DOCSLIB.ORG

Early Roman Development at Leadenhall Court, London and Related Research

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Early Roman Development at Leadenhall Court, London and Related Research EARLY ROMAN DEVELOPMENT AT LEADENHALL COURT, LONDON AND RELATED RESEARCH G. Milne and A. Wardle With contributions by I. Belts, J. Bird, M. Crowley, B. Davies, A. Davis, J. Groves, C. Harrison, F. Pritchard, J. Shepherd and B. West CONTENTS Page Page Summary 24 7. Conclusions 134 Introduction 134 1. Introduction 24 Comparative studies 135 Inter-site studies 135 2. The buildings 27 Intra-site studies 150 Site development 27 Future directions 153 Building catalogue 37 Form, function and construction 47 Building materials 53 Appendix 1. Catalogued finds listed by 154 material 3. Environmental evidence 59 Plant remains 59 Appendix 2. Accessioned finds from 156 Animal bone 67 contexts directly associated with the 1st- century buildings 4. Finds studies 70 Accessioned finds 70 Glass 99 Appendix 3. Coin list 162 5. Ceramic studies 114 Dating 114 Appendix 4. Key to ceramic codes 162 Summary of the samian wares 117 Analysis of the pottery assemblages 122 Appendix 5. Ceramic fabric 164 descriptions 6. Function, status and 127 Romanisation Deposition 127 Appendix 6. List of sites mentioned in 165 Function and status 129 the text 23 24 G. Milne & A. Wardle SUMMARY I. INTRODUCTION (Figs 12) The Leadenhall Court programme of rescue excavations The new building called Leadenhall Court lies which took place between 1984 and ig86 was primarily at the junction of Gracechurch Street and designed to record the remains of the 2nd-century Basilica. Leadenhall Street, between the late 19th-century However, sealed beneath that structure were the remains Leadenhall Market and the late 20th-century of 2^ earlier buildings, built between AD JO and AD 100. Lloyds building. It occupies part of the summit Initially, the site lay just beyond the main focus of the of the Cornhill, the eastern of the two gentle hills settlement, since a cremation cemetery dated to CAD 60 that lie within the walled area of the Roman was recorded on the excavation. However, by AD 75 an town of Ij)ndinium . The rescue excavations which insula of closely-spaced brickearth and timber strip build­ took place on the Leadenhall Court site between ings had been laid out as the town expanded northwards. 1984 and 1986 were initially designed to record Each building had a yard at the rear, with outhouses, the remains of the Roman Basilica, built there in wells, latrine pits and middens, from which artefacts and the 2nd century and rediscovered in the 1880s animal bones were recovered. The entire area was sealed beneath the market building to the south (RCHM beneath the construction levels for the next major develop­ 1928; Marsden 1987; Milne 1992). Negotiations ment phase, that of the 2nd-century Basilica and its between the developers, Legal and General associated roads. The huts, stores and offices of that con­ Assurance Company, and the Museum began in struction site were also represented on the excavation. It is 1983, but the first excavations did not take place the last three contrasting developments: the suburban farm, until January 1985. These were confined to five the urban insula and the construction site which are studied small trenches cut in the basement of a standing in detail in this report. building at 91-2 Gracechurch Street (Fig 2 Area In total, the remains of the 2^ vernacular buildings and D). The work took less than two months, using a the associated assemblages were therefore part of a com­ team of six experienced archaeologists. pletely sealed group, representing activity in the jo-year The results revealed the richness of the site, period which marked the elevation of the town from a for they proved to the satisfaction of the Museum, trading settlement to the provincial capital. The material English Heritage and the developers that, in clearly merited a detailed and integrated study, and the addition to the substantial remains of the Basilica results of that research are represented in this report. (Brigham 1990) and the 15th-century medieval The background to the project is discussed in Part i; market (Samuel 1989), earlier Roman buildings the development oj the site in the ist century is summarised had also survived. It is with these particular in Part 2, together with an illustrated description and vernacular buildings and associated material that discussion of the buildings and building materials utilised this report is concerned. A major archaeological in their construction. The environmental evidence is con­ investigation was clearly needed to record the sidered in Part j. The botanical and faunal remains are ancient levels before their destruction in the discussed and the interpretations are used to support the proposed development. Through the good offices suggestion that an agricultural phase preceded the urban of their director, Jeremy Edwards, Legal and expamnon in the CAD 80s. 