Introduction: Exploring a New Trajectory in Interreligious Encounter 1. A. Christian Van Gorder, No God but God: a Path to Musli

Notes

Introduction: Exploring a New Trajectory in Interreligious Encounter

1. A. Christian van Gorder, No God But God: A Path to Muslim-Christian Dialogue on God’s Nature (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2003), backcover. 2. Martin Forward’s analysis of the meaning of the term “dia-logue” is helpful here. He affirms that “dia-logue signifies worldviews being argued through to significant and potentially transformative conclu- sions, for one or more participants.” See his Inter-religious Dialogue: A Short Introduction (Oxford: Oneworld, 2001), 12. Interreligious dialogue entails a conscious effort to think and grapple with one’s religious identity and its concomitant credentials. It involves consciously thinking through one’s own tradition. It is not a sloppy affirmation of religious doctrines. Rather, it is an attempt to engage in deep theological reflections. 3. Israel Selvanayagam, “Inter-Faith Dialogue: A Clarification of Perspectives and Issues,” Current Dialogue 23 (December 1992): 20. 4. Arvind Sharma, “Towards a Theory of Dialogue,” Current Dialogue 32 (December 1998): 36. 5. For an in-depth analysis of this phenomenon, see David Daniels, “Reterritorizing the West in World Christianity: Black North Atlantic Christianity and the Edinburgh Conferences of 1910 and 2010,” Journal of World Christianity 5 (2012): 102–23. 6. Diana L. Eck, A New Religious America: How a “Christian Country” Has Become the World’s Most Religiously Diverse Nation (New York: HarperCollins, 2001). 7. “President Addresses the Ghanaian Parliament in Accra,” July 11, 2009, Accra, Ghana, http://www.uspolicy.be/headline/obama’s- speech-ghana. 8. Bernard Lewis, The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror (New York: Modern Library, 2003), 5. 9. See “Hold Your Nose and Talk,” The Economist, September 29, 2012. 184 NOTES

10. Farid Esack, quoted in Union Now, 3 (Summer 2013): 24. 11. For a good study on this phenomenon, see Daniel Smith-Christopher, ed., Subverting Hatred: The Challenges of Nonviolence in Religious Traditions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2007).

1 Interpretations: Toward a New Approach in Christian-Muslim Encounters

1. For detailed studies of different models and voices in Christian- Muslim relations, see Nasir Khan, Perceptions of Islam in Christendom: A Historical Survey (Oslo: Solum Forlag, 2006); A. Hourani, Western Attitudes Towards Islam (Southampton: University of Southampton, 1974); B. Z. Kedar, Crusade and Mission: European Approaches Toward the Muslim (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984); Michael Frassetto and David R. Blanks, eds., Western Views of Islam in Medieval and Early Europe (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999); Montgomery Watt, Muslim-Christian Encounters: Perceptions and Misperception (London and New York: Routledge, 1991); Yvonne Y. Haddad and Wadi Z. Haddad, eds., Christian-Muslim Encounters (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995); Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Encounters & Clashes: Islam and Christianity in History, 2 vols. (Rome: Pontificio Instituto di Studi Arabi e Islamici, 1990); N. A. Newman, ed., The Early Christian-Muslim Dialogue: A Collections of Documents from the First Three Islamic Centuries (632–900 A.D.) (Pennsylvania: Interdisciplinary Biblical Research Institute, 1993) Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face to Face (London: Oneworld, 1997); Hugh Goddard, A History of Christian-Muslim Relations (New Amsterdam Books, 2000); O. N. Mohammed, Muslim-Christian Relations: Past, Present, and Future (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1999); M. A. Anees, S. Z. Abedin, and Z. Sardar, Christian-Muslim Relations: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow (London: Grey Seal, 1991); and H. P. Goddard, Christians and Muslims: From Double Standards to Mutual Understanding (London: Curzon, 1995). 2. This is the title of the two-volume compilation of the various ways Christians and Muslims have interacted with each other since the seventh century. 3. A good study of the demographic distribution of Muslims all over the world is Byron L. Haines and Frank L. Cooley, eds., Christians and Muslims Together: An Exploration by Presbyterians (Philadelphia: Geneva Press, 1987) 4. For a good introduction to the global dimension in world religions, see Mark Juergensmeyer, ed., Global Religions: An Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003). 5. Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion Is Christianity? The Gospel beyond the West (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2003), 56. NOTES 185

6. See Richard W. Rousseau, Christianity & Islam: The Struggling Dialogue (Scranton: University of Scranton Press, 2005). 7. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, “Islamic-Christian Dialogue: Problems and Obstacles to be Pondered and Overcome,” Islam and Christian- Muslim Relations 2 (July 2000): 213. 8. Runnymede Trust (Commission on British Muslims and Islamo- phobia), Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All (London: Runnymede Trust, 1997). 9. Mark Juergensmeyer has theorized that warfare organizes people into a “we” and a “they.” This way of looking at reality “organizes social history into a storyline of persecution, conflict, and the hope of redemption, liberation, and conquest.” See his Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 173. 10. Wole Soyinka, “Religion against Humanity,” lecture at the 2012 Conference on the Culture of Peace and Non-Violence, United Nations Headquarters, New York, September 21, 2012, 1. 11. Desmond Tutu, cited in www.excellentquotations.com, accessed on March 13, 2013. Charles Kimball adds more emphasis to this dimension. According to him, “within the religious traditions that have stood the test of time, one finds the life-affirming faith that has sustained and provided meaning for millions over the centuries. At the same time, we can identify the corrupting influences that lead toward evil and violence in all religious traditions.” See Charles Kimball, When Religion Becomes Evil: Five Warning Signs (New York: HarperCollins, 2002), 5. 12. In a terse reference to the manipulative tendency of religion, Zhara, the heroine in the movie The Stoning of Soraya M remarked that the Mullah can “make a snake to swallow its tail.” This comment underscores the volatility of religion and how it can be used to orchestrate and validate selfish and narrow motives. Set in the context of post-Khomeini Iran, the movie is a gripping account of the pernicious potential of religion. The conspiracy to publicly stone an innocent woman accused of adultery was sanctioned by the religious authority. 13. Gavin D’Costa has argued that religious conflicts are often tainted by political considerations. See his Christianity and World Religions: Disputed Questions in the Theology of Religions (Chichester: Wiley- Blackwell, 2009), 87–91. 14. Ninian Smart, Worldviews: Crosscultural Explorations of Human Beliefs (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2000), 5. 15. The word “encounter” captures the complexity and the dynamism of the interaction among Christians and Muslims in Africa. The word can be traced to the Latin contra, meaning “against,” or to the old French encontrer, which refers to the meeting of rivals. The word underscores the ambivalence that is involved in relationships and 186 NOTES

interactions. For a good analysis of this perspective, see Benjamin F. Soares, “Muslim-Christian Encounters in Africa,” in Muslim- Christian Encounters in Africa, ed. Benjamin F. Soares (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 3. 16. For a good analysis, see Martin Buss, “The Idea of Sitz in Leben— History and Critique,” Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 90 (1978): 157–70. 17. Kenneth Cragg, Sandals at the Mosque: Christian Presence amid Islam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959), 19. 18. A firm affirmation of diversity is affirmed in the Qur’an. See Surat Al-Hujurat 49:13: “O mankind, indeed we have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is knowing and acquainted.” 19. For a good analysis of this perspective, see Dale T. Irvin, Hearing Many Voices (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993). 20. Paul F. Knitter has developed four models to account for the various Christian responses to Islam. They are: replacement, fulfillment, mutuality, and acceptance. This first acknowledges that Christianity is the only true religion. The second model affirms the elements of truth and grace in other religions. The third states that there are many true religions, without saying that one religion is superior to the other. The last model affirms the diversity of religions without the need to create a common ground among them. See Paul F. Knitter, Introducing Theologies of Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2002. 21. Sulayman S. Nyang, Islam, Christianity, and African Identity (Vermont: Amana, 1984), 84. Lamin Sanneh has however cautioned that Sudan is the only black African country where these two pro- cesses worked effectively. He affirms that in the rest of the continent, one can only speak of the use of the sacred Arabic language as the most visible sign of Islamization. 22. Lamin Sanneh, West African Christianity: The Religious Impact (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1983), xvi. 23. Kwame Nkrumah, Conscientism (London: Heinemann, 1964), 93–94. 24. Ali Mazrui, “Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa,” in The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, ed. John L. Esposito (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 264. 25. See Madeleine Albright, The Mighty and the Almighty: Reflections on America, God, and World Affairs (New York: Harper Perennial, 2007). 26. Monica Duffy Toft, Daniel Philpott, and Timothy Samuel Shah, God’s Century: Resurgent Religion and Global Politics (New York: W. W. Norton, 2011), 32. 27. Ibid., 56. NOTES 187

28. For further discussion on this issue, see Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart, Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011). 29. On the shift in world Christianity, see Dana L. Robert, “Shifting Southward: Global Christianity since 1945,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research (April 2000): 50–58, Philip Jenkins, “The Next Christianity,” The Atlantic Monthly 290.3, (October 2002): 55–68, Wilbert R. Shenk, “Recasting Theology of Mission: Impulses from the Non-Western World,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research (July 2001): 98–106, Peter C. Phan, “A New Christianity, But What Kind?” Mission Studies 22.1 (2005): 59–83, Paul V. Kollman, “After Church History: Writing the History of Christianity from a Global Perspective,” Horizons 31.2 (2004), 322–42; Philip Jenkins, “After The Next Christendom,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research (January 2004): 20–22. 30. David Brook, quoted in Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion Is Christianity? The Gospel beyond the West, 7–8. 31. Ibid., 7. 32. Wilfred Cantwell Smith, “Muslim-Christian Interrelations Histori- cally: An Interpretation,” in his On Understanding Islam: Selected Studies (Berlin: Walter De Gruyter., 2000), 262. 33. Ibid., 249. 34. See Peter C. Phan, Being Religious Interreligiously: Asian Perspectives on Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004) for an excellent analysis of multireligious belonging, especially pp. 60–78. According to him, “if non-Christian religions contain ‘elements of truth and grace’ and if they may be considered ways of salvation from whose doctrinal teachings, sacred texts, moral practices, monastic traditions, and rituals and worship Christianity can and should benefit through dialogue, then there should be no theological objection and canoni- cal censure against someone wishing to be a Christian and at the same time to follow some doctrinal teachings and religious practices of, for example, Buddhism or Confucianism or Hinduism, as long as these are not patently contradictory to Christian faith and morals” (65–66). See also Catherine Cornille, ed., Many Mansions? Multiple Religious Belonging and Christian Identity (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2002). However, an African perspective would have added a much-needed dimension to the case studies examined in the book. Some of the avid practitioners of multiple religious belonging are Swami Abhishiktananda, Charles Foucault, Thomas Merton, Bede Griffith, Raimon Panikkar, and Aloysius Pieris. 35. Raimon Panikkar, The Intra-religious Dialogue (New York: Paulist Press, 1978), 2. 36. For a good discussion of the historical development of Hinduism, see A. L. Basham, The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989). Shankara (788–820), 188 NOTES

one of India’s greatest saints and philosophers, provides a good analysis of the philosophical underpinnings of the Advaita Vedanta tradition. He was an embodiment of tremendous wisdom and holi- ness that he was viewed as an incarnation of Shiva; hence the name Shankara, which means, “he who brings/bestows blessings.” 37. Chandogya Upanishad, The Upanishads, trans. Swami Prabhavananda and Frederick Manchester (New York: Mentor Books, 1957), 46. 38. For his analysis of the dipolar connections between the plurality of religions and the plurality of victims, see Aloysius Pieris, An Asian Theology of Liberation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1988); Aloysius Pieris, Love Meets Wisdom: A Christian Experience of Buddhism (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1989); and Aloysius Pieris, Fire and Water: Basic Issues in Asian Buddhism and Christianity (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1988). 39. This is the central argument of Samuel Huntington’s “Clash of Civilization,” Foreign Affairs 72.3 (1993): 22–49. 40. Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians: Face to Face (Oxford: One World, 2000), 2. 41. Paul F. Knitter, “Common Ground or Common Response? Seeking Foundations for Interreligious Discourse,” Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 2 (1992): 114. 42. Some observers maintain that the crux of the issue is not conflict among religions but rather a “clash of ignorance.” Misinformation and misconceptions promote interreligious bigotry, hatred, and violence. 43. Samuel Huntington, quoted in Mahmood Mamdani, Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and the Roots of Terror (New York: Doubleday, 2004), 20–21. 44. Ataulalla Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997), 54. 45. Amir Hussain, “ Life as a Muslim Scholar of Islam in Post–9/11 America,” in Subverting Hatred: The Challenge of Nonviolence in Religious Traditions, ed. Daniel L. Smith-Christopher (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2007), 139. 46. Charles Amjad-Ali, “Theological and Historical Rationality behind Christian-Muslim Relations,” in Islam in Asia: Perspectives for Christian-Muslim Encounter, ed. J. P. Rajashekar and H. S. Wilson (Geneva, Switzerland: Lutheran World Federation, 1992), 14. 47. Ibid., 8. 48. Ibid., 6. 49. Several scholars such as Lamin Sanneh, Andrew Walls, Philip Jenkins, Ogbu Kalu, Dale Irvin, Jehu Henciles, Kwame Bediako, and Peter Phan have elaborated on this new radical shift in world Christianity. In the blurb for Jenkins’s book, The Next Christendom, Sanneh remarked, “the worldwide resurgence of Christianity is a vig- orous movement in our day, and it coincides with the waning of the NOTES 189

religion in what is now a post-Christian West—the pace of develop- ments in post-colonial societies shows no sign of slackening.” 50. Ataullah Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century, 55. 51. For a good analysis on the dignity of the other, see Edward E. Sampson, Celebrating the Other: A Dialogical Account of Human Nature (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993). 52. It is important to point out here that the idea of Otherness is new to African studies. Elias Bongmba used the idea of the Other, based on the philosophy of Emmanuel Levinas, to study the ethics of witchcraft. See Elias K. Bongmba, African Witchcraft and Otherness: A Philosophical and Theological Analysis of Intersubjective Relations (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2001).

