rather grand generalisations to 'left' political ideology. The Wittgensteinean philo the study of them, as if to organize an art exhibition to do with the propriety of encouraging our stu theories', British Journal of Aesthetics, Vol. 22, No.2, sophical style surfaced a view of art as an 'open (for example) were in itself to study Art If we sell art, Spring 1982. dents to sell art works on campus for the benefit of concept'4 which led, by natural stages, in the direc or profit from the sale of it, or merely authenticate 3. This sort of position is not positively incompatible with the University Art Museum? It is my purpose first of tion of radical versions of an 'institutional' theory of and promote what we profit from, we shall rightly be a conception of works of art as a natural kind or a all to repudiate the suggestion that some universal arts The logical outcome of this theory amounts to a mistrusted. More seriously (for mistrust can be synthetic class. However, it does encourage a massive thesis about the contamination of scholarship by recognition that the concept of art is in no respect unjustified) we shall be unable to defend our own concentration on Art as a topic in the subject-region of commerce is implicated. I do not think that selling significantly transhistorical, and that so-called 'art practice, if we are challenged, in the same way as Political or Cultural History. See, for recent examples things is wicked in principle, or that devoting the of cognate attitudes, such studies as Roger L. Taylor, works' are related only by the quasi-accident of the biochemist - by drawing attention to a widely Art, an Enemy of the People, Harvester, Sussex, 1978. proceeds of business to scholarly purposes is their historical endorsement by a capricious Art acknowledged independence between the intellec wicked in principle; I do not even rely upon the more 4. The locus classicus of 'open concept' theory is Morris Institution that is uncommitted to consistent criteria tual basis of our subject, on the one hand, and the Weitz, The Role of Theory in Aesthetics' in Weitz, M. plausible case that this combination might be repre or principles in its endorsement procedures. In operation of market forces on the other. That is the (ed.), Problems in Aesthetics, Macmillan, NY, 1959. hensible if it were to be indulged without restraint. A brief: there is no such thing (kind) as art, there is point: it has nothing to do with any putative wicked 5. See especially George Dickie, Art and the aesthetic, university department of Pharmacology, for exam only the activity of the Art Institution and the various ness of commerce in genera!, or even of art com Ithaca, N.Y., 1974 and Arthur Danto, The artworld', ple, that set up an on-campus drug warehouse, with residues of that activity. In a similar and much more merce in particular. J. Phil., 61, Oct. 1964, pp. 571-84. For criticisms of special promotion of profitable lines by distin obvious way, there is no such subject as Collect the Institutional Theory see, for example, Richard guished academics, would certainly raise eye There is a further point that must be made. The art Wollheim, Art and its objects, 2nd ed., Cambridge ibles (stamps, vintage cars, matchbox labels, U.P., Cambridge, 1980, esp. Supp. Essay I;The Institu brows; and an equivalent kind of art dealership antique furniture, etc.), although there might very marketing project that stimulated this discussion is assodated w'lth the Art Museum would surely not concerned with transitional art, and the Visual Arts tional Theory of Art'. well be a topic called Collecting, to be situated 6. See my 'A New Theory of Art', in British Journal of need to be made the subject of a thoughtful essay of within genuine subject areas such as Cultural His discipline at Flinders has a special interest in this Aesthetics, 20, 4, 1980. mine as a precondition for the arousal of public tory and Psychology. topic in general, and in the transitional art of the 7. Even this confidence is less than perfect. But we must misgiving. The project under consideration is a little Western Desert people in particular. It scarcely draw our pragmatic lines somewhere. like that, but not enough like that to provoke serious It happens to be my personal conviction that art needs to be pOinted out that our practical engage 8. A useful introduction to the intricacies of art anxiety. objects are identifiable by consistent and transhis- ment in the promotion of an activity so close to the authentication, promotion and marketing is Robert edge of cultural change is inescapably political. No Wraight, The Art Game, Frewin, London, 1965. 