Book Chapter

Ceramic technology between past and present : a study of Malian traditions

MAYOR, Anne

Abstract

Ceramic studies in archaeology have long focussed only on the stylistic classication of artefacts, through space and in time, based on morphological and decorative criteria. Few researchers were interested in the technical and functional aspects. It is now accepted that a set of stylistic traits does not necessarily coincide with a certain population. Many studies have demonstrated that technical aspects, on the other hand, are closely correlated to the identity of the producer group, as they often result from an early apprenticeship within the ethno-linguistic group. The transmission of technical knowledge can also follow other social configurations, such as clan, socio-professional class, or gender. Technical elements therefore provide essential information, even if they seem difficult to access. Furthermore, all pottery is produced in a particular context and is made to be used. The artisan will therefore make technical choices that take into account environmental and cultural constraints, as well as intended use. Studying the technical variability of ceramic assemblages thus aims at understanding the artisans' [...]

Reference

MAYOR, Anne. Ceramic technology between past and present : a study of Malian traditions. In: Smith Livingstone A., Cornelissen E., Gosselain O. & MacEachern S. Field Manual for African Archaeology. Tervuren : Royal Museum for Central Africa, 2017.

Available at: http://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:97520

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1 / 1 286 Field Manual for African Archaeology. Chapter 6

CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY BETWEEN PAST AND PRESENT: A Study OF MALIAN TRADITIONS Anne Mayor1

THEORIES MODELS INTRODUCTION Ceramic studies in archaeology have long focussed only on the stylistic classification of artefacts, through space and in time, based on morphological and decorative criteria. Few researchers were interested in the technical and functional aspects. It is now accepted that a set of The present The past stylistic traits does not necessarily coincide with a certain regularities population. Many studies have demonstrated that technical aspects, on the other hand, are closely correlated to the identity of the producer group, as they often result Ethno- Archaeo- archaeology from an early apprenticeship within the ethno-linguistic logy group. The transmission of technical knowledge can also mechanisms scenarios follow other social configurations, such as clan, socio- professional class, or gender. Technical elements therefore provide essential information, even if they seem difficult to access. Furthermore, all pottery is produced in a particular context and is made to be used. The artisan will therefore make technical choices that take into account environmental and cultural constraints, as well as intended use. Studying the technical variability of ceramic assemblages thus aims at understanding the artisans’ OBSERVATIONS technical choices and their meanings. The technological Fig. 1. The ethnoarcheological approach, applied to the study of analysis of archaeological ceramics involves a recon- ceramics (Mayor 2011: fig. 1). struction of the different manufacturing steps following a chaîne opératoire framework (see Gosselain, this volume, pp. 292-295). The main stages are clay processing, I. AN ETHNOARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE shaping, finishing, and firing. CERAMIC TRADITIONS OF MALI In archaeology, the interpretation of ceramics usually re- As a case study, we will examine ethnoarchaeological fers to – explicitly or not – a series of knowledge built by research conducted by a team from the University of Ge- different approaches. Ethnoarchaeology (see Lyons, this neva and devoted to Malian ceramic traditions. It contrib- volume, pp. 270-274) provides explicit references that are uted to a renewal of our understanding of the history of useful for interpreting the past by studying systematically, technical systems and populations in the Niger Bend. in the present, the links between ceramics and their vari- Following a theoretical analysis that acknowledged ous meanings, as well as the mechanisms behind observed the impasse faced by archaeologists when interpreting regularities. Technological analyses therefore often rely ancient artefacts, due to a lack of understanding of eth- on ethnoarchaeology (fig. 1), and other approaches such nographic realities, the MAESAO team from the Univer- as experimental archaeology or archaeometry. These sity of Geneva, led by Alain Gallay and Eric Huysecom, methods are varied and borrow elements from cultural launched a broad ethnoarchaeological project in Mali to anthropology as well as analytical tools from the natural understand the relationships between ceramic traditions sciences (see Livingstone Smith and de Francquen, this and ethnic groups (Gallay et al. 1998). We will summa- volume, pp. 173-179). rize what was learned through this research, which was carried out from 1988 to 2011, in order to explain how to