2 Glimpses of the Terrain: The Cross, The Crescent, and the Nigerian Terrain

1. Noel Quinton King, Christians and Muslims in Africa (London: Harper and Row, 1971); Benjamin F. Soares, ed., Muslim-Christian Encounters in Africa (Leiden: Brill Academic Publishing, 2006); Lissi Rasmussen, Christian and Muslim Relations in Africa: The Case of Northern Nigeria and Tanzania (I. B. Tauris, 1993); Lamin Sanneh, Piety and Power: Muslims and Christians in West Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1997); Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and the Turban: Muslims and West African Pluralism (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996); Andrew Walls, “Africa as the Theatre of Christian Engagement with Islam in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Religion in Africa 29 (1999): 155–74; Gabriel Maduka Okafor, Development of Christianity and Islam in Modern Nigeria (Wurzburg: Echter, 1992); Cokkie Van’t-Leven, “Africa’s Tradition of Peaceful Co-existence: Threatened Dream or Lasting Reality,” in Muslims and Christians in Europe: Breaking New Grounds, ed. Dirk Mulder et al. (Kampen: Uitgeverik Kok, 1999), 15–20; and John Voll, “African Muslims and Christians in World History: The Irrelevance of the Clash of Civilizations,” in Muslim-Christian Encounters in Africa, ed. Benjamin F. Soares (Leiden: Brill Academic Publishing, 2006), 17–38. 2. Lamin Sanneh, “Christian Experience of Islamic Da’wah, With Particular Reference to Africa,” International Review of Mission, 260 (October 1979): 410. 3. It should be noted that as a religious tradition that started after the time of Christ, Islam has always presented a formidable theological challenge to Christianity in terms of Prophet Muhammad’s status and the Qur’an as the Word of God. For an excellent study of the theological differences between Islam and Christianity, see Christian van Gorder, No God but God: A Path to Muslim-Christian Discussion about the Nature of God (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2003). 190 NOTES

4. Chinua Achebe, The Trouble With Nigeria (Oxford: Heinemann, 1983), 12. 5. Rotberg, quoted in Nasir El-Rufai, “Nigeria: Political Dynamics and Prospects for Reform,” www.modernghana.com/news, 1. 6. See www.refworld.org for this important report. 7. Several commentators still have serious questions about the corporate existence of Nigeria. According to Karl Maier, “the Nigerian state is like a battered and bruised elephant staggering toward an abyss with the ground crumbling under its feet.” See his This House Has Fallen: Midnight in Nigeria (Public Affairs, 2000), xx. In the words of Adebayo Williams, “like a badly mauled elephant suffering a thou- sand cuts, Nigeria lurches about in wild disorientation, stomping and stamping as life drains away,” in his “Towards the Transformation of Nigeria: A Jubilee of Elite Infamy,” http://nigeriaworld.com/ articles/2003/Oct/201.html, October 20, 2003, p. 1. In another caustic observation, another Nigeria scholar states that the present Nigerian state is faced with “darkness and decadence, poverty and prostitution of power, greed and graft, incompetence and inertia.” See Femi Ojo-Ade, “Dividends of a Nascent Democracy,” http:// nigeriaworld.com/articles/2001/jun/23/231.html, June 23, 2001, p. 4. In the words of Tam David-West, “Nigeria is like a one-act play, like a broken disc permanently stuck in a groove,” http://nigeriaworld.com/feature/publication/chidi-achebe/061405.html, June 14, 2006, p. 6. Speaking on the debacle of political inertia bedevil- ing many nations in Africa and specifically Nigeria, Chinua Achebe remarked, “We are like the man in the Igbo proverb who does not know where the rain began to beat him and so cannot say where he dried his body.” See his “Nigeria’s Promise, Africa’s Hope,” New York Times, January 15, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/16/ opinion/16achebe.html.According to Niyi Akinnaso, “the theory of the absurd life is even more applicable today as Nigeria engages in a freefall due to endless repetitions of the same mistakes and maladies.” See Niyi Akinnaso, “Nigeria as the Theatre of the Absurd,” Punch, July 3, 2012, http://www.punchng.com/viewpoint/nigeria-as-the- theatre-of-the-absurd/. For an excellent study on the potentials and pitfalls of Nigeria, see John Campbell, Nigeria: Dancing on the Brink (Lanham: Rowan & Littlefield, 2011). 8. See “Persecution of Christians in Northern Nigeria,” on Anglican Mainstream, January 20, 2012. 9. See “The Report on the Inter-religious Tensions in Nigeria,” www. Oikoumene.org, 9. 10. U. Danfulani and S. Fwatshak, “Briefing: The September 2001 Events in Jos, Nigeria,” African Affairs 101 (2002): 243–55; M. Last, “Muslims and Christians in Nigeria: An Economy of Political Panic,” The Roundtable: The Commonwealth Journal of International NOTES 191

Affairs 392 (October 2007): 605–16; and H. Mang, “Discussions on the Sectarian Violence of the 28th of November to the 1st of December in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria,” unpublished paper. 11. For a good historical understanding of this complexity, see Toyin Falola and Matthew M. Heaton, A History of Nigeria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010). 12. Ibid., 109. 13. See Nigeria: Violence Fuelled by Impunity, Human Rights Watch Report, London, May 22, 2005. 14. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, “Islam,” in Our Religions, ed. Arvind Sharma (New York: HarperCollins, 1993), 427. 15. Charlotte A. Quinn and Frederick Quinn, Pride, Faith, and Fear: Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 3. 16. It should be noted that the Izalatul Bidi’a wa Ikamatul Sunna, pop- ularly known as Izala, began as an anti-Sufi movement. Its leader, the late Alhaji Gumi, was a dominant leader in Islam in the early 1960s. 17. S. I. Cissoko, “The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century,” in Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, ed. D. T. Niane (London: Heinemann, 1984), 209. 18. Quoted in Peter B. Clarke, West African and Islam (London: Edward Arnold, 1982), 260. 19. See S. U. Balogun, “Arabic Intellectualism in West Africa: The Role of the Sokoto Caliphate,” Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs 6 (July 1985): 394–411. 20. Thomas Hodgkin, Nigerian Perspectives: An Historical Anthology (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), 247–48. 21. Ibid. 22. Mervyn Hiskett, quoted in Lamin Sanneh, “Christian Experience of Islamic Da‘wah, With Particular Reference to Africa,” International Review of Mission, 65 (October 1976): 416. 23. Quoted in John Alembillah Azumah, The Legacy of Arab-Islam in Africa: A Quest for Inter-Religious Dialogue (Oxford: Oneworld, 2001), 11–12. 24. Ibid. 25. For a good analysis of the confrontation between colonial powers and the forces of dan Fodio, see Toyin Falola, Colonialism and Violence in Nigeria (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), 14–16. 26. See Jonathan Reynolds, “Good and Bad Muslims: Islam and Indirect Rule in Northern Nigeria,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 34 (2001): 601–18. 27. F. C. Ryder, Benin and the Europeans, 1485–1897 (London: Longmans, 1969); O. U. Kalu, The History of Christianity in West Africa (London: Longmans, 1980); C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire (London: Hutchinson, 1969); J. H. Parry, Europe 192 NOTES

and a Wider World (London: Hutchinson, 1966); and Richard Gray, Black Christians White Missionaries (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990). 28. E. A. Ayandele, “External Relations with Europeans in the Nineteenth Century: Explorers, Missionaries and Traders,” in Groundwork of Nigerian History, ed. Obaro Ikime (Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books, 1984), 367. 29. Ibid., 369. 30. Ibid., 371. 31. Turner’s definition has to be expanded in light of contemporary experience of globalization and border-crossing. Aladura churches now include members from all nations. 32. James Webster, African Churches among the Yoruba, 1888–1922 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1964), 190. 33. The major monographs on Aladura Christianity includes H. W. Turner, African Independent Church, 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967); J. D. Y. Peel, Aladura: A Religious Movement among the Yoruba (London: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute, 1968); J. Akinyele Omoyajowo, Cherubim and Seraphim: The History of an African Independent Church (New York and Lagos: Nok, 1982); Deji Ayegboyin and S. Ademola Ishola, African Indigenous Churches: An Historical Perspective (Lagos: Greater Heights, 1997). 34. It is not appropriate to put the stamp of syncretism on Aladura churches. They vigorously reject any element of traditional religious beliefs and practices which they view as evil and opposed to the Christian faith. 35. On the demonization of African Traditional Religions, see Rosalind I. J. Hackett, “Discourses on Demonization in Africa and Beyond,” Diogenes 50 (2003): 61–75; Ogbu U. Kalu, “Estranged Bedfellows? The Demonization of the Aladura in African in African Pentecostal Rhetoric,” Missionalia 28 (2000): 121–42; Kalu, “Preserving a Worldview: Pentecostalism in the African Maps of the Universe,” Pneuma 24 (2002): 110–37; Kalu, “Pentecostal and Charismatic Reshaping of the African Religious Landscape,” Mission Studies 20 (2003): 84–111; and Kalu, The Embattled Gods: Christianization of Igboland, 1841–1991 (Trenton, NJ and Asmara, Eritrea: Africa World Press, 2003), 334. 36. See Rosalind I. J. Hackett, “Radical Christian Revivalism in Nigeria and Ghana: Recent Patterns of Intolerance and Conflict,” in Proselytization and Communal Self-Determination in Africa, ed. Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1999), 246–67; Hackett, “Managing or Manipulating Religious Conflict in the Nigerian Media,” in Mediating Religion: Conversations in Media, Religion and Culture, ed. Jolyon Mitchell and Sophia Marriage NOTES 193

(London and New York: T & T Clark, 2003), 47–63; Matthews A. Ojo, “American Pentecostalism and the Growth of Pentecostal- Charismatic Movements in Nigeria,” in Freedom’s Distant Shores: American Protestants and Post-Colonial Alliances with Africa, ed. Drew Smith (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2006), 115–67; and Ruth Marshall-Fratani, “Mediating the Global and Local in Nigerian Pentecostalism,” in Between Babel and Pentecost: Transnational Pentecostalism in Africa and Latin America, ed. Andre Corten and Ruth Marshall-Fratani (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), 80–105. 37. See Afis O. Oladosu and Habibah O. Uthman-Oladosu, “The Cross, the Crescent, and the Media in Nigeria,” in Fractured Spectrum: Perspectives on Christian-Muslim Encounters in Nigeria, ed. Akintunde E. Akinade (New York: Peter Lang, 2013), 30–42. 38. Matthew Hassan Kukah and Kathleen McGarvey, “Christian-Muslim Dialogue in Nigeria: Social, Political, and Theological Dimensions,” in Fractured Spectrum: Perspectives on Christian-Muslim Encounters in Nigeria (New York: Peter Lang, 2013), 14. 39. For a good study on the subject, see Daniel Jordan Smith, A Culture of Corruption: Everyday Deception and Popular Discontent in Nigeria (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008). 40. Chinua Achebe, The Trouble with Nigeria (Oxford: Heinemann, 1983), 38. 41. One of the blatant attacks on Christians was the Christmas Day bombing of St. Theresa’s Catholic Church in Maddalla, Suleja City, Niger State. The attack on St. Theresa led to the removal of the inspector general of Nigeria’s police, Mr. Hafiz Ringim, who had wittingly or unwittingly allowed the prime suspect to escape police custody. Femi Fani-Kayode, one of the ardent commentators on the Nigerian situation has remarked that “Nigeria has become an abat- toir of human flesh and blood under the tenure of Jonathan and all those who support him should bury their heads in shame.” See http://www.osundefender.org/September 30, 213. 42. See Spiraling Violence: Boko Haram Attacks and Security Force Abuses in Nigeria, Human Rights Watch Report, 2012, 40. 43. On a positive note, the Islamic Development Bank in conjunction with the Nigerian government has announced the setting up of a $98 million Almajiri education fund to promote bilingual education and improve Almajiri schooling. 44. While the Nigerian government has the responsibility to protect its citizens from terror, it must, however, take into consideration international human rights laws connected with the use of force by its security agents, the treatment of detainees, and the need to hold speedy and transparent trials. These rights are part of various international treaties, including the International Covenant on Civil and 194 NOTES

Political Rights and the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights. 45. Lamin Sanneh, Summoned from the Margin: Homecoming of an African (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2012), 192. 46. Ibid., 193. 47. For an excellent analysis of some of these initiatives for peace and reconciliation, see Rosalind Hackett, “Nigeria’s Religious Leaders in an Age of Radicalism and Neoliberalism,” in Religious Leaders, Conflict, and Peacemaking: Between Terror and Tolerance, ed. Timothy D. Sick (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2011), 123–44. 48. See Scott Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield, 2000). 49. For a good explanation of this phenomenon, see Francis Arinze, Meeting Other Believers: The Risks and Rewards of Interreligious Dialogue (Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division, 1998), 17–18. 50. On the religious change in Yorubaland, see J. D. Y. Peel, “The Pastor and the Babalawo: The Interaction of Religions in Nineteenth- Century Yorubaland,” Africa 60 (1990): 338–69; J. D. Y. Peel, “Religious Change in Yorubaland,” Africa, 37 (July 1967): 292– 306; H. J. Fisher, “Conversion Reconsidered: Some Historical Aspects of Religious Conversion in Black Africa,” Africa 43 (1973): 27–40; H. J. Fisher, “The Juggernaut’s Apologia,” Africa 55 (1983): 153–73; and Matthew Hassan Kukah and Toyin Falola, Religious Militancy and Self-Assertion (Aldershot: Avebury, 1996), especially Chapter four on “Rumblings below the River Niger: Protest by Yoruba Muslims,” pp. 65–97. 51. J. D. Y. Peel, “Islam and Christianity through the Prism of Yoruba History,” a lecture for the eightieth birthday celebration of Professor J. F. Ade Ajayi, April 28, 2009, p. 2. 52. John N. Paden, Muslim Civil Cultures and Conflict Resolution: The Challenge of Democratic Federalism in Nigeria (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 2005), 109. 53. See Adeagbo Akinjogbin, Dahomey and Its Neighbors 1708–1818 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967). 54. Jacob K. Olupona, ed. Religion and Peace in Multifaith Nigeria (Ibadan, Nigeria: African Books Collective, 1992), 145. 55. Charles Amjad-Ali, “Theological and Historical Rationality Behind Christian-Muslim Relations,” in Islam in Asia: Perspectives for Christian-Muslim Encounter, ed. J. P. Rajashekar and H. S. Wilson (Geneva: Lutheran World Federation, 1992),14. 56. Ibid., 7–8. 57. Pope John Paul II, “Address to Participants in the Annual Meeting between the Secretariat for Non-Christians and the WCC Sub-Unit on Dialogue,” Bulletin 62 (1986): 146. NOTES 195