'The accessionedjinds described General agreed to give generous support in cash in Part 4 include a large glass assemblage. The Jinds and kind to the project, to which English studies facilitated the identification of the relative status of Heritage also promised major contributions. the buildings. Armed with this information, the next phase of The detailed description of the ceramic material in Part excavations was planned around the developers' 5 made it possible to refine the pottery dating used hitherto demolition programme, which was in turn on London sites with the identification of at least two sub­ determined by the speed with which tenants divisions of Roman Ceramic Phase 2. Part 6 attempts to moved out, a factor beyond the control of both establish the comparative status and degree of the Museum and the developers. 'Romanisation' of the households represented. This research Three large open areas were ultimately programme shows the considerable interpretative value of excavated after some of the properties were the combined study of structures, associated artefacts and cleared and demolished: Area N from November environmental evidence, the first time such an exercise has 1985 to September 1986, Area W from May been conducted on this scale in a London excavation project. 1986 for five months, and Area S from June of The concluding Part 7 provides an evaluation, in which that year for four months. By this date, a three- the developments are set in perspective by comparison with man team had dug a series of trenches in the other work in the City. basements of the Metal Exchange Buildings to £ar/)) Roman development at Leadenhall Court 25 lis tm-^M^ I Fig I. Plan of present-day City showing location of Roman forum and basilica in relation to fort at Cripplegate, amphitheatre and line of yd-century town wall the south (Area M) which were not demohshed at a cost of about ^^250,000. A further four years until after the Museum team left the site in of even more intermittent work by finds staff, September. During the summer of that year, environmentalists and the site supervisors, some there were some 40 professional archaeologists 90 person-months in total, were required to working on the site, supported by the finds compile the relevant archive reports upon which processing team and loyal volunteers. The the subsequent studies are based. Further Museum team worked a five-day week, but the research, writing and illustration was required to site was also open on Sundays, when the City of prepare the reports of the 15th-century market London Archaeological Society volunteer group building (Samuel 1989), the Roman Basilica turned out in force. During the month of (Brigham 1990) and on a general site summary December 1986, a small Museum team returned (Milne 1992). Detailed work on the early Roman to the cleared site to monitor the contractor's buildings and the associated material was earth-moving operations. Two large Poclain 190s completed in 1991-3. Since work began on this were working in tandem, lowering the ground ambitious post-excavation project, there have surface for the insertion of the new basement, been major changes in the provision of archaeol­ the floor of which lay well below the level of the ogical support in the City of London. The earliest Roman features. Department of Urban Archaeology, the agency Work then began on the substantial quantities which excavated the Leadenhall Court site, was of pottery and other artefacts which had to be subsumed by the Museum of London processed, and on an assessment of the plans and Archaeology Service (MOLAS) in December written record of nearly 6,000 archaeological 1991- features. It took two years of intermittent Study of the site has shown that it lay just excavation and observation to collect the raw beyond the main focus of settlement in the mid data, amounting to over 200 person-months work I St century, since a cremation cemetery dated to 26 G. Milne & A. Wmdle S I n°> I o. o •c <o JJ s Cornhill Street