46 47 BOOK REVIEWS are examined in very great detail in the essays on demics at the three Sydney universities, (Sydney, Nor were these women less qualified for their work Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland. In the New South Wales and Macquarie) and at the New than the men, judged within the same rank. Initially Universities, Politicians and Bureaucrats: essay on Germany, and in the two essays on France South Wales Institute ofTechnology. They analysed they were more likely to have been motivated by Europe and the United States, (one pre-1968 and one post-1968), and in the essay responses of 430 women (58% of those contacted) intellectual interest and only second.arily by career. ediled by Hans Daalder and Edward Shils on Great Britain and the United States, the limita to the questionnaires they distributed, interviewed Once established, however, they were as interested Cambridge University Press, 1982, Table 01 Contents, Preface, tions of space required much more sweeping gen some of the women at length, compared informa in research as in teaching, and published work and Chapters 1 to 13, list of Authors. pp. i-viii, 1-511. Recommended eralizations to be attempted by the authors. tion received from 122 randomly selected male aca attended conferences at a comparable rate. Cer retail price: $92.00. In almost every case there is a concentration on the demics, and evaluated the material in the context of tainly the sheer numbers of women at the tutoring internal affairs of the country described, sometimes other Australian and overseas' investigations. and demonstrating level might sustain a model of women as 'housekeepers' of a department. Looking This is a big book. It is an important book. It is a with passion and with strong judgments and views, The result is an illuminating, useful and highly read but with a feeling that the events and conflicts des at women in the ranks of lecturer and above, how collection of thirteen essays of special value to all able study, which not only establishes persuasively ever, the writers found female academics certainly those concerned with the relations between govern cribed were going on with little awareness of what factors many of us are already aware of, but knocks was happening in other countries. did not consider their work as solely in supportive ments and universities and other institutions of down some stereotypes about academic women roles. higher learning. It is a pity that its price puts it that are shown to be ill-based and are certainly Readers should be warned that in some cases, par In terms of a serious commitment to an academic beyond the reach of most of us except as reading damaging. Some may wish that a higher proportion ticularly with the essays on Germany, France, Italy career, then, there was little to distinguish the sexes, borrowed from a library. of those academics contacted had replied. AI! and the United States, some background know but there remained significant differences. Women ledge of the histories and structures of universities would wish that publication of the research had not The book was conceived in 1974 when the execu were more likely to have Australian degrees, less in the countries concerned is desirable if misunder been so long delayed. The findings must, however, tive of the International Council on the Future of the likely to have other work experience, less likely to standings are to be avoided. demand our serious attention. There is no reason to University decided that an international study think that the situation outlined in Why so Few? is have worked in other universities. They tended to should be undertaken of the changes in university Perhaps to Australians there are special messages different from that in other states, nor that the posi have undertaken postgraduate research at a later government that in many Western countries had in the essays on Germany, Switzerland and the tion of women academics has changed substan stage, to have been oriented towards a career at a come about since the late 1960s, often as a result of United States because of the differing FederaliState tially since the research was undertaken. (A report later stage, to have entered the profession at a lower legislative action. Dr. Hans Daalder, Professor of problems which arose in those countries. carried out by the Melbourne University Assembly level and progressed, jf they progressed at all, more Political Science at Leiden University, was asked to last year showed little change since their' 1975 slowly up the academic ladder. Women were simply organize a team of scholars to undertake such a For anyone who was involved in the conduct of investigation). and patently not equal with men in the academic study. This book is the result. university affairs during the years 1967 to 1974/5 in community. Australia, these essays should be compelling It is hardly surprising, though worth reiterating, that The date of its conception is perhaps sufficient reading. female, like male, academics, emerge from middle When academics were asked for the reason for the explanation of the concentration upon the years and upper middle class family backgrounds; only imbalance of sexes in the university, some respon 1968 to 1973 and the years following. The original The Cambridge University Press has, as usual, pro one in five respondents were from working-class ses showed that notions of inherent biological dif group of countries chosen for study did not include duced a book of respectable quality. There are, for families. Four out of ten women had attended pri ference and female intellectual inferiority were still Great Britain, the United States, or Switzerland. these days, relatively few typographical errors. vate schools. They were likely to have come from alive. 