1 University of Geneva, Switzerland. obtain data that can renew our understanding of the past. A. Mayor. Ceramic technology between past and present 287

POUNDING IN A CONCAVE FORM HOLLOWING AND DRAWING OF A LUMPSUPERIMPOSITION MOLDING OVER A AND DRAWING OF CONVEX FORM LARGE RINGS

PHASE 1 PHASE 1 PHASE 1 PREFORM PHASE 1 PREFORM PREFORM PREFORM

OR OR

PHASE 2 BASE + BODY PHASE 2 BASE PHASE 2 BASE PHASE 2 BODY PHASE 2 BASE + BODY

R R R

c c PHASE 3 BODY PHASE 3 BODY PHASE 3 BASE PHASE 3 BODY

c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c OR OR PHASE 4 BODY

c c c c c c

PHASE 3 RIM PHASE 4 RIM PHASE 4 RIM PHASE 5 RIM PHASE 4 RIM

R R R

PHASE 5 BASE PHASE 5 BASE PHASE 6 BASE

Fig. 2. Schematic ‘chaines opératoires’ for the four main shaping techniques practiced in the Niger Bend (Mayor 2011: fig. 3).

288 Field Manual for African Archaeology. Chapter 6

SPATIAL INSERTION OF SETTLEMENTS AND Tombouctou DYNAMICS OF INTERETHNIC RELATIONS Songhay migration Site (or site Identity of Identity of Site location in space) function ceramic inhabitants relation to Contacts with the Songhay, producers settlement borrowing and transformation territory by the Peul and northern Somono 16°

Functional theme of ceramics Lake Débo P2 P4 Somono endogamous network from the ‘water people’ Percentage of traditions P1 plateau de Bandiagara P3 Shaping techniques Contacts with the Mossi Firing atmosphere and the Songhay, borrowing and transformation Decorating techniques Diafarabé (traditions A+B) Height H Ceramic traditions Djenné

Max. diameter M r e ig Potter tools N Opening diameter O Contacts with the Bwa, borrowing Macroscopic technical and transformation (Dogon, tradition D) O/M index marks Bambara N H/M index Bani migration Shape of foot W E

Traces of use and and body S 13° 100 KM wear Degreasers A.M. 2005 Moulding over concave form Special Moulding over convex form adjustments Clay colours Hollowing of lump of clay on bowl Hollowing of lump of clay on mould Pounding on diagonal weave Food residues Decorations Pounding on straight weave Pounding on fired clay mould Pounding on wooden mould Pounding on unfired clay mould DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS 6° 5° 4° 3° Fig. 4. Current distribution of shaping techniques and historical movements of populations responsible for their development (Mayor Fig. 3a. Diagram showing the links between selected relevant descrip- 2011: pl. 5 modified.) tive features and interpretations in terms of the spatial integration of settlements and the dynamics of inter-ethnic relations (Mayor 2011: fig. 59.)

Production of ceramics Certain ceramic traditions are characterised by a manner of working and P1 aesthetic properties that reflect the ethnolinguistic identity of producers Consumption of ceramics P2 Recipients in a dwelling unit reflect the identity of the inhabitants P3 Dimensions of recipients reflect their function Spread of ceramics The spatial distribution of a ceramic tradition reflects the structure of P4 the producer group’s population

Fig. 3b. Examples of regularities linking material facts with interpretation, and structuring the research.