Leadenhall Fig 2. Plan showing location of trenches on the Leadenhall Court site excavated from ig8§-6, in relation to the north-west corner of the 2nd-century basilica (shown in outline: see Fig i). The larger Areas N, S and W were all excavated as open areas on cleared sites, while the smaller trenches were investigated in the basements of Dominion House (Area D) and the Metal Exchange (Area M) before demolition. c. AD 60 was recorded on the excavation. northwards. Each building had a yard at the However, by AD 75 buildings had begun to rear, with outhouses, wells, latrine pits and encroach over the area, and by AD 80 an insula middens, from which a range of artefacts and of closely-spaced brickearth and timber strip animal bone was recovered. The entire area was buildings had been laid out as the town expanded sealed beneath the construction levels for the Early Roman development at Leadenhall Court 27 next major development phase, that of the 2nd- numbers [eg N4, Si2) are shown throughout the century BasiHca and its associated roads.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Bibliography
    Bibliography Many books were read and researched in the compilation of Binford, L. R, 1983, Working at Archaeology. Academic Press, The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology: New York. Binford, L. R, and Binford, S. R (eds.), 1968, New Perspectives in American Museum of Natural History, 1993, The First Humans. Archaeology. Aldine, Chicago. HarperSanFrancisco, San Francisco. Braidwood, R 1.,1960, Archaeologists and What They Do. Franklin American Museum of Natural History, 1993, People of the Stone Watts, New York. Age. HarperSanFrancisco, San Francisco. Branigan, Keith (ed.), 1982, The Atlas ofArchaeology. St. Martin's, American Museum of Natural History, 1994, New World and Pacific New York. Civilizations. HarperSanFrancisco, San Francisco. Bray, w., and Tump, D., 1972, Penguin Dictionary ofArchaeology. American Museum of Natural History, 1994, Old World Civiliza­ Penguin, New York. tions. HarperSanFrancisco, San Francisco. Brennan, L., 1973, Beginner's Guide to Archaeology. Stackpole Ashmore, w., and Sharer, R. J., 1988, Discovering Our Past: A Brief Books, Harrisburg, PA. Introduction to Archaeology. Mayfield, Mountain View, CA. Broderick, M., and Morton, A. A., 1924, A Concise Dictionary of Atkinson, R J. C., 1985, Field Archaeology, 2d ed. Hyperion, New Egyptian Archaeology. Ares Publishers, Chicago. York. Brothwell, D., 1963, Digging Up Bones: The Excavation, Treatment Bacon, E. (ed.), 1976, The Great Archaeologists. Bobbs-Merrill, and Study ofHuman Skeletal Remains. British Museum, London. New York. Brothwell, D., and Higgs, E. (eds.), 1969, Science in Archaeology, Bahn, P., 1993, Collins Dictionary of Archaeology. ABC-CLIO, 2d ed. Thames and Hudson, London. Santa Barbara, CA. Budge, E. A. Wallis, 1929, The Rosetta Stone. Dover, New York. Bahn, P.
    [Show full text]
  • Calendrical Calculations: Third Edition
    Notes and Errata for Calendrical Calculations: Third Edition Nachum Dershowitz and Edward M. Reingold Cambridge University Press, 2008 4:00am, July 24, 2013 Do I contradict myself ? Very well then I contradict myself. (I am large, I contain multitudes.) —Walt Whitman: Song of Myself All those complaints that they mutter about. are on account of many places I have corrected. The Creator knows that in most cases I was misled by following. others whom I will spare the embarrassment of mention. But even were I at fault, I do not claim that I reached my ultimate perfection from the outset, nor that I never erred. Just the opposite, I always retract anything the contrary of which becomes clear to me, whether in my writings or my nature. —Maimonides: Letter to his student Joseph ben Yehuda (circa 1190), Iggerot HaRambam, I. Shilat, Maaliyot, Maaleh Adumim, 1987, volume 1, page 295 [in Judeo-Arabic] Cuiusvis hominis est errare; nullius nisi insipientis in errore perseverare. [Any man can make a mistake; only a fool keeps making the same one.] —Attributed to Marcus Tullius Cicero If you find errors not given below or can suggest improvements to the book, please send us the details (email to [email protected] or hard copy to Edward M. Reingold, Department of Computer Science, Illinois Institute of Technology, 10 West 31st Street, Suite 236, Chicago, IL 60616-3729 U.S.A.). If you have occasion to refer to errors below in corresponding with the authors, please refer to the item by page and line numbers in the book, not by item number.