'Men and women are essentially different and there is something very nasty and wrong with the Those countries were added later. It is understand David Derham small families, were often only children or the older able, therefore, that the watershed year was pro of two. Their parents were mostly highly educated, idea that they should be the same', proclaimed one Formerly Vice-Chancellor male academic; a male science professor wrote 'Far vided by 1968 when the disturbances in the French University of Melbourne their mothers had often worked after marriage and universities seemed to begin trouble all over their families had seldom suggested that a career fewer women are interested in purely intellectual Europe. and a family were mutually exclusive. It is depress achievement than men. Women in general are more submissive: (Conservative views clearly, emerged Here are valuable essays on Germany, France, Italy, Why So Few? Women Academics In ing that the social class origins of academics showed little change over time. The women were from men who maintained traditional family role Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Australian Universities demarcations with wives, an interesting insight into Sweden, Finland, Switzerland, and Great Britain shown to be socially progressive on most issues Bellina Cass, Madge Dawson, Diana relating to women; it was a pity that their opinion on their supposedly 'objective' public stance). The and the United States. A thirteenth essay by Hans Temple, Sue Wills and Anne Winkler majority of respondents, however, attributed the Daalder entitled The Sudden Revolution and the the desirability of state support for private schools Sydney University Press, 1983. was not solicited. situation to a combination of societal and institu Sluggish Aftermath: A Retrospect since 1968 tional factors: an awareness that the university not attempts to sum up the general matters which The myth, indeed, that female academics are con only inherited problems created in the outside seemed to emerge from the earlier chapters. In Why So Few?: Women Academics in Australian servative, and anti-feminist, was shown to be society, but, in fact, was part of that sexist society, It must have been a difficult task to bring so many Universities, five Sydney academics address them erroneous. These Sydney women tended to be left was widespread. To quote a few responses: 'It is not scholars to the sticking pOint with contributions selves to a familiar problem: that after a century of wing, as did the men, and took a more radical posi socially acceptable for a woman to be in a position with sufficient common purpose to make a collec university education, women, while numerous at tion on the key feminist issues of contemporary of authority;' 'One's physical attractiveness (or lack tion of this kind, and it apparently took quite a long the undergraduate level, remain a minority in the society. Nor did the investigators find any basis to of it) seems quite an important factor in, one's time to bring the essays together. Similarly, the pub academic profession, and are seriously under the belief that women stumble into academic acceptance in some departments;' 'There has been lishers seem to have been slow in producing the represented in the senior ranks of the academic careers by chance. True, they were more likely than discrimination against women applicants unless their qualifications are clearly superior to male book itself. It is a little disappointing because the hierarchy. Female teachers are clustered in demon men to have been directly encouraged by a male competitors. ' publication was in 1982, but the essays are really strating, tutoring and research assistant work, and academic to embark on a career. But the female respondents had been drawn to their work on the only up to date with events to about 1978. Further, in temporary and part-time positions. They are Society first conditions women in such a way as to because of the different natures of the tasks which more numerously represented in arts and social basis of a good academic record, the majority had maintained continuity of employment (albeit some make opting for a serious academic career unlikely, faced the various authors, differences produced by science faculties, but are few in the male domains of but, the authors suggest, the differing sizes and complexities of the countries engineering, medicine, veterinary science and times in a part-time capacity), and they reported concerned, the thrust and penetration of each essay science itself. To investigate