58. Paul Gifford, The New Crusaders: Christianity and the New Right in Southern Africa (London: Pluto, 1991). 59. Peter L. Berger, “The Desecularization of the World: A Global Overview” in The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics, ed. Peter L. Berger (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), 2. 60. For an excellent study of religious violence in Nigeria, see Toyin Falola, Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular Ideologies (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1998). 61. The International Religious Freedom Report for 2012 issued by the US stated that “in Nigeria, Boko Haram extremists violently mur- dered hundreds of Christians and Muslims during the year. The group often targeted political and ethnic rivals, religious leaders, businesses, homes, police stations, military installations, churches, mosques, and rural villages, using assault rifles, bombs, suicide car bombings, and suicide vests.” http://www.this daylive.com/articles/ us-religious-freedom-report, 2. 62. Mark Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 248. 63. For an excellent clarification of this terminology, see Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred, 10–15. 64. John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, God Is Back: How Global Revival of Faith is Changing the World (New York: Penguin, 2009), 297. 65. Cited in Amos Yong, Hospitality and the Other: Pentecost, Christian Practices, and the Neighbor (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books: 2008), 19. 66. Ibid. 67. This dimension can be classified under what Paul Hedges referred to as “human dialogue.” See Paul Hedges, Controversies in Interreligious Dialogue and the Theology of Religions (London: SCM Press, 2010), 61. 68. Wole Soyinka, “ Between Nation Space and Nationhood,” www. obafemiawolowofoundation.org, 20. 69. By 2050, Nigeria might have a population of about 300 million people. By the end of the century, the population may increase to half a billion. A nation of this size will definitely be a major regional power. In 2000, the United States intelligence network mapped out the major security risks over the next 15 years. The rise of ethno- religious conflicts in Nigeria ranked highly among them. 70. See Simeon O. Ilesanmi, Religious Pluralism and the Nigerian State (Athens: University of Ohio Press, 1997) for his prescription of dia- logic politics as a viable model for grappling with religious pluralism and the state in Nigeria. 71. When President Ibrahim Babangida set up a committee made up of a balanced membership of Christians and Muslims known as 196 NOTES

the Advisory Council for Religious Affairs(ACRA), the committee ended in a stalemate. It was a telling signal that interreligious issues have deep political dimensions. 72. Afe Adogame, “Fighting for God or Fighting in God’s Name! The Politics of Religious Violence in Contemporary Nigeria,” Religions 0 (2009): 182. 73. This idea resonates with what Paul Hedges referred to as “particu- larities” and what David Ray Griffin described as “differential pluralism.” See Paul Hedges, Controversies in Interreligious Dialogue and the Theology of Religions (London: SCM Press, 2010), 27–30 and David Ray Griffin, “Religious Pluralism: Generic, Identist, Deep,” in Deep Religious Pluralism, ed. David Ray Griffin (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 24.

3 Abiding Faith: Varieties of Christian Responses to Islam

1. Norman Daniel’s Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Oxford: Oneworld, 2009), documents the medieval origins and understanding of Western Christian thinking about Islam. This clas- sic study explores the political and religious considerations behind skewed Western perspectives about Islam, examining Christian- Muslim interaction from medieval times to the modern period. 2. For a good analysis of the Phenomenology of Religion, see Jason N. Blum, “Retrieving Phenomenology of Religion as a Method for Religious Studies,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 80 (December 2012): 1025–48. 3. Edward W. Said, Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World (New York: Random House, 1997), 37. 4. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, “Islam” in Our Religions ed. Arvind Sharma (New York: HarperOne, 1995), 435. 5. Norman Daniel, Islam and the West. 6. I should note that there were some positive appreciations of Islam even at an early period. The opinion of the Catholicos Timothy I (728– 823) is apposite here. Asked by the Caliph al-Madhi to give his can- did thoughts about Muhammad, Timothy responded: “Muhammad is worthy of praise by all reasonable person, O my Sovereign. He walked in the path of the prophets, and trod in tracks of the lovers of God.” See Archbishop Michael L. Fitzgerald, “From Heresy to Religion,” Pastoral Review (January 2011): 2. Timothy believed that Muhammad must be praised for his uncompromising affirmation of the doctrine of Tawhid, the unity of God, and for his willingness to move his people away from all the trappings of the Jahilliyya period. 7. Quoted in Jean-Marie Gaudeaul, Encounters & Clashes: Islam and Christianity in History II (Rome: Pontificio Istituto di Studi Arabi e Islamici, 1990), 9. NOTES 197

8. Ibid. 9. Ibid., 18. 10. Ibid., 19. 11. On Al-Kindi and Aquinas, see Nasir Khan, Perceptions of Islam in the Christendoms: A Historical Survey (Oslo: Solum Forlag, 2006). 12. Quoted in Gaudeaul, Encounters & Clashes, 130. 13. Ibid., 262. 14. David A. Kerr, “The Problem of Christianity in Muslim Perspective: Implications for Christian Mission,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 5 (October 1981): 156. 15. See Walter Wink’s trilogy, Engaging the Powers, Naming the Powers, and Unmasking the Powers for a comprehensive study of our world from a theological perspective. 16. Bernard Lewis, Islam and the West (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 6. 17. On Cragg’s theological consistency, see Christopher Lamb, The Call to Retrieval: Kenneth Cragg’s Christian Vocation to Islam (London: Grey Seal, 1997). 18. The work of Louis Massignon (1883–1962) represents another major development in the Christian understanding of Islam. He maintained that instead of looking at Islam from the outside and vociferously attacking it, one must place oneself, by a kind of Copernican turn around, at the very center of Islam. This approach leads to a more objective understanding of Islam. A follower of Massignon, Giulio Basetti-Sani, further developed Massignon’s ideas and counseled the Church to adopt a positive approach to Islam and its tenets. For a good study on Massignon, see Patrick Laude, Louis Massignon: The Vow and the Oath (London: Matheson Trust, 2011). 19. David A. Kerr, “Christian Witness in Relation to Muslim Neighbors,” Islamochristiana 10 (1984): 27. 20. Jane I. Smith, “Balancing Divergence and Convergence, or ‘Is God the Author of Confusion?’” http://macdonald.hartsem.edu/smith- art2.htm 2. 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid. 23. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Knowledge and the Sacred (New York: Crossroad, 1981), 289. 24. Annemarie Schimmel, And Muhammad Is His Messenger (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 54. 25. The Qur’an identifies the sin of takdhib as pervasive in human history—it smacks of kufr (unbelief), which causes people to utter “lies” against God (S. 2:39) and God’s prophets (S. 23:44). This natural rebellion against God led to the wanton persecution of God’s prophet and to the reckless blasphemy against Muhammad (S. 6: 147). 26. See David A. Kerr, “He Walked in the Path of the Prophets: Toward a Christian Theological Recognition of the Prophethood of 198 NOTES

Muhammed,” in Christian-Muslim Encounters, ed. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Wadi Z. Haddad (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995), 427. 27. Ibid. 28. Kenneth Cragg, quoted in Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face to Face (Oxford: Oneworld, 1997), 197. 29. Ibid. 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid., 198. 33. Lamin Sanneh, Summoned from the Margin: Homecoming of an African (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2012), 193. 34. Hamidullah, quoted in Christopher Lamb, The Call to Retrieval: Kenneth Cragg’s Christian Vocation to Islam (London: Grey Seal, 1997), 123. 35. See Lamb, The Call to Retrieval, 124. 36. Ibid., 125. 37. Ibid., 124. 38. For an excellent study of Christian responses to other religions, see Jacques Dupuis, Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2002); Paul F. Knitter, No Other Name? A Critical Survey of Christian Attitudes Toward the World Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1985); Paul F. Knitter, Theology of Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2002); and Paul Hedges, Controversies in Interreligious Dialogue and Theology of Religions (London: SMC Press, 2010). 39. On the connections between theology and contextualization, see Steven R. Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1992). 40. The Second Vatican Council alluded to the importance of contextualization in theological reflections. The principle of contextualization is evident in the missionary decree, Ad gentes, where contextualization deals with the incarnation of the message of Christ in non-Christian cultures. The Churches in other contexts belong within the whole “economy of the incarnation.” Ad gentes speaks of the adaptation of the cultural riches of nations into the life of the Church. For instance, a Christian in a missionary situation should strive to know “the riches which the generous God has distributed among nation.” (AG 11.2). 41. Ukpong, quoted in David A. Kerr, “New Models in Christian- Muslim Relations,” Unpublished paper, 12. 42. Ibid. 43. Ibid. 44. Paul Ricouer, quoted in Emmanuel Martey, African Theology: Inculturation and Liberation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1997), 54. NOTES 199

45. Stephen B. Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1992), 5. 46. Ibid. 47. Ibid. 48. Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Theology Brewed in an African Pot (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008), 152–3. 49. For excellent studies of Vatican II, see W. Abbott, The Documents of Vatican II: Introductions and Commentaries (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1966); Miikka Ruokanen, The Catholic Doctrine of Non- Christian Religions According to the Second Vatican Council (Leiden: Brill, 1992); Michael L. Fitzgerald, “From Heresy to Religion,” Pastoral Review (January 2004): 1–7; and Robert B. Sheard, Interreligious Dialogue in the Catholic Church Since Vatican II: A Historical and Theological Study (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1987). 50. See Ataullah Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997), 36–38, for a good explanation of the Lumen Gentium. 51. Quoted in Peter C. Phan, Being Religious Interreligiously: Asian Perspectives on Interfaith Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004), xxii. 52. Ibid. 53. Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue, 425. 54. Ibid., 425–6. 55. See Phan, Being Religious Interreligiously, xxiii. 56. Knitter, No Other Name, 124. 57. Ibid. 58. See Jacques Dupuis, Jesus Christ at the Encounter of World Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991). 59. H. Maurier, quoted in Jacques Dupuis, Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1997), 169. 60. “Guidelines for Dialogue between Muslims and Christians,” Rome, 1971, 17. 61. For a good account of the responses of the Catholic Church to interreligious dialogue, see Michael L. Fitzgerald and John Borelli, Interfaith Dialogue: A Catholic View (Maryknoll, NY; and London: Orbis Books and SPCK, 2006). 62. Ibid., 30. 63. In the post-conciliar period, the work of Pope John Paul II gave more clarification and guidance for interreligious dialogue within the Catholic church. Through his writings and visits, he was able to give concrete affirmation to the willingness of the church to embrace other religious traditions. During his visit to West Africa, he acknowledged the peaceful interreligious coexistence in many African communities. In his 1990 encyclical on mission, he affirms that the Holy Spirit is present “not only in individuals but also in 200 NOTES

society and history, peoples, cultures, and religions (Redemptoris missio, no. 28). He also affirmed that there is the abiding presence and action of the Spirit of God among followers of other religions. Jacques Dupuis remarked that he “laid the theological basis for the significance of interreligious dialogue in the mission of the church.” See Dupuis, Toward a Christian Theology, 360. For further articula- tion of Pope John Paul II on interreligious dialogue, see Byron L. Sherwin and Harold Kasimow, eds., Pope Paul II and Interreligious Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1999). 64. For a good study on the World Council of Churches, see Dirk C. Mulder, “A History of the Sub-Unit on Dialogue of the World Council of Churches,” Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 2 (1992): 136–51. 65. On the inner dynamics of the WCC, see S. Wesley Ariarajah, “Power, Politics, and Plurality: The Struggles of the World Council of Churches to Deal with Religious Plurality,” in The Myth of Religious Superiority: A Multifaith Exploration, ed. Paul F. Knitter (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2005), 176–93. 66. See Kenneth Cracknell, In Good and Generous Faith: Christian Responses to Religious Pluralism (Cleveland: Pilgrims Press, 2006), 106. 67. Guidelines on Dialogue with People of Living Faiths and Ideologies, Geneva, WCC, 1979, 111.4. 68. Stuart E. Brown, Twenty Years of Christian-Muslim Conversations Sponsored by the World Council of Churches (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1989), 3–5. The unit on dialogue was disbanded in 1991 and a new office on Inter-Religious Relations was created within the General Secretariat. See also J. B. Taylor, ed., WCC Papers on 10 Years of Christian-Muslim Dialogue (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1977). 69. Quoted in Cracknell, In Good and Generous Faith, 106. 70. Stanley Samartha, “Dialogue as a Continuing Christian Concern,” in Christianity and Other Religions, ed. John Hick and Brian Hebblethwaite (London: Collins, 1980), 151. 71. Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century, 30. 72. Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face to Face, 37. 73. One important meeting was held in Broumana in July 1972. Stanley Samartha and John Taylor edited a book on some of the papers that were presented at the conference. Some of the participants at the conference were: Kenneth Cragg, Lamin Sanneh, George Anawati, Michael Fitzgerald, George Khodr, Marston Speight, Willem Bijlefeld, Mahmoud Ayoub, Wadi Haddad, Anwar Harjono, Hasan Askari, Mahmoud Husain, and Hassan Saab. It was an initiative that led to other meetings on Christian-Muslim dialogue all over the world. NOTES 201

74. Isma’il R. Al-Faruqi, “Islam and Other Faiths,” in The Challenge of Islam, ed. Altaf Gauhar (London: Islamic Council of Europe, 1978), 175. 75. Quoted in Siddiqui, Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century, 73. 76. Kenneth Cragg, “In the Name of God . . . ” in Christian-Muslim Dialogue, ed. S. J. Samartha and J. B. Taylor (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1973), 154.