    [Show full text]
  • Summary of FAA Airworthiness Directives AD # Service Document(S) Effectivity/Compliance
    Summary of FAA Airworthiness Directives AD # Service Document(s) Effectivity/Compliance Note 1: Underlined AD numbers are linked to the actual AD. Note 2: This listing of airworthiness directives is compiled from five different sources, from the FAA: 1) ADs for small aircraft (volume I); 2) ADs for large aircraft (volume II); 3) Old ADs prior to 1980 are published in a separate volume; 4) Subscription to newly released ADs for large aircraft and; 5) Subscription to newly released ADs for small aircraft. There is no single source that provides a complete listing of all ADs affecting Hartzell Propellers. 2013-15-04 HC-ASB-61-338, Rev. 4 This AD applies to Hartzell Propeller, Inc. propeller models HC-(1,D)2(X,V,MV)20-7, HC-(1,D)2(X,V,MV)20-8, and HC-(1,D)3(X,V,MV)20-8 with a propeller hydraulic bladder diaphragm, part number (P/N) B-119-2, without tab, installed. 2009-22-03 HC-SB-61-269 Rev. 6 The FAA is superseding an existing airworthiness directive HC-SB-61-323 (AD) for Hartzell Propeller Inc. ()HC-()2Y()-() series propellers with non-suffix serial number (SN) propeller hubs installed on Lycoming O-, IO-, LO-, and AEIO-360 series reciprocating engines. That AD currently requires initial and repetitive eddy current inspections (ECIs) of the front cylinder half of the propeller hub for cracks and removing cracked hubs from service before further flight. In addition, that AD allows installation of an improved design propeller hub (suffix SN ‘’A’’ or ‘’B’’) as terminating action to the repetitive ECI.
    [Show full text]
  • California Legislative Pictorial Roster
    ® California Constitutional/Statewide Officers Governor Lieutenant Governor Attorney General Secretary of State Gavin Newsom (D) Eleni Kounalakis (D) Rob Bonta (D) Shirley Weber (D) State Capitol State Capitol, Room 1114 1300 I Street 1500 11th Street, 6th Floor Sacramento, CA 95814 Sacramento, CA 95814 Sacramento, CA 95814 Sacramento, CA 95814 (916) 445-2841 (916) 445-8994 (916) 445-9555 (916) 653-6814 Treasurer Controller Insurance Commissioner Superintendent of Public Instruction Fiona Ma (D) Betty T. Yee (D) Ricardo Lara (D) Tony K. Thurmond 915 Capitol Mall, Room 110 300 Capitol Mall, Suite 1850 300 Capitol Mall, Suite 1700 1430 N Street Sacramento, CA 95814 Sacramento, CA 95814 Sacramento, CA 95814 Sacramento, CA 95814 (916) 653-2995 (916) 445-2636 (916) 492-3500 (916) 319-0800 Board of Equalization — District 1 Board of Equalization — District 2 Board of Equalization — District 3 Board of Equalization — District 4 Ted Gaines (R) Malia Cohen (D) Tony Vazquez (D) Mike Schaefer (D) 500 Capitol Mall, Suite 1750 1201 K Street, Suite 710 450 N Street, MIC: 72 400 Capitol Mall, Suite 2580 Sacramento, CA 95814 Sacramento, CA 95814 Sacramento, CA 95814 Sacramento, CA 95814 (916) 445-2181 (916) 445-4081 (916) 445-4154 (916) 323-9794 ® LEGISLATIVE PICTORIAL ROSTER — 2021-2022 California State Senators Ben Allen (D), SD 26 — Part of Bob J. Archuleta (D), SD 32 Toni Atkins (D), SD 39 — Part Pat Bates (R), SD 36 — Part of Josh Becker (D), SD 13 — Part Los Angeles. (916) 651-4026. —Part of Los Angeles. of San Diego. (916) 651-4039. Orange and San Diego.