this problem, the satisfaction in their work and a desire to stay in the The university system reinforced affthose ear varies considerably. For example, domestic matters authors undertook in 1974 a survey of female aca- profession. lier lessons with rewards for conformity and 48 49 penalties for non-conformity to those socially Higher Education lor Everyone ground: whereas offspring of parents in the profes What may be true for individuals may also be true constructed sex roles, University decision sional and managerial classes regard entry to for nations. Against a background of the develop makers, whether they be administrators or E.G. Edwards Spokesman, Nottingham, 1982, pp. 199. higher education as a real possibility, as a normal ment of the world economy and the growth of scien academics, are predominantly males who, as occurrence in their lives, offspring of parents of tific knowledge over the last three centuries, our respondents clearly saw, do openly or manual workers regard higher education as alien, otherwise discriminate against women? Edwards argues convincingly that there is a funda and their entry into it as highly improbable. One mental connection between investment in human One does not expect vice-chancellors to write radi In particular, the report pOints to the crucial role of would therefore expect student demand to be much educational resources and economic growth. How cal books about higher education. This book, the structure of the successful academic career as a more closely correlated with the size of the profes ever, he cautions: whose author was for twelve years Vice-Chancellor barrier to the advancement of women in academia, sional and managerial classes than with that of the of the University of Bradford, is radical in that it for it makes appear as negative factors circumstan population as a whole, and Edwards shows that in ... whether the connection is actually realised argues for a reform of the franchise of higher educa ces common in a woman's career experience. The Britain this is in fact the case. in practice in a particular country depends on tion. It shows why official predictions of student its will and confidence to take advantage of achieving male moves swiftly from his under demand for higher education have so often been world trends In the application of knowledge graduate degree into postgraduate work, estab Does Edward's model explain changes in the size of wrong, and is essential reading for all who are con to material progress (p. 121). lishes his credentials early and moves into a the higher education systems of Australia and New cerned with policy-making and planning for higher Zealand? There are marked similarities. Here, as in lecturing position by the time he is in his mid to late The contemporary retreat from the expansion of twenties. If he marries, all the better: his research education. Britain, the period of rapid expansion began in the higher education, at its most acute in Britain, is seen mid-50s. And, though knowledge of the class com output is likely to be enhanced, as a wife often The author's aim is to explore the idea that the as a crisis of national confidence, establishes herself as a second partner in his career, pOSition of the New Zealand student population is franchise of higher education should be greatly as yet rather sparse, what data there are suggest a failure of nerve in the face of the challenge of offering emotional support, care and a personal widened - that higher education should be "for the new age of the micro-computer and the commitment to his success. considerable under-representation of the offspring everyone". Just as primary education in the 19th of fathers of low socio-economic status. Data from associated rise of the new highly advanced forms of production which the knowledge Not so for the typical female academic. Only sixty century, and secondary education in the 20th, Australia are more complete and clearly demon became available as of right to aU in the developed revolution is bringing into existence (p. 159). per cent overall were married, and only forty per strate, as do the data from Britain, the perSistence of world, so higher education may follow suit. Today's cent had children, which is partly a result of the massive class bias. Edwards' book makes it abundantly clear that policy makers, preoccupied as they are with costs predominance of young women in junior positions. higher education has a key role to play in equipping rather than" benefits, may regard such a change as The first part of Edward's book, with its penetrating The married female academics who bore children both individuals and nations to cope with tomor most unlikely; Edwards himself regards it as by no analysis of both historical and contemporary data found in marriage and family life a distraction and a row's world. Far from being an item of luxury con means inevitable. After reading this book, however, on the size and class composition of British higher barrier to