4 Cross Meets Crescent: Forms of Christian Responses to Islam

1. On PROCMURA, see Stuart E. Brown, “A Christian Approach to Islam in Africa,” in A Great Commission: Christian Hope and Religious Diversity, ed. Martin Forward, Stephen Plant, and Susan White (New York: Peter Lang, 2000), 187–200. 2. Johann Haafkens, “The Direction of Christian-Muslim Relations in Sub-Saharan Africa,” in Christian-Muslim Encounters, ed. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad et. al. (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1995), 306. 3. J. Haafkens, “PROCMURA and the Churches in Africa,” Project for Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa, vol. 3, no. 3, May/June 1994, p. 8. 4. For a good study on James Johnson, see E. A. Ayandele, Holy Johnson: Pioneer of African Nationalism, 1836–1917 (New York: Routledge, 1970). 5. G. O. Gbadamosi, The Growth of Islam among the Yoruba 1841–1908 (New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1987), 134. 6. Ibid., 143. 7. I bid. 8. Ibid., 144. 9. Ibid., 143. 10. Lamin Sanneh, Piety and Power: Muslims and Christians in West Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1996), 1. 11. Quoted in Lamin Sanneh, West African Christianity: The Religious Impact (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1983), 221. 12. P. R. McKenzie, Inter-religious Encounters in West Africa: Samuel Ajayi Crowther’s Attitude to African Traditional Religion and Islam (London: Blackfriars Press, 1979), 13. 13. Lamin Sanneh’s work, Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008) offers an insightful analysis of the role of translation in the missionary expan- sion in Africa. 14. Andrew F. Walls, “Samuel Ajayi Crowther 1807–1891: Foremost African Christian of the Nineteenth Century,” in Mission Legacies: Biographical Studies of Leaders of the Modern Missionary Movement, 202 NOTES

ed. Gerald H. Anderson et. al (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1994), 136. 15. Quoted in P. R. McKenzie, “Crowther’s Attitude to Other Faith— During the Early Period,” Orita: Ibadan Journal of Religious Studies 5 (June 1971): 4. 16. Ibid., 9 17. Ibid. 18. Andrew F. Walls, “Africa as the Theatre of Christian Engagement with Islam in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Religion in Africa 29 (May 1991): 161. 19. Ibid., 162. 20. Ibid., 163. 21. Ibid. 22. Quoted in McKenzie, “Crowther’s Attitude to other Faith,” 10. 23. Ibid. 24. McKenzie, Inter-religious Encounters in West Africa, 63. 25. Ibid. 26. Sanneh, West African Christianity, 224. 27. Ibid. 28. J. D. Y. Peel, Aladura: A Religious Movement among the Yoruba (London: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute, 1968), 164. 29. Ibid. 30. Joseph Kenny, “Christian-Muslim Relations in Nigeria,” Islamochristiana 5 (1979): 178. 31. Lamin Sanneh, “Christian Experience of Islamic Da’wah, with Particular Reference to Africa,” International Review of Mission 260 (October 1976): 410. 32. Allan Anderson, An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 4. 33. On the Pentecostal and Charismatic phenomenon in Nigeria, see John A. Farounbi, A Brief History of Pentecostal Movement in Nigeria (Mushin, Nigeria: Lemuel, 1997); Emmanuel Onuh, Pentecostalism: Selling Jesus at a Discount (Nsukka, Nigeria: Goodwell of God Apostolate, 1999); Jerome N. Okafor, ed., The Challenge of Pentecostalism (Awka, Nigeria: Mercury Bright Press, 2004); Matthews A. Ojo, The End-Time Army: Charismatic Movements in Modern Nigeria (Trenton, NJ: and Asmara, Eritrea: Africa World Press, 2006); Ogbu U. Kalu, African Pentecostalism: An Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000); and Azohzeh Ukah, A New Paradigm of Pentecostal Power: A Study of the Redeemed Christian Church of God in Nigeria (Trenton, NJ and Asmara, Eritrea: Africa World Press, 2008). 34. See Gerrie ter Harr, Halfway to Paradise: African Christians in Europe (Cardiff, Great Britain: Cardiff Academic Press, 1998), 52. NOTES 203

35. H. W. Turner, African Independent Church, vol. II (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967), 317. 36. G. J. O. Moshay, Who Is This Allah? (Ibadan: Fireliners International, 1990), 87. 37. Miller, quoted in Asonzeh Ukah, “Born-Again Muslims: The Ambivalence of Pentecostal Response to Islam in Nigeria,” in Fractured Spectrum: Perspectives on Christian-Muslim Encounters in Nigeria (New York: Peter Lang, 2012), 51. 38. Ethel Miller, The Truth About Muhammed (Minner: CMS Niger Press, 1929), 14–18. 39. Colin Chapman, quoted in Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face to Face (Oxford: Oneworld, 1997), 98. The works of Henry Martyn, Temple Gairdner, Constance Padwick, and Lewis Bevans Jones offer a more sympathetic understanding of Islam. 40. See Ogbu U. Kalu, “Sharia and Islam in Nigerian Pentecostal Rhetoric, 1970–2003,” Pneuma 26, (2004): 242–61; and Timothy O. Olonade, ed., Battle Cry for the Nations: Rekindling the Flames of World Evangelization (Jos, Nigeria: CAPRO Media, 1995). 41. Matthews A. Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam and the Contest for Public Space in Northern Nigeria,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 2 (2007): 175. 42. Ruth Marshall, “The Sovereignty of Miracles: Pentecostal Political Thought in Nigeria,” Constellations 2 (2010): 204. 43. Ukah, “Born-Again Muslims,” 42–62. 44. Ibid., 55. 45. Ibid. 46. See Toyin Falola, Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular Ideologies (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1998) for a comprehensive analysis of interreligious conflicts in contemporary Nigeria. 47. Ogbu U. Kalu, Power, Poverty and Prayer, (New York: Peter Lang, 2000), 157. 48. On the shari’a in Nigeria, see Philip Ostien, Jamila M. Nasir, and Franz Kogelmann, eds. Comparative Perspectives on the Shari’ah in Nigeria (Ibadan: Spectrum Books, 2005); Lamin Sanneh, “Shari’ah Sanctions as Secular Grace? A Nigerian Islamic Debate and an Intellectual Response,” Transformation 20 (2003): 232–44; Philip Ostein, “Islamic Criminal Law: What It Means in Zamfara and Niger States,” Journal of Public & Private Law 14 (2000): 1–18; Frieder Ludwig, “Christian-Muslim Relations in Northern Nigeria since the Introduction of Shari’ah in 1999,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 76 (2008): 602–37; Yusuf Turaki, The British Colonial Legacy in Northern Nigeria (Jos, Nigeria: Jos University Press, 1993); C. Ubah, “Problems of Christian Missionaries in the Muslim Emirates of Nigeria, 1900–1928,” Journal of African Studies 3 (1976): 351–71; Matthew Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam 204 NOTES

and the Contest for Public Sphere in Northern Nigeria,” Islam & Christian-Muslim Relations 18 (2007): 175–88; Abdulmalik Bappa Mahmud, A Brief History of Shari’a in the Defunct Northern Nigeria (Jos, Nigeria: Jos University Press, 1986. 49. www.tribune.com.ng/news2013, 1. 50. Boko Haram: Oritsejafor Addresses US Congress, http://www.edo- nation.net. 51. I should point out that the US government has put a $7 million bounty on Abubakar Shekau’s head. He is the leader of the Boko Haram movement in Nigeria. This bounty is $2 million more than the one on Mullah Omar, the leader of Afghanistan’s Taliban. 52. For a good study on this issue, see Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and the Turban: Muslims and West African Pluralism (Denver: Westview Press, 1997). 53. It should be noted that prior to the rise of the modern secular state in the West, Muslims in Africa have been engaged in discussions regarding the relationship religious order and political power. From the twelfth century, Muslims in the Sudanic city of Jenne, Mali, and Songhay have debated the role of religion vis-à-vis the limitations of state power. 54. A number of Nigerian Muslims are questioning the “silent majority syndrome.” Their stance affirms the pluralistic and secular nature of Nigeria. In this context, all the religious traditions must develop new models of living together. 55. For a good analysis of the debate on the shari’a in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, Indonesia, and Afghanistan, see The Review of Faith & International Affairs, 10 (2012): 1–16. 56. From the Muslim standpoint, shari’a law is a divinely given injunction from God. It stipulates the various ways to humbly submit to Allah. Muslim apologists crave for an ideal context that will guar- antee the rights of Muslims. Liberals, on the other hand, see the shari’a as an ideal way to resist Western impositions and worldview. In a multireligious setting like Nigeria, safeguarding Christian rights remains a contentious issue. 57. It must be noted that a full implementation of the shari’a entailed a broad range of legal system pertaining to matters such as alcohol, gambling, prostitution, land reform, banking system, and educational reform. 58. It is also possible to see the rumblings in northern Nigeria as an aftermath of the colonial arrangement. At the beginning of colonial rule in Nigeria, the British inaugurated a system of “indirect rule” in the northern region by allowing the existing Muslim emirates to retain their political power. By the time the drumbeats of independence starting getting louder, these leaders became irrelevant or became more or less putative heads. They became ceremonial figures who could only perform civic responsibilities. Igbo Christians who migrated from the South also started acquiring land in the northern NOTES 205

region of the country. They also started assuming leadership posi- tions in this region. This may have led to a feeling of resentment by the Hausa-Fulani populace. 59. Amos Yong, Hospitality & Other: Pentecost, Christian Practices, and the Neighbor (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008), 21. 60. Hassan Kukah, Religion, Politics and Power in Northern Nigeria (Ibadan: Spectrum Books, 1994), 199–200. 61. On the response of the Roman Catholic Church of Nigeria (RCC) to Islam in Nigeria, see Casimir Chinedu Nzeh, From Clash to Dialogue of Religions: A Socio-Ethical Analysis of the Christian-Islamic Tension in a Pluralistic Nigeria (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2002). With the influence of Vatican II, the RCC has maintained a program of cau- tious dialogue with Islam in Nigeria. It is however clear that one of the major concerns of the Church is the high rate of its members joining the Pentecostal churches. On this trend, see Evaristus Bassey, Pentecostalism and the Catholic Church in Nigeria (Calabar, Nigeria: Mariana, 1993) and Hilary C. Achunike, The Influence of Pentecostalism on Catholic Priests and Seminarians in Nigeria (Onitsha, Nigeria: Africana First, 2004). 62. The Gallup poll conducted by John Esposito and Dalia Mogahed confirmed that there is tremendous support among Muslims for both shari’a and democracy. See John Esposito and Dalia Mogahed, Who Speaks for Islam? What a Billion Muslims Really Think (New York: Gallup Press, 2007). 63. Balewa was an ardent advocate of the rights of northern Nigeria, and with Ahmadu Bello, who held the hereditary title of Sardauna of Sokoto, he established the Northern People’s Congress (NPC). 64. Many of these social critics felt that the main reason for agitating for the shari’a at this point was to undermine the administration of Olusegun Obasanjo, a Yoruba and a self-proclaimed born-again Christian. It was a calculated move by several northern states to flex their political muscle. 65. For further discussion on the historical development and application of the shari’a in Nigeria, see Joseph Kenny, “Shari’a in Nigeria: A Historical Survey,” Bulletin on Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa 1.1 (1986): 1–21; John Onaiyekan, “The Shariah in Nigeria: A Christian View,” Bulletin on Islam and Christian- Muslim Relations in Africa 5.3 (1987): 1–17; David Laitin, “The Shari’a Debate and the Origins of the Nigeria’s Second Republic,” Journal of Modern African Studies 20.3 (1982): 411–30; Jonathan T. Reynolds, “Nigeria and Shari’a: Religion and Politics in a West African Nation,” in History Behind the Headlines: The Origins of Conflicts Worldwide, ed. Meghan O’Meara (Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group, 2001), 214–20; and John Hunwick, “An African Case Study of Political Islam: Nigeria,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 524 (November 1992): 149–55. 206 NOTES

66. Abdullahi An-Na’im, “Reforming Islam,” Harvard International Review 19 (1997): 26. 67. Abdullahi An-Na’im, “Political Islam in National Politics and International Relations,” in The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics, ed. Peter Berger (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), 117. 68. Ibid., 116. 69. Ibid., 117. 70. Ibid. 71. See Franz Rosenthal, Al-Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, vol. 1 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), 427. 72. Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and the Turban: Muslims and West African Pluralism (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), 180–81. 73. See Simeon Ilesanmi, Religious Pluralism and the Nigerian State (Athens, OH: Center for International Studies, 1997), 186. 74. In a lecture at the Royal Courts of Justice in February in 2008, the Rt. Reverend Rowan Williams, Anglican Archbishop of Canterbury, caused a considerable stir by remarking that it was desirable and unavoidable that certain aspects of the shari’a be recognized in Britain for reasons of equal rights and treatment. See Robert W. Hefner, “Global Politics and the Question of Shari’a: An Introduction to the Winter Issue,” Review of Faith & International Affairs 10 (2012): 1. 75. See Miroslav Volf, Exclusion & Embrace: A Theological Exploration of Identity, Otherness, and Reconciliation (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1996) for a good exposition of this idea. 76. Ibid, 124. 77. Miroslav Volf, “Living with the ‘Other,’” Journal of Ecumenical Studies 39 (2006): 16. 78. Ibid., 18, 19. 79. The Guardian, quoted in http://odili.net/news/source/2009/ may/15/36.html, Friday, May 15, 2009, 1. 80. Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion Is Christianity? The Gospel Beyond the West (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003), 6. 81. Chinua Achebe, “The Crossroads in Our Cultures,” Sunday Times, November 12, 1989, 18. 82. Ibid. 83. See Kenneth Cracknell, In Good and Generous Faith: Christian Responses to Religious Pluralism (Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim Press, 2006).