1 A. Mayor. Ceramic technology between past and present 289

Such a goal demands that specific methodological require- Following the qualitative study of ethnographic data ments be observed during field surveys: and the first implementation of archaeological testing on - An extensive strategy: in order to understand the ce- locations with a varying degree of temporal and spatial ramic traditions of a region a wide geographical area must association, (e.g., Huysecom 1996), it was necessary to be covered, and enquiries must be made in many villages, re-examine the archaeology of the Niger Bend in the light with potters and customers from diverse socio-cultural of information about current ceramic traditions. The idea backgrounds. The idea is to approach the complexity of re- was to develop a new understanding of the history of ality and to get an accurate picture of technical boundaries. technology and populations (Mayor, 2011; Mayor et al. - A restricted objective: with limited time and resourc- 2005). This involved the adoption of three complemen- es, a consequence of the previous requirement is that one tary approaches (see Stahl, this volume, pp.250-252). must restrict oneself to the study of ceramics and of the elements that contribute to their understanding. This re- A. The ethnoarchaeological approach quires discipline, in order to put aside other exciting topics Based on field data, we conducted a quantitative study of encountered in the field. the current variability of ceramic traditions of the Inner - Numerous data: Obtaining statistically relevant infor- Niger Delta and its surroundings, by mapping the ethnic mation requires that enquiries be both sufficiently numer- groups and the spatial distribution of elements related to ous and systematized. Each location must be geo-located shaping and decoration techniques. This allowed us to se- (see Ozainne, this volume, pp. 157-162), and researchers lect a number of criteria identified as culturally relevant: should work with standardized forms (village, compound, shaping and decorating techniques to identify producer potter, pottery, market), completed by semi-structured in- groups; dimensions of containers to deduce function; terviews and observations, recorded in notes, photographs percentage of traditions within the inhabited units to and/or videos. Ceramic production can be documented deduce the identity of the inhabitants (fig. 3 a & b). It by interviewing potters, studying tools, making detailed is important to select the descriptive criteria carefully, recording of various operational systems (fig. 2), observ- according to the purpose of the study, because it is not ing of different ceramic types, as well as through the ob- possible to study everything. In our case, it turned out servation of firing processes. This may be supplemented that the morphology of the vessel rims, a very popular by a sampling of raw materials and finished products for criterion among archaeologists, had very little relevance laboratory analysis. Product distribution can be studied by in cultural terms. surveying customers in markets and by comparing those observations to the data obtained from potters’ and con- B. The ethnohistorical approach sumers’ interviews. It can also be addressed by investigat- To address historical depth, we conducted a study of spo- ing (and drawing) pottery used in compounds. ken and written sources to identify the dynamics underly- - Formulating the associations observed between ing the settlement of various ethnic groups, their inter- material facts and their meanings in the form of rules: actions and their transformations. We know that ethnic in order to ensure that the results of ethnographic studies entities are not static and underwent recomposition over be easily exploited in the interpretation of archaeological time. It is therefore important to collect traditions con- remains, it is useful to adopt clear formulations in the form cerning myths of origin and migratory routes, conflicts or of proposals or ‘regularities’. Also, to recognize shaping past alliances with neighboring groups, and/or changes techniques used in the past, it is important to identify spe- in language, name, economic specialty, or religion. The cific macro-traces left by present-day techniques, as did E. terminology of current ethnic entities should be handled Huysecom (1994). critically and cautiously when looking back in time.

II. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A MODEL OF INTER- C. The archaeological approach PRETATION OF THE PAST We analyzed the archaeological documentation avail- After documenting and analysing current ceramic tradi- able for sites in the Niger Bend, focusing on chronologi- tions, the final step is to assess the historical depth of these cal data, techno-economic characteristics, ceramics, and ceramic traditions and see if there are objective links be- those settlement hypotheses proposed by researchers. A tween the archaeological past and the present. Here is, for focus on central Mali meant that it was not possible to example, how we proceeded in the Niger Bend. understand the significance of the spatial and temporal 290 Field Manual for African Archaeology. Chapter 6

Niger

Tilemsi

MANDE SONGHAY

SARO Niger Bani

Volta blanche GUR Volta noire

Bani MALI

Volta rouge

0 km 50 100

Fig. 5. Summary of relations between ceramic traditions and linguistic groups in the Niger Bend before the 15th century (Mayor 2011: fig. 88.)