promotion, as they often needed to take sumption, a vital and growing education sector has one realises that mass higher education is not pie in education, forms a springboard for, in the succeed time out for child bearing and child rearing, and become a prerequisite for the realisation of human the sky, and that there may be rich rewards for ing chapters, discussion of related themes - the they lacked the domestic support system provided societies which move swiftly in this direction. social and economic significance of higher educa aspirations. for males by a wife. In 'dual career' families, the tion, the 'crisis of national confidence' afflicting Bri wife's career continued to be seen as of secondary David C.B. Teather Among the strengths of this book are its perspec tain's entry into the computer age, and the reasons importance. Married men appeared stable and Higher Education Development Centre tives. For example, in his treatment of the numerical advanced by those who advocate the main University of Otago secure; married women in child-bearing years, a expansion of higher education in Britain, Edwards tenance of the status quo. doubtful investment. Well might the writers say that not only draws data from the post-Robbins period, Distance Education at Swedish Universities. in the end, they wondered if their basic question but from the previous 150 years. Data from five Whereas the curricula and the institutional forms of An Evaluation of the Experimental should have been, not 'why so few?' but 'how so other countries of Western Europe are included for higher education have altered greatly during the Programme and a Follow-up Study many?' comparison. 19th and 20th centuries, and will continue to adjust to social demands, the social significance of higher Willen, Birgilta, 1981 Given the special combination of background The popular myth of a more-or-Iess stable situation ACTA University Uppsala Studies in Education 16; 301 pp. factors In the lives of academic women and education has remained unchanged. Its signifi which gave way to a rapid expansion following the cance, for Edwards, is that it trains society's leaders, ISBN 91-554-1228-9. ISSN 0347-1314 the barriers that women need to overcome to publication in 1963 of the Robbins Report is gain a toehold on the academic ladder, let i.e. the members of the managerial and professional debunked. Edwards shows that from the 1860s to Within the sparse, though growing literature on Dis alone climb it, the wonder is that so many classes. tance Education, Birgitta Willen's Distance Educa make it even to the bottom rung. the mid-1950s the number of students in higher education in Britain expanded in a remarkably regu Because of the changes in the nature of work as we tion at Swedish Universities is an important All Australian academics will find this study instruc lar, exponential fashion, doubling every 26 years. move towards a knowledge-based, service-o[iented addition. tive, and all should read it, Some universities, cer From 1955 to 1970 a new exponential rate, with a economy, many more people will need skills of self Distance Education through correspondence tainly Sydney and Adelaide, are undertaking steps doubling time of 8 years, was achieved. The fact that management and self-renewal which, in the past, courses has a history of about 200 years in America to change the lamentable position of women in data from Britain and the five countries of continen have been the hallmarks of the professional class. and Europe. In Australia, external studies began at academia. The writers make useful suggestions tal Europe followed the same pattern, necessitates To meet these needs the further expansion of higher the University of Queensland in 1911, the Royal about policies that could be implemented, and initi an explanation that is common to all. education is essential: Melbourne Institute of Technology in 1916 and then atives to raise consciousness about sexism on the Edwards explains these data by suggesting that the The fundamental quality of education ... is its were institutionalised with the establishment of the campus. One can only hope that Australian aca University of New England in 1954. demics, whose attitudes are clearly changing on size of the higher education system has been lar role in enabling us to move from being the blind playthings of forces beyond our control these issues jf the Sydney study is a true guide, will gely determined by student demand, and develops Quite dramatically in the 1970s about forty Austral a simple model for the speed of expansion of stu to becoming the creators of our own future match perceptions and beliefs with appropriate ... In modern society only that section of the ian tertiary institutions entered the external studies behaviour, and support such efforts as those by dent numbers. The key variables are the numbers of population whose education takes them to market. They came with a range of motives, from FAUSA to reverse the low status of women in young people who recognise that entry to higher the point of comprehending and use this role the idealistic promise of serving the new mature academia. education is a real possibility for them and the value of knowledge, can enjoy fully that increased student, to the simple desire to survive in the market they place on entering higher education as com freedom to determine their own lives which is place where full time students were diminishing and Patricia Grimshaw pared with other courses of action. made possible by cultural and technical pro new clients had to be found for the tertiary History Department gress (p. 113). University 01 Melbourne These variables are crucially affected by class back- providers. 