5 On Faithful Presence: Religion and Human Wholeness in Nigeria

1. Ogbu U. Kalu, “African Traditional Religion and Its Modern Fate,” in The World’s Religions: Continuities and Transformations, ed. Peter B. Clarke and Peter Beyer (London and New York: Routledge, 2009), 11–12. NOTES 207

2. Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, a report by the Pew Charitable Trusts and the John Templeton Foundation. 3. Kenneth Cragg, Sandals at the Mosque: Christian Presence Amid Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959), 68. 4. See Ebenezer Obadare, “Pentecostal Presidency? The Lagos-Ibadan ‘Theocratic Class’ & the Muslim ‘Other,’” Review of African Political Economy 33 (2006): 665–78. 5. Ibid., 673. 6. This perspective is at the core of the narrative on the praxis of interreligious engagement. 7. Jean-Marc Ela, African Cry (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1986), 84–85. 8. Ibid., 85. 9. See Farid Esack, Qur’an, Liberation and Pluralism (Oxford: Oneworld, 1997); and Farid Esack, On Being a Muslim: Finding a Religious Path in the World Today (Oxford: Oneworld, 2009). 10. “We’re the cause of our problems in the North,” http://www.van- guardngr.com/2013/01, accessed January 20, 2013. 11. Kenneth Cracknell, In Good and Generous Faith: Christian Responses to Religious Pluralism (Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim Press, 2005), 110–11. 12. Thomas Thangaraj, The Common Task: A Theology of the Christian Mission (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1999), 28. 13. Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion Is Christianity? The Gospel beyond the West (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003), 39. 14. Lewis S. Mudge’s proposal for a “covenantal humanism” is inti- mately connected with the discussion on the linkages between religion and transformation. According to him, religious traditions have a gift of responsibility toward the well-being of humankind. See his The Gift of Responsibility: The Promise of Dialogue among Christians, Jews, and Muslims (London and New York: Continuum, 2008). 15. James H. Cone, “Black Theology and Solidarity,” in Struggles for Solidarity: Liberation Theologies in Tension, ed. Lorine M. Getz and Ruy O. Costa (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1992), 47. 16. Two texts that deal with interreligious dialogue and global responsibility are Paul F. Knitter, One Earth Many Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1995) and Raimon Panikkar, Cultural Disarmament: The Way to Peace (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1995). For Knitter, the specter of environmental degradation and social injustice demand interreligious alliances. In the book, Knitter advocates a “this-worldly soteriology” necessary to overcome the global eco-human problem. Panikkar, on the other hand, is con- cerned with the question of peace. He weaves together insights from Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity to construct a new vision of 208 NOTES

peace and intercultural dialogue. See also his “Toward a Liberative Interreligious Dialogue,” Cross Currents 45 (1995): 451–68. The essence of the article lies in the fact that “the word shaped in dialogue that accords the oppressed a privileged place will grant authenticity to the conversation among world religions” (451). 17. At the height of the Liberian civil war, it was a coalition of Christian and Muslim women who led the charge that would eventually lead to peace talks. 18. The Executive Council of Women’s Interfaith Council is Kathleen McGarvey OLA, Comfort Fearon is the Christian Coordinator, and Amina Kazaure, the Muslim Coordinator. 19. I am very grateful to Professor Yomi Durotoye, Wake Forest University for this insight. 20. Francis Mading Deng, The Dinka of the Sudan (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972), 24. The quality of alaafia is analo- gous to the concept of dheeng among the Dinka people of Sudan. This represents qualities such as generosity, kindness, compassion, and good manners. The opposite of such positive virtues is yuur, which means selfishness, ugly manners, and wanton disregard for others. See Benjamin C. Ray, African Religions: Symbol, Ritual, and Community (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000), 94. 21. Desmond Tutu, No Future Without Forgiveness (New York: Doubleday, 1999), 31. 22. John Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy (New York: Doubleday, 1970), 282. 23. Aloysius Pieris, “The Place of Non-Christian Religions and Cultures in the Evolution of Third World Theology,” in Irruption of the Third World: Challenge to Theology, ed. Virginia Fabella and Sergio Torres (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1983), 113–14. 24. Paul F. Knitter, “Toward a Liberation of Religions,” in The Myth of Christian Uniqueness, ed. Paul F. Knitter and John Hick (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books),181. 25. Ibid., 185. 26. This perspective is related to the praxis of interreligious dialogue. Paul Knitter also connected this dimension to what he described as the “global theological reality,” which combines tradition with praxis. See Paul Knitter, No Other Name? A Critical Survey of Christian Attitudes to World Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1985), 91–2. Religion is not simply about what people believe, it is also a matter of what they do. Religion deals with thought, feeling, and action. See also his One Earth, Many Religions: Multifaith Dialogue and Global Responsibility (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1995). 27. Ibid., 187. 28. Harvey Cox, quoted in Knitter, “Toward a Liberation of Religions.” 29. Knitter, “Toward a Liberation of Religions,” 181. NOTES 209

30. Quoted in Knitter, “Toward a Liberation Theology of Religions,” 189. 31. Walter Bruegemann, Living Towards Vision: Biblical Reflections on Shalom (New York: United Church Press, 1982), 15. 32. Stanley Samartha, quoted in Paul F. Knitter, “Toward a Liberation Theology of Religions,” 189. 33. Hans Kung, quoted in Paul F. Knitter, “Towards a Liberation Theology of Religions,” 189. 34. Hans Kung, “A Global Ethic: Development and Goals,” Interreligious Insight 1 (January 2003): 10. 35. The project on Global Ethic cannot ignore the voices and concerns of the dispossessed. For a critical appraisal of the notion of Global Ethic, see Paul Hedges, “Are Interfaith Dialogue and a Global Ethic Compatible? A Call for an Ethic to the Globe,” Journal for Faith, Spirituality and Social Change 1.2 (2008): 109–32; and Paul Hedges, “Concerns about the Global Ethic: A Sympathetic Critique and Suggestions for a New Direction,” Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 18.1 (2008): 157–63. 36. See S. J. Samartha and J. B. Taylor, eds., Christian-Muslim Dialogue (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1973) for the memorandum of the conference in Broumana. 37. See the final statement of “Dialogue in Nigeria,” Second International Conference on Youth and Interfaith Communication, Jos, Nigeria, October 22–24, 2010. 38. Editorial Symposium, “Spirituality and Liberation: A Buddhist- Christian Conversation,” Horizons 15.2 (1988): 361. 39. Miroslav Volf, Exclusion & Embrace: A Theological Exploration of Identity, Otherness, and Reconciliation (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1996), 220. 40. Abraham Joshua Heschel, The Prophets (New York: Harper Collins, 1962), 19. 41. S. J. Samartha, “Religious Identity in a Multi-Faith Society,” Current Dialogue 13 (2004): 12. 42. See CTC Bulletin, XVIII (April 2002): 2–3. 43. Kwesi Dickson, Theology in Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1984), 62. 44. See Elias K. Bongmba, The Dialectics of Transformation in Africa (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006) 200–2. 45. Jean-Marc Éla, “Christianity and Liberation in Africa” in Paths of African Theology, ed. Rosino Gibellini, 146. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1994). 46. The classical typology of exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism was introduced by Alan Race to describe Christian approaches to other religions. See his Christians and Religious Pluralism (London: SCM Press, 1983). Paul Hedges has identified four potential problems 210 NOTES

with the typology: it oversimplifies the possibilities, not everyone fits neatly inside the categories, the terms are polemical, and they do not represent an accurate classification. See Paul Hedges, Controversies in Interreligious Dialogue and the Theology of Religions (London: SCM Press, 2010), 18. 47. Christians Meeting Muslims: Papers on Ten Years of Christian-Muslim Dialogue (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1977), 68. 48. Marc Gopin, “The Use of the Word and Its Limits: A Critical Evaluation of Religious Dialogue as Peacemaking,” in Interfaith Dialogue and Peacemaking ed. David R. Smock (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2002), 131. 49. Lamin Sanneh, Summoned from the Margin: Homecoming of an African (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2012), 193.

Conclusion: On Living and Walking Together into the Future

1. For a good exposition of this position, see Judith Berling, A Pilgrim in Chinese Culture: Negotiating Religious Diversity (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 1997), 36. 2. See CTC Bulletin XVIII (April 2002): 2–3. 3. See John Paden, Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto: Values and Leadership (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1986), 3. 4. Diana Eck, cited in David Smock, ed., Interfaith Dialogue and Peacemaking (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2002), 6–7. Bibliography

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1918 influenza pandemic, 54, 117 adultery, 124 1991 Gulf War, 12 advaita vedanta tradition, 22 1992 riots, 166 Advisory Council for Religious Affairs, 1999 elections in Nigeria, 12 196n71 2003 elections in Nigeria, 125 affirmation and alteration within 2011 elections in Nigeria, 37 African religion, 121 2015 elections in Nigeria, 60 afiyah, 157 African Baptist Church, 54, 117 Abacha, Sani, 57, 131 African Cry, 149 Abbott, Freeland, 87 African Independent Church, 54, 111, ibn Abdallah, Muhammad Ahmad, 43 116–21 Abe, Masao, 168 African Initiated Church. See Aladura Abeokuta, 38, 53, 109, 118 churches Abhishikananda, Swami, 22 African Islam, distinct characteristics Abia, 34 of, 42 Abimbola, Wande, 61 African liberation theology. See Abiodun, Christianah, 119 liberation theology ablution, 118, 119 African Nations Cup tournament, 180 Abrahamic legacy, 4, 41, 74, 92 African Pentecostal and charismatic “Abrahamic monotheism,” 92 churches, 121–6 Absolute, union with, 22, 23 See also Pentecostalism absolute divine transcendence, 85 African Reformation, 54 absolute state, pitfalls of, 133 African religions, Christianity and Islam Abubakar, Sa’ad, III, 152 as, 18 Abyssinia, 16 African Slave Trade and Its Remedy, 52 accountability resulting from creative Agarenes, 76 dialogical engagement, 58 agency within theology, 72, 73 Achebe, Chinua, 32, 56, 140, 141 aggiornamento, 91 ACRA (Advisory Council for Religious agreeing to disagree, 81 Affairs), 196n71 Ahl al-Kitab, 17 Ad gentes, 198n40 Ahmadu, Seku, 48 Adam, religion of, 124 Ajobi and Ajogbe: Variations on the Adamawa, 34, 38 Theme of Sociation, 61 Addis Ababa, 96 Akinjogbin, Adeagbo, 61 Adeboye, Enoch Adejare, 125, 126 Akinola, Jasper, 150 Adefuye, Ade, 37 Akiwowo, Akinsola, 61 Adogame, Afe, 68 Akwa-Ibom, 34 226 INDEX al-Din, Nasir, 45 Ashafa, Ustaz Muhammad Nurayn, 9, al-Faruqi, Isma’il, 87 166–8 al-Faruqi, Raji, 99 Asia, dialogical and liberative theologies al-Hajj, Umar, 48 in, 22, 23 al-Hindi, Sheikh Rahmatullah, 78 Askiya Mohammed, 44 Al-Kindi, Risala of, 77 Asoro Kukuru, 107 al-Maghili, Muhammad, 44–6 Atlantic Monthly, 21 alaafia, 156, 157 The Attitude of the Church towards the alaafia (holistic well-being), 156 Followers of Other Religions, 99 Aladura churches, 54, 55, 117–20 authenticity and authentic faith, 30, 45, etymology of aladura, 118 63, 90, 100, 117, 123, 181 relationship with Islam, 117 authoritarianism, 133 alcohol consumption, 120 autonomy, within Christian and Muslim Alexandria, 17 understanding, 23, 41, 49, 118 Algeria, 17 avidya, 161 alienation as result of exclusive awakening, spiritual, 21, 97, 109, 118, theological propositions, 98 149, 165–9 Alive to God, 87 Awolowo, Obafemi, 66 All Progressives Congress (APC), Ayandele, E. A., 51, 52 60 Ayetoro, 120 “Allah” as god kept in Kaa’ba, 124 Azikwe, Nnamdi, 178 Allahu Akbar, 116 Allen, William, 109 Babangida, Ibrahim, 57, 127, 195n71 almajiri education, 42–4, 58 Babylon, 17 Almajiris, 173 Bakare, Tunde, 150 Aloma, Idris, 44 balance Amin, Samir, 24 alaafia, 157 Amjad-Ali, Charles, 25, 26, 61, 62 “communal equilibrium,” 170 An-Na’im, Abdullahi, 132, 133 peaceful interreligious coexistence in Anambra people, 34 parts of Nigeria, 65–7 Anang people, 38 Balewa, Abubakar Tafawa, 131, 132 Anderson, Allan, 122 Banu Ma’qil, 45 Angel Gabriel as messenger of God, Basetti-Sani, Giulio, 197n18 112–14 baths, ritual, 120 Anglican Church, 37, 81, 119 Bauchi, 34, 38 anthropological model of contextual Beatitudes, 171, 172 theology, 90 Bediako, Kwame, 144 antichrist, 77, 124 begging, 58 anti-Semitism, 75–8 “believers” vs. “unbelievers,” 77 antislavery campaigns, 111 Bello, Alhaji Ahmadu, 68, 178, 205n63 APC (All Progressives Congress), 60 belonging appeals, Sharia courts, 130 explanation of multireligious appropriation in religious transmission, belonging, 187n34 7, 18, 19, 29, 43, 49, 53, 68, 100, See also the Other/Otherness 110, 111, 118, 121, 152–5 Benedictine monk, 22 Aquinas, St. Thomas, 77 Benin, Republic of, 104 Arabic language, 22, 107, 110, 119 Benin Empire, 51 Arabization, 17 Benue, 38 Bibles in Arabic, 112, 115 Berber peoples, 45 art, role of Islamic religion in, 129 Berger, Peter, 63 INDEX 227

Berom, 36 Bourdieu, Pierre, 78 bestial beings, 77 bowing, 120 Bevans, Stephen, 90 Brahman in advaita vedanta tradition, Bible, 78, 107, 111–15, 154, 176 22 Arabic language, 112, 115 Britain common ground for interreligious civilizing agenda and mission, 52 dialogue and communication found collapse of Sokoto Caliphate, 48 in scriptural texts, 167 in Crown Colony of Lagos, 38 dialogue as Biblicist and affirming English Penal Code, 130 of reconciliation and mutual establishment of British hegemony, exchange, 114 105 gospel command for love, expatriates, 124 compassion, and understanding, “indirect rule” by, 48, 204n58 100, 101 Islam in, 25 litafi, 113 See also colonization and colonial textual level, Christian-Muslim mentality relations at, 27 broadcast media. See media Yoruba language, 111 Brook, David, 21 Bida, 116 Broumana, 100, 165, 200n73 bilad al-harb (territory of non-Muslims), Bruegemann, Walter, 162 46 Buddhism, 22, 158, 165, 168, bilingual education within almajiri 207n16 schooling, 193n43 noted practitioners of multiple Bishops Conference of Nigeria (CBAN), religious belonging, 187n34 8, 131 Buhari, Iman, 17 black stone, mockery of Islamic practices Building Bridges Seminar in Doha, and beliefs, 76 Qatar, 176 Boko Haram Burkina Faso, 45, 180 aggravated violence by, 58, 64, 129 burning of churches, 128 designation as terrorist group, Buxton, Fowell, 52 128, 129 Byzance, Nicetas of, 77 generally, 5, 33, 40 Byzantium, 17, 76 increasing sophistication of, 35 International Religious Freedom Calabar, 53 Report on, 195n61 The Call of the Minaret, 85–7 bondage Cameroon, 45, 104 economic bondage. See poverty Campbell, John, 33, 37 slavery. See slavery and slave trade CAN (Christian Association of Nigeria), border-crossing 122, 127–31, 152 contemporary experience of, 192n31 Canada, 25 See also immigration CANAN (Christian Association of born-again Christians. See Nigerian-Americans), 129 Pentecostalism Canterbury, Archbishop of, 206n74 “born-again Muslims,” 126 Cantwell Smith, Wilfred, 21, 22, 86 Borno Empire, 44, 52 Cape Town, 137 Bornu, 39 Capita Philosophica: Philosophical See also northern Nigeria Chapters, 76 Borrmans, Maurice, 84 Capuchins, 51 borrowing. See appropriation in Cartigny, Switzerland, 97 religious transmission cartoons of Prophet Muhammad, 84 228 INDEX