    [Show full text]
  • A Study of the History of the Relationship Between the Western and Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Western Regions
    SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS Number 173 October, 2006 A Study of the History of the Relationship Between the Western and Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Western Regions by Taishan YU Victor H. Mair, Editor Sino-Platonic Papers Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA 19104-6305 USA [email protected] www.sino-platonic.org SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS is an occasional series edited by Victor H. Mair. The purpose of the series is to make available to specialists and the interested public the results of research that, because of its unconventional or controversial nature, might otherwise go unpublished. The editor actively encourages younger, not yet well established, scholars and independent authors to submit manuscripts for consideration. Contributions in any of the major scholarly languages of the world, including Romanized Modern Standard Mandarin (MSM) and Japanese, are acceptable. In special circumstances, papers written in one of the Sinitic topolects (fangyan) may be considered for publication. Although the chief focus of Sino-Platonic Papers is on the intercultural relations of China with other peoples, challenging and creative studies on a wide variety of philological subjects will be entertained. This series is not the place for safe, sober, and stodgy presentations. Sino-Platonic Papers prefers lively work that, while taking reasonable risks to advance the field, capitalizes on brilliant new insights into the development of civilization. The only style-sheet we honor is that of consistency. Where possible, we prefer the usages of the Journal of Asian Studies. Sinographs (hanzi, also called tetragraphs [fangkuaizi]) and other unusual symbols should be kept to an absolute minimum.
    [Show full text]
  • Xun Xu and the Politics of Precision in Third-Century AD China Sinica Leidensia
    Xun Xu and the Politics of Precision in Third-Century AD China Sinica Leidensia Edited by Barend J. ter Haar Maghiel van Crevel In co-operation with P.K. Bol, D.R. Knechtges, E.S. Rawski, W.L. Idema, H.T. Zurndorfer VOLUME 95 Xun Xu and the Politics of Precision in Third-Century AD China By Howard L. Goodman LEIDEN • BOSTON 2010 On the cover: The author’s own cover design shows a third-century figurine of a di-flute player (adapted from Wu Zhao, Zhuixian shiqu de yinyue zongji; cited Figure 9, p. 227). We can imagine this as Lie He, the flute expert and ensemble leader from whom Xun Xu gained technical knowledge. Yet Xun also remeasured and refashioned Lie’s way of making flutes and playing modal music by imposing his ideal of Zhou standards. (The E. Zhou bronze rule is adapted from photograph supplied by Nanjing University; cited Figure 4, p. 176.) This book is printed on acid-free paper. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Goodman, Howard L. Xun Xu and the politics of precision in third-century AD China / by Howard L. Goodman. p. cm. — (Sinica leidensia, ISSN 0169-9563 ; v. 95) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-18337-7 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Xun, Xu, d. 289. 2. Historians—China—Biography. 3. Scholars—China—Biography. 4. China—Intellectual life—221 B.C.-960 A.D. 5. China—Politics and government—220-589. 6. China—History—Chin dynasty, 265-419. 7. China—History—Three kingdoms, 220-265. I. Title.
    [Show full text]
  • Reflections on Titus and Josephus Yavetz, Zvi Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies; Winter 1975; 16, 4; Proquest Pg
    Reflections on Titus and Josephus Yavetz, Zvi Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies; Winter 1975; 16, 4; ProQuest pg. 411 FOR SIR RONALD SYME Reflections on Titus and Josephus Zvi Yavetz N a well-known passage in the Babylonian Talmud 1 (Sabbath 33b) I Rabbi Judah is quoted as having praised the deeds of the Romans in Judaea. He spoke with appreciation of the marketplaces built by the Romans, of their bridges and their bath installations. A mod­ ern study on Roman provincial administration, intending to empha­ size the benefits of Roman rule, could easily use a quotation of this kind in order to prove that the story of fostering peace and progress in backward provinces is not based only on Roman propaganda. Provin­ cials themselves appreciated the benefits of the pax romana. Rabbi Simeon Ben Jochai, however, grossly contradicted the opin­ ion expressed by Rabbi Judah (ibid.):2 HAll they have instituted, they (the Romans) have instituted only for their own needs. They have instituted marketplaces to place harlots in them, baths for their own pleasure, bridges to collect toll." Modern historians who criticize the writings of Asian and African history from a European or American point of view and who deplore the failure of the ancient Gauls, Illyrians or Cappadocians to write their own history could make use of this passage to prove the <geistigen Widerstand' of the provincials to the Roman order. They would no doubt admit that a speech put by Tacitus in the mouth of Calgacus or of a Civilis cannot replace authen­ tic, vernacular documents (the historical accuracy of the acts of the pagan martyrs cannot be considered as above suspicion), but the say­ ing of Rabbi Simeon appears genuine.