distribution of selected descriptive criteria. We therefore the technique of pounding on a diagonal mat in the del- expanded the spatial scale, which allowed us to examine ta north of Lake Debo (fig. 4). Before the 13th to 15th contrasting areas. The careful choice of a spatial and tem- centuries, the large historical depth no longer allows us poral scale, neither too big nor too small, is important if to speak in terms of current ethnic groups, but it is still we are to make sense of the data. possible to propose an overall correlation between cer- By comparing the synchronic and diachronic data on tain pottery techniques and ethnolingistic affiliations on social dynamics and ceramic attributes, we developed a the basis of their geographical distribution and historical model of evolution of ceramic traditions in two phases: evolution. For example, in the Niger Bend, the ‘drawing before and after the period between the 13th and 15th of a lump’ technique and rolled impressions with braided centuries AD, which is characterized by a significant strop roulette can be associated with the Gur language historical and archaeological break in West Africa. For family, while the molding technique on a concave mould the period after this break, it is possible to correlate the and impressions with braided cord roulette are related to historical migrations of some current populations with fishing groups within the Mande family from the Inland the distribution of present-day shaping techniques. For Niger Delta (fig. 5). example, the Songhay went up the Niger river from the Geographically, the Dogon country is located at the Gao area to Lake Debo at the height of their empire in intersection of Songhay, Gur and Mande cultural spheres, the 16th century, and the installation of new populations each characterised by different pottery techniques. Re- in the northern Inland Niger Delta explains the use of mains from new archaeological excavations undertaken A. Mayor. Ceramic technology between past and present 291

in the region using our model served to test this. In light REFERENCES of ethnoarchaeological patterns, the body of archaeo- Gallay, A., Huysecom, E. & Mayor, A. 1998. ‘Peuples logical ceramics revealed exchanges between cultural et céramiques du delta intérieur du Niger (Mali): un bilan spheres, local technical innovations, and hybridizations de cinq années de missions 1988-1993’. In Terra Archae- between traditions, which could not be analysed without ologica: monographies de la Fondation Suisse-Liechten- references to the present. These new data thus confirmed stein pour les recherches archéologiques à l’étranger, the model, while refining its resolution for the period pri- no. 3. Mainz: P. von Zabern, 130 p. or to the 13th and 15th centuries AD. The approach has Huysecom, E. 1994. ‘Identification technique des cé- therefore enabled us to interpret the Dogon country as a ramiques africaines’. In D. Binder & J. Courtin (eds), socio-economic hub influenced by the contributions from Terre cuite et société: la céramique, document technique, diverse populations in the first millennium AD, hence économique, culturel. Actes des XIVe rencontres interna- placing into question the previously established ‘Toloy– tionales d’archéologie et d’histoire d’Antibes, 21-23 oc- Tellem–Dogon’ chrono-cultural sequence (Mayor, 2011; tobre 1993. Juan-les-Pins: APDCA, pp. 31-44. Mayor et al. 2014). Huysecom, E. 1996. ‘Iron Age terracotta pestles in the Sahel area: an ethnoarchaeological approach’. In L. Kr- Conclusion zyzaniak, K. Kroeper & M. Kobusiewicz (eds.), Inter- The case study presented here shows that a rigorous ap- regional contacts in the Later Prehistory of Northeastern proach anchored in the present can be effective for inter- Africa. (Studies in African archaeology no. 5). Poznan: preting regional proto-historic sites and generating new Archaeological Museum, pp. 419-458. understandings of the past. With a significant investment Mayor, A. 2011. Traditions céramiques dans la boucle of time in gathering information, and rigour in the analy- du Niger: ethnoarchéologie et histoire du peuplement au sis and establishment of regularities, this approach to the temps des empires précoloniaux. (Journal of African Ar- cultural history of technology and peoples is likely to be chaeology Monograph Series no. 7). Frankfurt am Main: replicated in other geographical contexts where ceramic Africa Magna Verlag, 292 p. technical knowledge still exists. Mayor, A., Huysecom, E., Gallay, A., Rasse, M. & Bal- louche, A. 2005. ‘Population dynamics and paleoclimate over the past 3000 years in the Dogon Country, Mali’. Journal of anthropological archaeology 24: 25-61. Mayor, A., Huysecom, E., Ozainne, S. & Magnavi- ta, S. 2014. ‘Early social complexity in the Dogon Coun- try (Mali) as evidenced by a new chronology of funerary practices’. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 34: 17-41.