Catholicos Timothy, 196n6 Church Missionary Society (CMS), 53, Catholics, 87, 91–4, 128, 193n41, 77, 105, 107–8 205n61 in India, 77 Catholic Bishops Conference of Church of the Lord, 54, 117 Nigeria (CBAN), 8, 131 Church of the Lord (Aladura). See Constitution of the Church, 91 Aladura Council of Trent, 94 CIFR (Commission on International ecclesia reformanda, 164 Religious Freedom), 33, 138 Lebanese Catholic scholar, 84 civic responsibility, 157 missionaries. See missionaries and civil service system, 56 missionary movements civil war in Nigeria, 40, 64, 67, 130 popes. See Popes Clapperton, Hugh, 52 Second Vatican Council, 91–4, 99, Clarke, Peter, 44 198n40 clash of culture and civilization theses, Triune God, 22 24, 25, 32, 41, 60, 125 CBAN (Catholic Bishops Conference of “clash of ignorance,” 188n42 Nigeria), 8, 131 Clashes & Encounters: Islam and Celestial Church of Christ, 54, 117 Christianity in History, 74 censorship, 127 clean worship, ablution as, 118, 119 Chad, 45 CMS (Church Missionary Society), 53, Chambesy, Switzerland, 95 77, 105, 107, 108 Chapman, Colin, 125 Cobb, John, 159 charismatic movements. See codes and laws Pentecostalism Catholic Constitution of the Church, chauvinism, 5 91 Cherubim and Seraphim movement, 54, code of conduct for Muslim rulers, 44 117–20 Constitution of Nigeria, 127, 130–2 children, 119, 157 English Penal Code, 130 International Conference of Christian international human rights laws, and Muslim youths, 16 193n44 Muslim/Christian Youth Dialogue shari’a, 35, 39, 43, 46, 47, 127, 130– Forum, 166 4, 203n48 schooling at Madrassehs, 42–4, 58 Coe, Shoki, 88, 89 Christ Apostolic Church, 54, 117, Cold War era, 23 119 Cole, M. S., 107 Christ Jesus. See Jesus colonization and colonial mentality, 14, Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN), 26, 38, 39, 42, 43, 51–5, 115 122, 127–31, 152 early explorers, 51, 52 Christian Association of Nigerian- ethnic amalgamation, 55 Americans (CANAN), 129 foreign domination of Christian Christian Council of Nigeria, 104 churches, independence from, Christian Responsibility in an 116–21 Independent Nigeria, 104 independence of Nigeria, 32, 130 Christian Students’ Movement, 127 “indirect rule,” 204n58 Christianity as African religion, 31 legacies of, 5, 71 robust presence in Nigeria, 37 transformation of African Christmas Day bombing, 193n41 Christianity, 49–55 The Church in the Shadow of the Mosque: See also missionaries and missionary Christians and Muslims in the movements World of Islam, 71 commandments, obedience to, 97 INDEX 229 commerce and trade, 32, 34, 39, 42, 43, Cox, Harvey, 161 48, 50, 52, 55 Cracknell, Kenneth, 97, 141, 153 Arabic as language of and trade, 17, 22 Cragg, Kenneth, 15, 32, 79–87, 100, globalization, 3, 4, 87, 94, 192n31 144 slave trade, 38, 43, 52, 111 bravery of, 80 Commission on International Religious creativity in religious understanding and Freedom (CIFR), 33, 138 appropriation, 121 “common source” of religion, 160 criminal issues The Common Task: A Theology of the crimes against humanity, 13 Christian Mission, 154 English Penal Code, 130 A Common Word Between Us and You, shari’a penal law, 132 140 Cross River Valley, 53 “communal equilibrium,” 170 The Crown and The Turban: Muslims communal well-being, 157 and West African Pluralism, 133 communality, 170 Crowther, Ajayi, 8, 54, 110–17 community life, meaning of, 151 crucified Africa, 171 compassion, prophetic call for, 100, 101 crucified Christ, 83, 98, 135, 143 Cone, James, 155 relationship between the Cross, the Conference of European Churches, 95 Self, and the Other, 137 “conflict of jealousies,” 32 crucified mind, 169 conscience, consensus of, 162 “crucified people,” 143 conspiracies, religio-political, 126 Crusades, 12, 23, 32, 50, 74, 87 Constitution of Nigeria, 127, 130–2 “transcendent moralism” that justifies contextualization violence, 67, 68 “context-as-object,” 89 culture “context-as-subject,” 89 appropriation in religious defined, 88, 89 transmission, 7, 18, 19, 29, 43, 49, as dynamic process, 26 53, 68, 100, 110, 111, 118, 121, etymology of “context,” 26 152–5 conundrums/dilemmas/paradoxes, 6, creative ways of relating gospel to 22, 56, 60, 64, 72, 73, 81, 117, concrete existential conditions, 129, 145, 177 89, 90 conversions, 17, 32, 44, 78, 105, 113, cultural context of religion, 31, 89, 180 119, 126 cultural dynamics of Nigeria, 26–8 surreptitious ways of converting, 93, 99 cultural solipsism, 24 transmission and transformation of religion as transcending cultural African Christianity, 49–55 barriers, 21 See also missionaries and missionary Culture of Peace and Non-Violence movements conference, 13 Coptic Christians, 17, 22 Cyrus, 17 corruption in Nigeria, 5, 34, 55–7, 64, 65, 67 daily life Council, Vatican II, 91–4, 99, 198n40 Islam as a way of life, 59 Council of Foreign Relations, 33 poverty, disease, unemployment, and Council of Trent, 94 death, transformational power of courts of appeal, sharia, 130 religion, 146–8, 153 “covenantal humanism,” 207n14 situations where faith and life relate, Covering Islam, How the Media and the 15, 16, 83, 90 Experts Determine How We See the See also existential concerns; praxis/ Rest of the World, 65, 66 practical model 230 INDEX dan Fodio, Abdullah, 47 dilemmas/paradoxes/conundrums, 6, dan Fodio, Mohammed Bello, 47 22, 56, 60, 64, 72, 73, 81, 117, dan Fodio, Usman, 39, 43, 45, 47, 130, 129, 145, 177 191n25 din, separation from doula, 47 Daniel, Norman, 75 al-Din, Nasir, 45 Daniels, David, 183n5 Dinka people of Sudan, 208n20 Danish cartoons of Prophet Diop, Cheikh Anta, 24 Muhammad, 84 diplomacy darkness, spiritual, 161 religion as means to, 43 da’wah, 95, 177 role of Islam, 43, 59, 129 De Fide Orthodoxa: The True Faith, 76 role of priests, 51 De Haeresibus: False Beliefs, 76 discernment, 6, 73, 86, 147 Decalogue, obedience to, 97 The Disintegration of Islam, 125 defamity of Islam, 77 disparity of wealth, 58 definition of Christian-Muslim dispensation, 73, 98, 154, 171 encounters, 26, 27, 103 divine grace, 85, 91, 92, 171 dehumanization, 79, 136, 147, 181 divine mandate to work for humanity demagogues, 69, 111, 126, 182 and community, 169 democratization of society, 19, 20, 122 divine prophecy. See prophecy demographic shifts, 20, 21, 29, 37, 144 divine transcendence. See transcendence demographics of Islam and Christianity divorce, 76, 130 in Nigeria, 6, 36–9 doctrine-centered theories of dialogue, demonization, 12, 13, 55, 63, 76, 125, 62 136 Doha, Qatar, 176 Deng, Francis, 157 donations to church, 126 Denham, Dixon, 52 double belonging in spiritual affiliation, dependency and domination, 149 159 See also colonization and colonial doula, separation from din, 47 mentality dramatis personae, 15 destructive power of religion, 11–30 dreams, interpretation of, 44 DFI (Dialogue with People of Living Dupuis, Jacques, 92 Faiths and Ideologies), 96 Durkheim, Emile, 19 dheeng, 208n20 Dhimmi, 17 East subregion, 38 diakonia, 98 EATWOT (Ecumenical Association of dialogical faith, 30, 134–41 Third World Theologians), 161 essentialist dialogue, 178 ebi commonwealth social theory, 61 vs. exclusivism, provincialism, and ecclesia reformanda, 164 monologue, 3, 12, 24, 29, 40, 88, Eck, Diana, 3, 180 94, 96, 98, 99, 110, 145, 153, 155, ecological degradation, 56, 207n16 159, 177 Economic Community of West liberation theology, 158–61 African States Monitoring Group “dialogue” (ECOMOG), 36 etymology, 26 economic dynamics of Nigeria, 26–8, explained, 2, 69, 103 34, 35, 56, 58, 64, 65, 129 as happenstance, 160 economic context of religion, 31, 89, as show, 139 180 Dialogue with People of Living Faiths effect on need for rebirth and and Ideologies (DFI), 96 orientation, 155 Dickson, Kwesi, 170 GDP of northern Nigeria, 5 INDEX 231

poverty in Nigeria, 5, 56, 58, 180 essentialist dialogue, 178 prosperity of minority, 149 estrangement, explained, 170 Ecumenical Association of Third World “eternal shari’a,” 132 Theologians, 161 ethics, 125, 133, 134 ecumenism, 16, 21, 87, 98, 127, 176 ethical significance of religion, 32, global ethic, 162–5 63, 64, 122 Edinburgh Missionary Conference of global ethic, 162–5 1875, 106, 107 Middle Belt of Nigeria, 39 Edo, 34, 38 within Islam, 109, 129 education Ethiopia, 16, 104 almajiri education, 42–4, 58 ethnicity and ethnic conflicts, 32, 34, as antidote to violence, 5 35, 40, 55, 57, 67 autonomy of Christian schools, 127 ethnicity politics, 128 European system, 42 modern pluralistic Nigeria, intellectual elite, 43, 44 38–41 intellectualism of Islam, 47, 48 religion as transcending ethnic scholarship, promotion by barriers, 21 missionaries, 106, 107 shifting identities, 35 student killings, 58 See also specific ethnic groups by training of clerics, scholars, lawyers, name doctors, and administrators, 44, Euler-Ajayi, M. T., 107 107 evangelization, 80, 88, 89, 94, 100, value of educational structure of 105–10, 112, 122, 126 Islam, 46 backed by American collection-plate WCC irenic scholarship, 95 money, 65 Efik, 38 da’wah, 95, 177 egalitarianism, 109, 148 The Great Commission, 2, 81, 95, Egypt, 17, 20, 36, 37 124 El-Kanemi, 52 tension between evangelism and Ela, Jean-Marc, 149, 150, 171 dialogue, 95 elders, 158 See also missionaries and missionary elections in Nigeria, 12, 37, 60, 125 movements empire. See colonization and colonial evil, transformation of, 30 mentality “evolutionary” transformation, 89 “encounters,” explained, 15, 16, 84 exclusivism, provincialism, and English language, 107, 115 monologue, 3, 12, 24, 29, 40, 88, enlightenment ideals, 25, 28, 32, 85, 94, 96, 98, 99, 110, 145, 153, 155, 98, 144, 161, 165 159, 177 environmental degradation, 56, 207n16 executions of heretics, 75 Enwerem, Evan, 127, 130 Existence alone, 22, 23 Epe, 105 existential concerns, 83, 89, 165, 170, epoche, practice of, 86 181 equilibrium poverty, injustice, moral decadence, alaafia, 157 and unemployment, 153 “communal equilibrium,” 170 separation of theology from real peaceful interreligious coexistence in human experiences, 25 parts of Nigeria, 65–7 See also daily life; praxis/practical Esack, Farid, 6, 150 model esoteric elements of religions, 79, 83, existential darkness (avidya), 161 123 exorcism, 55 232 INDEX