    [Show full text]
  • 7666 Acta Classica 2010 BOEK.Indd
    ACTA CLASSICA LIII (2010) 181-205 ISSN 0065-1141 PERSONIFICATIONS ON THE COINAGE OF VESPASIAN (AD 69-79) T.R. Stevenson University of Queensland ABSTRACT This paper surveys personifications on Vespasian’s coinage in terms of their novelty and significance. It finds that there is more novelty than has been allowed, especially in the proliferation of personifications following Nero’s demise and in the number of unprecedented legends. Many of the personifications have a traditional character, so that the overall message seems to be one of continuity with the Augustan model of a ‘good’ emperor. Finally, among the particular themes which are promoted by the personifications, it seems that there is a fundamental desire to confirm the stability and strength of the succession to Vespasian in the person of his two sons, Titus and Domitian. Introduction Roman coin types exhibit a rich variety of personifications, whose number increases markedly after the fall of Nero.1 Aside from cultural and philoso- phical reasons for this phenomenon, there is also a political dimension, which has been variously interpreted. In respect of personifications on the coinage of Vespasian, the aims of this paper are threefold: (i) to argue – in contrast to the general scholarly view – that there is significant novelty among the personifications employed on Vespasian’s coinage; 1 Abbreviations used in this paper: BMCRE I-II = H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum, vols. I-II (London 1923-30). MW = M. McCrum & A.G. Woodhead, Select Documents of the Principates of the Flavian Emperors (Cambridge 1961). OLD = P.G.W.
    [Show full text]
  • The Temple of Peace and the Temple of Divus Claudius
    The Temple of Peace and the Temple of Divus Claudius A study into the functions of the Temple of Peace and the Temple of Divus Claudius and their role within the ideology of Vespasian. Student: Stef Moonen Student number: S4629345 Supervisor: Dr. Nathalie de Haan LET-GESM4300: Master’s Thesis Eternal Rome Radboud University Nijmegen 15-06-2018 LET-GESM4300: Master’s Thesis Eternal Rome Stef Moonen Table of Content The Temple of Peace and the Temple of Divus Claudius on the map of ancient Rome ......................... 4 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 5 ‘Pax’ and the memory of Divus Claudius ............................................................................................... 13 Pax Civilis or Parta Victoriis Pax? ...................................................................................................... 15 The memory on Divus Claudius ......................................................................................................... 17 The Temple of Peace ............................................................................................................................. 21 Pliny the Elder.................................................................................................................................... 23 Titus Flavius Josephus ....................................................................................................................... 25 Gaius Suetonius
    [Show full text]
  • COMPLETE BIBLICAL TIMELINE Catch a Glimpse of the Whole Sweep of Biblical History
    COMPLETE BIBLICAL TIMELINE Catch a glimpse of the whole sweep of biblical history. The ten historical eras outlined in the Chronological Life Application Study Bible, along with the books of the Bible you will find in each, are in the center bar. Significant world events are above the bar, and biblical events are below it. Stonehenge Sumerian erected in England Iron objects king, Sargon, Horses domesti- estimated manufactured becomes cated in Egypt Mexican Sun in the ancient first “world 2000 BC 2300 BC Pyramid built Near East conqueror” 1500 BC 2500 BC 2331 BC Egyptians Ziggurats built Hammurabi of First metal- Egyptians use import gold in Mesopotamia Spoked wheels Babylon provides working Great Pyramids of first written law papyrus and ink from other parts 2100 BC invented in South Egypt constructed for writing of Africa estimated code estimated America 2630 BC 2500 BC 2400 BC 1900 BC 1750 BC 1440 BC 2600 BC 2500 BC 2400 BC 2300 BC 2200 BC 2100 BC 2000 BC 1900 BC 1800 BC 1700 BC 1600 BC 1500 BC 1400 