50 51 sample and it was no doubt hoped that the response istics they sought when choosing new young staff Dr Martin states, inter alia, that the 'Report of the rate would be very high. In fact the response rates of were, in order of importance, immediate value to the LETTERS TO THE EDITOR Executive to the Members of the Staff Association 39% (1976 graduates) and 43% (1978 graduates) organisation, the perceived future 'trainability' of the Public Relations on the Recent Dismissal of a Tenured Member of suggests that the employment findings should be applicant for a managerial position, specific areas of the Academic Staff of the University' (dated 11 July, approached with some caution e.g. 1978 respond skill, the applicants career objectives, and a combi From G, Pickford' 1980) "does not attemptto address the full complex ents expressed a higher level of job satisfaction in nation of personal qualities such as drive, motiva ity and ramifications of the case" (loc.cit. p.4). Dr the first job than the 1976 respondents. Some of the tion, presentation and interpersonal skills. The article "The need for University Public Rela Martin should be aware that this was at no time the findings were unremarkable (that work experience tions" by Stephen Johnston was interesting in that it intention of the Executive. In fact the Executive prior to graduation has a positive effect on the level It is interesting to note that students and graduates outlined the problem very perceptively, but offered conceived that its primary duty to the members of of job satisfaction in a first job) others are now of chose 'the ability to communicate with others' as the as a solution most of the things that Universities the Association was to maintain impartial vigilance historical interest (that 3% of the 1976 survey group key to success in employment. currently do. in the course of what emerged as an integrated and 10% of the 1978 respondents were not It is clear to me that the things Universities are doing process of discipline of a tenured member of the employed at the time of the survey). In conclusion the author recommended further investigation through similar studies on a national now to improve their relations with the public are academic staff of the University. It was certainly not Most readers would find the findings in regard to the basis and it is to be hoped that reports on further not working, and therefore fresh approaches are the role of the Executive to make an evaluative attitudes of employers of greatest interest. Employ work on this important topic will be forthcoming needed. I did not find any untried approaches in judgement of the conduct of Dr Spautz or the sub ers rated 'the ability to communicate with others' as before long. Stephen Johnston's article. stanco of his "campaign" in the University. being the most important quality that a new gradu My own experience at the University of Wollongong Geoff Curthoys ate or diplomate should possess, and the character- John A. Goodwin University of Melbourne leads me to believe that there are two steps, very Robert Mackie simple ones, that need to be taken. 29 June 1983 "The Corbett Report and After" - comment 1. Universities must, within themselves, cease to a From see contact with the outside world as undesir Dr, John Halch able and damaging to the University image. Department of Economics, University of Adelaide 2. Universities must get interested members of the public actively involved in working for, and I read with much interest the paper by Peter Mayer, financially supporting, that part of the University Vestes, Vol 26.1 entitled "The Revolution of 1981: which interests them the most. The Corbett Report and After", which outlines recent changes in the governance of the University The first step must precede the second. of Adelaide. As someone who has spent the last sixteen years of their academic career at the Univer Everything else that is mouthed about University sity of Adelaide, most recently as a Departmental public relations is quite simply rubbish. Chairperson, I found it in general a lively and bal Giles Pickford anced view of what has been occurring. It is of 18 May 1983 interest in itself, but also because it may throw light on other attempts at administrative 'revolution'. *Giles Pickford