Experiences with Heathens and the Pastor and the Imam, 166, 167, Mohammedans in West Africa, 112, 172, 173 114 Forward, Martin, 183n2 expressway prayer grounds, 146 foundationalism, 160 extra ecclesiam nulla salus, 94 The Fount of Knowledge, 76 extremism/fanaticism, 32, 33, 40, 57, France, 25 63–5, 68, 74, 109, 126–9 Francophone countries in Africa, 105 See also violence and warfare French incursions, 39 French missionaries, 52, 53 face-to-face dialogue, 100 Franciscans, 51 failing state, Nigeria as, 33, 34, 36–8, freedom of religion, 20, 69, 128, 131, 69, 146 132, 134, 182 faith constitutional injunction for secular authentic faith, 30 state, 132 in contemporary landscape, 19–21 report, 33 daily situations where faith and life US Commission on International relate, 15, 16, 83, 90 Religious Freedom’s new sense of, 170 French. See France Faith and Witness of WCC, 96 Friday (Jimo), 119 faith healing, 119 FTO (Foreign Terrorist Organization), “Faith Meet Faith Series,” 1 129 family life Fulani people, 34, 36, 38, 39, 47, 127 ebi commonwealth social theory, 61 Futta Jallon, 50 role of Islam in, 129 fanaticism/extremism, 32, 33, 40, 57, Gabriel as messenger of God, 112–14 63–5, 68, 74, 109, 126–9 Gadaffi, Muammer, 57 See also violence and warfare Gallup poll, 205n62 al-Faruqi, Isma’il, 87 the Gambia, 62 al-Faruqi, Raji, 99 Gandhi, Mahatma, 182 fasting, 55, 120 Gao, 43, 44 federal Sharia court of appeals, Gaudeul, Jean-Marie, 11, 74 130 Gbadamosi, G. O., 108 federalist character of Nigeria, 132 Gbonigi, Bola, 150 De Fide Orthodoxa: The True Faith, 76 general elections. See elections in Fisher, Humphrey, 44 Nigeria flu pandemic, 54, 117 generosity within Islam, 109, 208n20 Foday Kaba, 43 genocide, 14, 135 dan Fodio, Usman, 39, 43, 45, 47, 130, “geography of religious expression,” 68 191n25 geopolitics, 1, 8, 41, 122 football, 180, 181 German interests, 39, 77 Foreign Affairs magazine, 25, 37 “getting along,” 81 foreign domination of Christian Ghana, 62, 104 churches, independence from, Ghazi bin Muhammad, 36 116–21 Gifford, Paul, 63 foreign investment in Nigeria, 5, 57 global affairs and considerations, role of Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO) religion in, 19, 20 designation, 129 Global Ethic Foundation, 162, 209n35 forgiveness and reconciliation, 60, 66, global perception of interreligious 112, 114, 134–8, 158, 162, 165, relations in Nigeria, 65 179, 181 global relevance of Nigeria, 38 INDEX 233 globalization, 3, 4, 87, 94, 192n31 heathenism, 114–16 global ethic, 162–5 Hegemony and Culture: Politics and world system of exploitation, 171 Religious Change among the “globalization from below,” 3 Yoruba, 61 glossolalia, 123 heresy, 75, 100 Gobir, Sultan of, 47 hermeneutics God has a Dream, 138 of change, 99, 138, 150, 180 God is Back: How Global Revival of Faith contextualization within, 90 is Changing the World, 65 of suspicion, 147, 160 God’s Century: Resurgent Religion and Heschel, Abraham Joshua, 168, 169 Global Politics, 19, 20 highway prayer grounds, 146 Goiten, 86 “highway to heaven,” 146 gold, Levant route to, 50 hijrah (migration), 17, 85 Gopin, Marc, 173 al-Hindi, Rahmatullah, 78 gospel command for love, compassion, Hinduism, 22, 158, 187n36, 207n16 and understanding, 100, 101 practitioners of multiple religious Gospel of Luke, 135, 147 belonging, 187n34 grace, divine, 85, 91, 92, 157, 171 Hiskett, Mervyn, 45, 47, 48 Gramsci, Antonio, 61 historical considerations The Great Commission, 2, 81, 95, 124 Abrahamic religions, historical Greek Christendom, 27 relations among, 4, 25, 27, 31 Greek etymology of “dialogue,” 26 emergence of Nigeria as nation state, Greek language, 22 32, 55 Greek mythology, 40 overview of voices shaping Christian Greek style of writing, 119 response to Islam, 71–101 Griffith, Sidney, 71, 72 role of Islam and Christianity in gross domestic product (GDP) of Africa, 7, 16–18 northern Nigeria, 5 role of religion in the world, 108 “the ground of our being,” 175 spread of Islam, 11, 42, 73, 74 growth of Christianity, 144 See also colonization and colonial growth of Islam, 11, 42, 73, 74 mentality The Guidelines for Dialogue between Hodgson, Marshall, 24 Christians and Jews (Borrmans), 84 holistic well being/wholeness, 149–74 Guidelines on Dialogue (WCC), 93, 94, holocaust, 168 96, 97 Holy Spirit, 114, 199n63 Gulf War, 12 charismatic movements. See Guru Maharaji temple, 152 Pentecostalism dialogue requiring, 97 Hadith, 120 discernment of meaning and content De Haeresibus: False Beliefs, 76 of religion, 91 al-Hajj, Umar, 48 Holy Ghost Night, 146 Hamartolos, George, 77 liberative perspective, 123, 124 Hanbali school, 42 The Holy Spirit, Chi, and the Other: A Hartford Seminary, 80 Model of Global and Intercultural Harvard School of Government, 33 Pneumatology, 124 Hassan, Abdille, 43 honor, “presence” as silent honor, 59 Hausa-Fulani hegemony, 127 hope, sense of, 7, 30, 64, 98, 140, 147, Hausa people and Hausaland, 34, 39, 151, 162–6 46, 47, 115, 127, 157 eschatology connected to hopes of health care, 5 people, 170–2 234 INDEX hospitality ethos, 19, 51, 52, 105, 109 independence of African countries, 31 Hossein Nasr, Seyyed, 12 independence of Nigeria, 67, 130 House of Prayer, 120 independency of African religions, human, meaning of, 151 116–21 “human dialogue,” 195n67 India, 20, 77, 78, 106, 154 human rights, 5, 127, 133 indigenenous African people crimes against humanity, 13 agents in African Christianity, 50 international human rights laws, appropriation of faith, 7, 18, 19, 29, 193n44 43, 49, 53, 68, 100, 110, 111, 118, human well-being (maslaha), 143, 154, 121, 152–5 156 evangelization by indigenous human wholeness, 149–74 Christians, 107 humanum, 161, 163 “indigenization,” 31, 54, 89 humility within dialogue, 93, 98, 101 as pawns in scheme of religio-political Huntington, Samuel, 24, 25 dispensation, 51 Hussain, Amir, 25 pluralistic context, indigenous hypersexualization, 77 understanding of meaning and purpose of mission, 109 Ibadan, 38, 53 trappings of empire and indigenous Ibadan, Olubadan of, 119 circumstances, influence on Ibadan, University of, 104 religions traditions, 71 Ibibio, 38 See also traditional African religions ibn Abdallah, Muhammad Ahmad, 43 individuality vs. communal Ibn Khaldun, 133 responsibility, 157 Iconoclastic debates, 76 Indonesia, liberal politics in, 20 Id al-Fitr, 140 infidel, use of term, 79 idolatry, 112, 114 influenza pandemic, 54, 117 Ifa diviner, 114 inheritance practices, 39 Ife, University of, 61 instrumentalization of religions, 14 Igbo, 38, 53, 140, 204n58 intellectual elite, 43, 44 Ijaw, 38 intellectualism of Islam, 47, 48 I’jaz al-Qur’an, The Qur’an inself is not “interfaith dialogue industry,” 1 a Miracle, 78 Interfaith Forum of Muslim and Ilorin, 113 Christian Women’s Association, Imam, 111–13 156 the Pastor and the Imam, 166, 167, Interfaith Meditation Center, 167, 168 172, 173 intermarriages, 55 imitation and appropriation in religion, international affairs and considerations, 7, 18, 19, 29, 43, 49, 53, 68, 100, role of religion in, 19, 20 110, 111, 118, 121, 152–5 International Conference of Christian immigration, 17, 34, 44, 92, 192n31 and Muslim youths, 16 effect on affiliation and identity, 3 international human rights laws, effect on demographics, 21 193n44 hijrah (migration), 17, 85 International Missionary Council, 94 imperialism. See colonization and International Religious Freedom Report colonial mentality in Africa for 2012, 195n61 incarnation, 25, 26, 62, 74, 82, 98, Internet evangelism, 55 198n40 intra vs. interreligious dialogue, 137 “inculturation model” of invisible and visible, intrinsic connection indigenization, 89 between, 123 INDEX 235

Isa, 119 John Paul II, 62, 63, 199n63 See also Jesus John Templeton Foundation on Iseyin, 105 Tolerance and Tension, 144 Ishmaelites, 76 John XXIII, 91–4 Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Johnson, Reverend James, 106–9 Africa, 144 Jos, 35, 36, 64, 68, 137 Islam and Orientalism, 86 joys of religious inquiry, 79, 80 “Islam in the West,” 25 Judaism. See Jews and Judaism Islamic conference, 127 judicial system, 56 “Islamic heresy,” 76 Islamic scholars as jurists, 44 Islamization, 17 Sharia courts, 130 resistance to, 126–9 Juergensmeyer, Mark, 64, 67, 185n9 Islamophobia, 12 jurisdiction of shari’a law, 131–4 Iwo, 105 justice, 64, 65, 137, 141, 147, 150–63, iyasimimo (sanctification), 120 207n16 Izhar al-Haqq (The Demonstration of constant battle against injustice, 170, Truth), 78 171 as existential concern, 153 Jahiliyyah period, 85, 124, 144, 196n6 historical legacy of injustice, 49 Jama’atu Nasril Islam (JNI), 130 justice of God among all people, 164 Jameelah, Maryam, 86 liberation from injustice. See “janjaweed,” 58 liberation theology Jenkins, Philip, 28, 144 perspective of the other, justice Jesuit order, 90, 158 requiring, 168 Jesus, 59, 151 Socratic approach, 157 crucified Christ, 83, 98, 135, 143 emasculated Jesus, 85 Kaa’ba, 124 as great prophet, 112, 113 Kaduna, 9, 34, 38, 131, 137, 152, 156, incarnation, 25, 26, 62, 74, 82, 98, 166 198n40 Kairos document, 181 messianic role of Jesus, 32 Kalam, 82 miraculous birth of Christ, 32, 112, Kalu, Ogbu, 68, 121, 126, 144 113 Kandy, Sri Lanka, 97 relationship between the Cross, the Kanem-Bornu Empire, 39 Self, and the Other, 137 Kano, 34, 43, 66, 131, 137 Jews and Judaism Kanuri, 39 anti-Semitism, 75–8 Katsina, 43 Jewish-Christian mode of thinking, Kenny, Joseph, 120 76 Kenya, 104 possibility of salvation to, 91 Kerr, David, 78, 80 Ji-Sun Kim, Grace, 124 Kim, Grace Ji-Sun, 124 Jibrila (Gabriel), 112–14 Kimball, Charles, 185n11 jihad, 23, 39, 43, 45, 48 Al-Kindi, Risala of, 77 “transcendent moralism” that justifies “Kingdom-centered” view, 161 violence, 67, 68 kitab, 74 See also violence and warfare Knitter, Paul, 24, 92, 159 Jimo (Friday), 119 Koran. See Qur’an jingoism, 40 Koyama, Kosuke, 14 JNI (Jama’atu Nasril Islam), 130 kufr, 197n25 John of Damascus, 76 Kukah, Hassan, 131, 150 236 INDEX

Küng, Hans, 162, 163 Liberian civil war, 208n17 Kuti, Fela, 57 life, dialogue of, 139–41 Kwara, 34 “The Light of the Nations,” 91 Kwashi, Ben, 35 listening, 170 Kyoto, 161 a “listening” church, 164 “teacher’s complex,” 165 Lagos, 38, 53, 108, 109, 120–2, 181 litafi, 113 Crown Colony of Lagos, 38 See also Bible Lagos-Ibadan Expressway, 146 literacy Laitin, David, 61 Arabic language, 22, 48 Lambeth Conference of 1888, 112 Islamic scholars, 43, 44, 47 language missionaries’ role, 106, 107 Anglophone countries in Africa, 105 vernacular, 54, 117 Arabic. See Arabic language liturgy/ritual, 54, 117, 118, 123, 133, bilingual education within almajiri 134, 149 schooling, 193n43 creative paradigms, 49 religious jingoism, 40 models relevant to Africa, 54, 116–21 religious language and symbolism, 29 Living Faith Church, 125 time-fuse of vernacular literacy, 117 Lokoja, 116 translation of Bible to local languages, love, gospel command for, 98–101 154 Luke, Gospel of, 135 warfare, language of, 64, 125 Lumen Gentium, 91 Laroui, Abdullah, 24 Luther, Martin, 78 Last, Murray, 45 Latin American paradigm of liberation Maba Jahu, 43 theology, 161 Macquairre, John, 63 Lausanne Congress on World Maddalla, 193n41 Evangelization, 89 Madhi, 45 laws. See codes and laws Madrassehs, 42–4, 58 lectures on ways to foster peace among Maeir, Karl, 33 Christians and Muslims, 168 al-Maghili, Muhammad, 44–6 Leo III of Byzantium, 76 Maghrib, conquest of, 17 Levant route to spices and gold, 50 magisterium, 16 leviathan state, 133 Maitatsine, 33, 40 Levtzion, Nehemia, 43 Mala, Babs, 104 Lewis, Bernard, 4, 24, 25, 79 Malawi, 104 lex credendi, 15 Mali, 44, 45 liberal political theory, 62 Maliki School of law, 17, 42 liberal view of interreligious encounters, Mamluks, 17 27 manifestations of Islam and Christianity liberation theology, 6, 143, 147, 150–63 in Nigeria, 31–69 common ground, 151 Mansa Musa, 44 identification of liberation as core Mansur B. Sergun, 76 value in religion, 98 Ma’qil, 45 ongoing process of liberation, 170 marginalization, 143, 167 prophetic connection with dialogue, marriage, 39, 43, 130 158–61 intermarriages, 55 prosperity of minority, 149 mockery of Islamic practices and Soteria, 160 beliefs, 76 within meaning of “mission,” 154 Marshall, Ruth, 125 INDEX 237 maslaha, 143, 154, 156 freedom from oppression and Massignon, Louis, 4, 197n18 ignorance, as meaning of Maurier, H., 92 “mission,” 154 Mauritania, 45 The Great Commission, 2, 81, 95, Mbiti, John, 158 124 Mecca, 16, 85 Islamic theology, knowledge by media, 55, 75 missionaries, 107 censorship, 127 missionary agenda of Christianity and portrayal of Nigeria, 65, 66 Islam, 121 medicine passive recipients of religious native medicine, 119 traditions, 31 training of doctors, 44 paternalism, 111 medieval thinking, 27, 65, 75, 82, 99, secession of African religions from 105, 125, 196n1 foreign domination, 116–21 Medina, 17, 46, 85 shift from mission to dialogue, 81 meditation, 22, 23 surreptitious conversions, 93, 99 Interfaith Meditation Center, 167, transmission and transformation of 168 African Christianity, 49–55 “meeting” within interreligious whole world conversion as goal, 154 relations, 84 in Yorubaland, 105–10 Meier, Karl, 37 See also colonization and colonial Melkite Christians, 17, 22 mentality; conversions menstruation, 120 Mizan al-Haqq (The Balance of Truth), Merton, Thomas, 158 78 messianic role of Jesus, 32, 113, 114 mockery of Islamic practices and beliefs, Methodists, 53 76 United African Methodist Church, Models of Contextual Theology, 90 54, 117 modesty within interreligious Mexico, liberal politics in, 20 understanding, 81 Middle Belt of Nigeria, 34, 38, 39, 48 monks, 22, 76, 77 Middle East, 22, 23 monogamy, 43 migration. See immigration monologue/exclusivism/provincialism, militant/radical ideology, 32, 33, 40, 3, 12, 24, 29, 40, 88, 94, 96, 98, 57, 63–5, 68, 74, 109, 126–9 99, 110, 145, 153, 155, 159, 177 resistance to Islamic revivalism and Monophysite church, 17 militancy, 126–9 monotheism, 4, 74 See also violence and warfare “Abrahamic monotheism,” 92 military corruption, 57 theological jealousies, 32 military rule, 34, 35, 66, 67, 131 moral significance of religion, 32 Miller, Ethel, 124 Morocco, 17 ministerial obligations vs. intellectual Moshay, G. J. O., 124 engagement, 83 mosques, 108, 119 misogyny, 124 Moubarac, Youakim, 84 missionaries and missionary movements, Mountain of Fire, 152 6, 20, 28, 29, 39, 44, 47–55, 100, Muhammad Bello, 47, 52 103, 125, 126 Muhammad (Prophet), 16, 17, 73–6, dialogue and proclamation as 113, 119, 120, 125, 151 authentic elements of evangelizing Christian understanding of, 84, 85 mission, 100 “shared theism,” 84 and “faithful presence,” 111 sunna, 46, 151 238 INDEX mujahid (fighter in the path of God), 46 Nigeria, idea of Nigeria founded on multilateral vs. unilateral evangelism, political compromise, 41 126 Nigeria, liberal politics in, 20 Muslim/Christian Youth Dialogue “Nigeria on the Brink: What Happens if Forum, 166 the 2011 Elections Fail?,” 37 “the Muslim World,” 23 Nigeria Supreme Council for Islamic Muslims and Christians: Face to Face, 24 Affairs (NSCIA), 152 Mveng, Engelbert, 161, 170, 171 Nigerian civil war, 40, 64, 67, 130 mysterium tredemdum et fascinans, Nkrumah, Kwame, 18, 19 169 No Other Name?, 159 mystery within religion, 79, 80, 168, North Africa, 17, 31, 39, 43 173 Northern and Southern Protectorate, 39 mysterium tremendum, 100, 169 Northern Christian Association, 127 vs. practical, 173 Northern Governors Peace and Soteria, 160 Reconciliation Committee, 152 Ultimate Reality, 22, 50, 73, 155, northern Nigeria, 57, 58, 68, 130, 131, 175 134, 178 civil war in Nigeria, 40, 64, 67, 130 Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, 12, 42, 73, 82 creation of Northern Protectorate, 39 “nation for God,” 52 framework for understanding National Council of Nigeria and conflicts within Nigeria, 38–41 Cameroons, 178 gross domestic product of, 5 National Council of Nigerian Citizens, historical competition between north 178 and south, 34, 35 nationalism, 31, 106, 181 ideal spot for missionary work, 125, religion as transcending ethnic, 126 national, and cultural barriers, 21 informal power-sharing structure secession to develop theological and shifing presidential position worship models relevant to Africa, between northerner and 116–21 southerner, 41 transnationalism, 87 Islamic fortress of, 53 Nations Cup tournament, 180 north as Muslim, south as Christian, nation-states, 25, 182 34 emergence of Nigeria as nation state, Sardauna of Sokoto, 68, 127, 178, 32 205n63 failing state, Nigeria as, 33, 34, 36–8, Northern Peoples Congress, 178 69, 146 Nostra Aetate, In our Time, 92, 93, 99 native medicine, 119 NSCIA (Nigeria Supreme Council for natural gas, 56, 57 Islamic Affairs), 152 natural resources, 34, 56 Nyang, Sulayman, 17 neighborliness, 134 The New Crusaders, 63 Obadare, Ebenezer, 145 Newbigin, Lesslie, 1 Obafemi Awolowo University, 61 The Next Christendom, 28 Obama, Barack, 4 Nicetas of Byzance, 77 Obasanjo, Olusegun, 125, 129, 131 Niger, 45 obedience to piety (taqlid), 44, 78 Niger Delta, 56 The Obligations of the Princes, 44 Niger Mission, 54, 117 obscurantist tendencies, 82 Niger state, 131, 193n41 Ogbomosho, 53 Nigeria: Dancing on the Brink, 33 Ogere, 119 INDEX 239