BC WORLD EVENTS Beginnings God’s Chosen The Birth undated–2100 BC Family of Israel EXODUS, 1500 – 1445 BC 2100 BC–1800 BC 1800 BC–1406 BC LEVITICUS, 1445 – 1444 BC GENESIS, undated–1805 BC JOB, NUMBERS, 1445 – 1406 BC around 1900 BC DEUTERONOMY, 1406 BC BIBLICAL EVENTS 1929 BC 1876 BC 1406 BC 2066 BC Jacob flees Jacob moves 1526 BC Moses dies Isaac is Moses is undated 2166 BC to Haran to Egypt undated born 1805 BC born Creation Abraham 1443 BC Noah builds the ark Joseph dies is born 2006 BC 1898 BC Israel refuses to Jacob and Joseph sold enter Canaan 2091 BC Esau are born into slavery 1446 BC Abraham The Exodus travels to 1915 BC around 1800–1446 BC 1445 BC Early Accounts of Creation Canaan Joseph is born 1885 BC Slavery in Egypt Ten Command- and the Flood Joseph rules ments given Several ancient civilizations wrote Egypt down their own stories about 1445 BC origins.
    [Show full text]
  • Iran (Persia) and Aryans Part - 5
    INDIA (BHARAT) - IRAN (PERSIA) AND ARYANS PART - 5 Dr. Gaurav A. Vyas This book contains the rich History of India (Bharat) and Iran (Persia) Empire. There was a time when India and Iran was one land. This book is written by collecting information from various sources available on the internet. ROOTSHUNT 15, Mangalyam Society, Near Ocean Park, Nehrunagar, Ahmedabad – 380 015, Gujarat, BHARAT. M : 0091 – 98792 58523 / Web : www.rootshunt.com / E-mail : [email protected] Contents at a glance : PART - 1 1. Who were Aryans ............................................................................................................................ 1 2. Prehistory of Aryans ..................................................................................................................... 2 3. Aryans - 1 ............................................................................................................................................ 10 4. Aryans - 2 …............................………………….......................................................................................... 23 5. History of the Ancient Aryans: Outlined in Zoroastrian scriptures …….............. 28 6. Pre-Zoroastrian Aryan Religions ........................................................................................... 33 7. Evolution of Aryan worship ....................................................................................................... 45 8. Aryan homeland and neighboring lands in Avesta …...................……………........…....... 53 9. Western
    [Show full text]
  • The Roman Army, 31 BC–AD 337
    The Roman Army, 31 BC–AD 337 The Roman imperial army was unrivalled until recent times in its professional structure, efficient training, detailed organization, and ordnance support. It was remarkable in an age of poor communications and limited technological advance. The army sustained a great empire militarily and politically. First, its skill and success ensured Rome’s domination, and second the loyalty of the troops ensured the political survival of the emperors, who sought to preserve the fabric of government and make it work. The army was therefore a vital element in the subsequent development of Western Civilization. The large number of soldiers and their associated dependants meant that they had significant impact socially, economically, and culturally on the settlements that grew up round the camps and on some of the communitites where they settled after discharge. The privileges of the soldiers set them apart from other men of their social class, and the enhanced position of veterans established them as a very important group in their own right, an integral part of the whole phenomenon of Roman ‘government’. The study of the Roman army therefore embraces not only military but also political, social and economic history. This source book collects literary and epigraphic material, and papyri and coins which illustrate the varied aspects of army life both at war and at peace, and it takes account of evidence made available by recent archaeological investigations in many parts of the empire. Subjects covered include training, officers, the role of the emperor, fighting, community life, politics, and veterans. The introductions to each section and the linking passages provide a narrative structure and explain difficulties of the source material.
    [Show full text]