has worked at the Australian Vice Chancellors' Committee and in four Australian Universi I would like however to clarify what J think are a ties. He is currently the Executive Officer of the Friends of couple of slightly misleading comments, or perhaps the University of Wollongong Ltd. which he helped to omissions. I hope that these will not be interpreted create. as special pleading, but rather indicative of some of the complex issues which arise when hard deci sions have to be made. My queries relate to Dr "Disruption and Due Process" a reply Mayer's discussion of the so-called Compact, which From was an attempt to achieve a: systematic and equit Associate Professor G, Gurthoys. President. able reduction of academic staff members. ! should and Mr, R. Mackie. Secretary. University 01 Newcastle Staff Association immediately declare myself by stating that J am Chairman of one of the two Departments, Econom We refer to Brian Martin's article 'Disruption and ics, in one of the two Faculties which in Dr Mayer's Due Process: The Dismissal of Dr Spautz from the words " ... sought ... to repudiate the Compact". It is University of Newcastle' (Vestes, Vol. 26, 1983, No.1, true that the Economics Faculty, and the Engineer pp. 3-9), concerning the conduct of Or M.E. Spautz ing Faculty, quite separately opposed the Compuct. within the University of Newcastle and the statutory However, in Economics we did not oppose it on dismissal of Dr Spautz from a senior lectureship. prinCiple, but rather in detail, and I think that this Apart from the issue of the wisdom of publication of reflected the enormous problems involved in prac a detailed analysis and comment at a time when Or tice, in implementing contraction. This relates to my Spautz is pursuing before courts of law various second quibble. Dr Mayer coyly, but I think wisely, claims in respect of events leading up to the dismis rarely mentions Faculties or Departments by name, sal of him from office, the question arises whether but in discussing the implementation of the Com Dr Martin fully appreciates the nature of the role of pact he states that "The largest absolute reductions the University of Newcastle Staff Association in the in staffing levels .. were in the Faculties of Arts and University proceedings in the matter of Or Spautz. Science which are to be reduced by 9 per cent and 54 55 8 per cent respectively" (my parenthesis). It is true haps therefore over-generous to Arts and Science that the largest absolute reductions were "asked" of to give the impression that they were particularly the Faculties of Arts and Science; not surprisingly; accommodating. The opposite was probably true. these Faculties are the largest by far. It seems curi ous to make this point and then to present percen There were many other complications which made tage reductions, which are hardly absolute figures. acceptance and even later implementation of the The truth of the matter is that in terms of relative Compact divisive and difficult. If Dr Mayer's paper reductions Arts and Science were asked to do no and these comments do nothing else, then they more than the Economics and Engineering Facul should indicate how difficult is the task of managed ties. In addition, Economics and Engineering are for decline and reorganisation. whatever reasons clearly rapid growth subjects in John Hatch terms of student numbers and interests. It is per- 7 July 1983
56 -
A New Jou mal
PROMETHEUS
The Journal of Issues in Technological Change, Innovation, Information Economics, Communication and Science Policy
Volume 1 Number 1 June 1983
CONTENTS
Ed itorial
The economics of uranium enrichment A.D. Owen
Telecommunications in Australia: an historical perspective, 1854·1930 Ann Moval
DiversitV. economics and the Austral ian newspaper industry Allan Brown
The transfer of industrial technology to Western Pacific developing countries Hall Hill and Brian Johns
International trade and welfare implications of transborder data flows Meheroo Jussawalla
Broadcasting in the 19205: government and private interests Alan Barnard
The international realpolitik of science and technology policy Clem Tisdell
Australia's dependence on imported technology· some issues for discussion P.J. Morris
I nformatics and law reform M.D. Kirby
Techniques for !J.Iiding the allocation of resources among rival research projects: Jock R. Anderson and state of art Kevin A. Parton
The nature of Australian regional input-output multipliers A.C. Jensen and G.A. West
Book Reviews
Published by the Editors, Don Lamberton, Stuart Macdonald, Thomas Mandeville, and printed by University of Queensland Press. Two issues annually. Annual subscription rates, including postage, are within Australia $25.00, overseas $30.00 (airmail). Cheques should be made payable to University of Queensland Press. Order from: Clare Lamberton. Information Research Unit, Depart ment of Economics, University of Queensland, St. Lucia. Qld. 4067, Australia.
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