Ogunbiyi, T. A. J., 107 “the pastor and the imam,” 166, 167, OIC (Organization of Islamic 172, 173 Conference), 36, 43, 127, 128 paternalism, 82, 99, 111 oil drilling, 56, 57 patience within interreligious Ojo, Matthew, 125 understanding, 81 Okogie, Olubunmi, 128, 150 Paul, Saint, 135 Old Calabar, 53 payment of evangelists, 108 Olubadan of Ibadan, 119 PDP (Peoples Democratic Party), 60 Olupona, Jacob K., 3 peace, 152, 165–70 Oluwole, Reverend, 108 affected by political machinations and Omoyajowo, J. Akinyele, 119 power play, 165 Onaiyekan, John, 150, 152 entrenchment in Christianity and Ondo, 119 Islam, 152 one world, 180 “indigenous model to peacemaking,” oneness of God, 45, 115 166 Organization of Islamic Conference interreligious coexistence in parts of (OIC), 36, 43, 127, 128 Nigeria, 65–7 Orientalism, 24 Peel, J. D. Y., 60, 61, 120 Oritsejafor, Ayodele Joseph, 128, 129 Penal Code of England, 130 Orobator, Agbonkhianmeghe, 90 Pentecostalism, 20, 21, 55, 121–6 Oshitelu, Josiah Olunowo, 119 charismatic renewal, 49, 50, 55 the Other/Otherness, 29, 62, 80, 134– as fundamentalism, 63–5 7, 157, 175, 176, 189n52 people of the book (Ahl al-Kitab), 17 dehumanization, 79, 136, 147, 181 “people of the ship,” 17 double belonging in spiritual Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), 60 affiliation, 159 persecution, 5, 16, 17 as fellow participant in project for Persia, 27, 77 personal and communal well-being, personal witness, 81 168 petroleum, 56, 57 relationship between the Cross, the Pew Charitable Trusts, 122, 144 Self, and the Other, 137 Pew Forum, 37 Ubuntu, 136, 158, 170 Pfander, Karl, 77, 114 Otto, Rudolf, 169 Phan, Peter, 1 Oudney, Walter, 52 phenomenological study of Islam, Oyedepo, David, 125 explained, 72 Oyo, 38 Philpott, Daniel, 19 Pieris, Aloysius, 23, 158, 159 Paden, John, 61 piety, 46, 119, 133, 134 padroado agreements, 51 framework for appraising theological paganism, 114–16 credentials of Islam, 118 “pagan” point of view, 48 taqlid (blind obedience to piety), 78 Pakistani Christians, 25 pilgrimage, 127, 130 Panikkar, Raimon, 22, 90, 159, 160 Plateau State, 38, 64 paradise, mockery of Islamic practices ploys for conversion or proselytization, and beliefs, 76 93, 99 paradoxes/dilemmas/conundrums, 6, pluralism, 7, 67, 155, 156 22, 56, 60, 64, 72, 73, 81, 117, challenges of, 181, 182 129, 145, 177 complacent pluralism, 138 passive recipients of religious traditions, ecumenical pluralist theology, 163 31 and “faithful presence,” 111 240 INDEX pluralism—Continued liberation from. See liberation framework for appraising theological theology credentials of Islam, 118 violence, relationship to, 167 indigenous understanding of, 109 world system of, 171 modern pluralistic Nigeria, 38–41 See also economic dynamics of Nigeria new awareness of role of religion in power pluralistic society, 165 coloring peace process, 165 polarizing language, 12, 25 connections between religion and political activism, 168 power, 146 political dynamics, 19, 20, 26–8, 35, 57, informal power-sharing structure 89, 133 shifing presidential position allocation of offices on basis of between northerner and religion, 68 southerner, 41 corruption, 5, 34, 55–7, 64, 65, 67 relationship between human and creative ways of relating gospel to sacred, power as essential to, 123 concrete existential conditions, of religion, 11–30 89, 90 “symbolic imposition,” 78, 79 elections, 12, 37, 60, 125 “power over,” 79 framework for understanding praxis/practical model, 150 ethnoregional politics, 38–41 afiyah, 157 historical interaction of Christians connection between faith and action, and Muslims, 71 174 idea of Nigeria founded on political daily life. See daily life compromise, 41 dialogue, to fulfill common practical Middle Belt of Nigeria, 39 responsibilities, 96 peace process colored by political human actions as practical condition machinations, 165 for religious experience, 168 political context of religion, 31, 89, link between orthodoxy and 180 orthopraxis, 148 religio-political conspiracies, 126 peacemaking born out of, 166 role of Islam, 129, 130 poverty, injustice, moral decadence, shifting identities, 35 and unemployment, 153, 161 theology, political, 122 separation of theology from real Yoruba, political toleration, 61 human experiences, 25 poll tax, 17 situations where faith and life relate, polycentric, Christian-Muslim 15, 16, 83, 90 understanding as, 23 See also existential concerns polygamy, 43 prayer, 55, 118–20, 157 polytheism, 115 Presbyterian missionaries, 53 Islam as polytheistic, 77 “presence” as silent honor and witness, Pontifical Council for Inter-Religious 59 Affairs, 93 president, 146 Pope John Paul II, 99 elections. See elections in Nigeria Pope John XXIII, 91–4 informal power-sharing structure Pope Paul VI, 92 shifing presidential position Pope Pius IX, 92 between northerner and population of Nigeria, 36, 67, 195n69 southerner, 41 Portuguese influence, 38, 51 “the presiding idea,” 42 poverty, 5, 56, 58, 164, 180 Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad, 36 blessedness of poor, 158, 159 Principles of Christian Theology, 63 INDEX 241 profane. See secular vs. sacred Ramadan, 116 Programme for Christian-Muslim RCC (Roman Catholic Church of Relations in Africa (PROCMURA), Nigeria). See Catholics 59, 103–5 re-awakening, spiritual, 21, 97, 109, prophecy, 72, 81, 119 118, 149, 165–9 mandates of Christianity and Islam, reciprocity within dialogue, 136 6, 163, 164, 172, 176, 180 reconciliation and forgiveness, 60, 66, theological jealousies, 32 112, 114, 134–8, 158, 162, 165, within liberation theology, 158–61 179, 181 Prophet Muhammad. See Muhammad the Pastor and the Imam, 166, 167, proselytism. See evangelization 172, 173 prostration, 119 reconquista agenda, 50 Protestantism, 94–100 Redeemed Camp, 146, 152, 153 African Reformation, 53, 54 Redeemed Christian Church of God, independency of African religions, 125, 146 116–21 redemption and redemptive faith, 30, World Council of Churches, 36, 88, 52, 181 93–100, 165, 172 See also salvation provincialism, exclusivism, and Redemptoris Missio, 99, 200n63 monologue, 3, 12, 24, 29, 40, 88, regional identities in Nigeria, 38–41 94, 96, 98, 99, 110, 145, 153, 155, See also ethnicity and ethnic conflicts 159, 177 Religious Encounter and the Making of public life, role of religion in, 28, 122, the Yoruba, 60, 61 129, 145 religious freedom. See freedom of purification process, 153 religion renewal, spirit of, 12, 31, 44–9, 91–4, Qadriyya Brotherhood, 42 155 Qatar, 176 resistance Qur’an, 74–8, 80, 83, 84, 112, 120, to Islamization, 126–9 124, 176 jihad, 45 common ground for interreligious to love, 137 dialogue and communication found prophet mission of Muhammad, 85 in scriptural texts, 167 religion as avenue for, 153 prescriptive principles within, 41 See also liberation theology primeval covenant with God and responsibility to God, Islamic ideas of, man, 97 172 textual level, Christian-Muslim responsibility to transform society, 168, relations at, 27 169 understanding by Christians, 104 resurrection message in Christianity, Yoruba translation, 107 134, 136 Qur’anic schools (Madrassehs), 42–4, revelation jealousies, 32 58 revelation of Godself, 81 revivalism, Islamic. See militant/radical Raba, 116 ideology Race, Alan, 209n46 “revolutionary” transformation, 89, 90 “radical astonishment,” 169 Ricoeur, Paul, 90 radical/militant ideology, 32, 33, 40, Ringim, Hafiz, 193n41 57, 63–5, 68, 74, 109, 126–9 riots, 66, 131, 166 See also violence and warfare Risala of Al-Kindi, 77 Rahmatullah al-Hindi, Sheikh, 78 ritual. See liturgy/ritual 242 INDEX

River Senegal basin, 50 Saracens, 76 Roman Catholic Church of Nigeria Sardauna ethnic group, 38 (RCC). See Catholics Sardauna of Sokoto, 68, 127, 178, “The Roots of Muslim Rage,” 25 205n63 rosaries, 119 satan-possessed murderer, Islam Rossano, Bishop, 93 described as, 124 Rotberg, Robert, 33 Sati Mati, 43 Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Schimmel, Annemarie, 84 Thought, 36, 140 scholars, Islamic, 44–7 rule of law, 5, 56, 57 Scottish missionaries, 53 ruling class, 57 scripture Runnymede Trust, 12 textual level, Christian-Muslim rural communities, 17, 36, 195n61 relations at, 27 See also Bible; Qur’an Sabbath, 119 seccesionism in Nigeria, 32 sacred black stone in Islam, 76 secession of African religions from sacred vs. secular, 19, 20, 32, 129 foreign domination, 116–21 Constitution of Nigeria, secularism Second Vatican Council, 91–4, 99, within, 127 198n40 power as essential to relationship Secretariat for Relations with Non- between human and sacred, 123 Christians, 92, 93 Safran, Nadav, 86 secular vs. sacred, 19, 20, 32, 129 Sahel region, 44 Constitution of Nigeria, secularism Sahih Buhari, 17 within, 127 Said, Edward, 24, 65, 73 power as essential to relationship Saint John of Damascus, 76 between human and sacred, 123 Saint Luke, 147 seizure of properties, 46 Saint Paul, 135 self, 29 Saint Theresa’s Catholic Church in human quest to make sense of, 167 Maddalla, 193n41 relationship between the Cross, the Saint Thomas Aquinas, 77 Self, and the Other, 137 Salafis, 42 self-analysis and criticism, 41, 98, 153 salat, 134 “to each his own,” 157 salvation self-reliance/self-help, 107, 108, 110 common salvation history, 72 Selvanayagam, Israel, 2 implications for human development, seminars on ways to foster peace, 168 152 Senegal River basin, 50 Jesus Christ’s salvific work, 83, 97 Senegambia, 45 within manifest destiny, 52, 92 sentimentalism, 81 Muhammad, status of, 84 separation of church and state, 129, possibility to Jews, Muslims, etc., 77, 132, 133 91, 92, 94, 97, 99 non-separation of din (religion) and salvation history, 84 doula (state), 47 Soteria, 160 separation of theology from real human witin Islamic Kalam, 82 experiences, 25 Samartha, Stanley, 97, 162, 169, 170 September 11, 2001, 12 sanctification (iyasimimo), 120 Sergun, Mansur B., 76 Sandals at the Mosque, 83 service, command to, 98 Sanneh, Lamin, 12, 32, 59, 86, 121, sex, hypersexualized beings, 77 133, 139, 144, 154, 173 Shafi’l school, 42 INDEX 243

Shah, Timothy Samuel, 19 Sokoto (state), 34, 52 Shaikh Muhammad, Khalid, 43 Sardauna of Sokoto, 68, 127, 178, shari’a, 35, 39, 43, 46, 127, 130–4, 205n63 203n48 solidarity, spirit of, 65–7, 156 “historical shari’a,” 132 religion as avenue for solidarity, 153 Sharma, Arvind, 2 solipsism, 24 Shekau, Abubakar, 58, 204n51 Songhai cities, 44 shema Israel, 74 Soteria, 160, 161 Shi’a groups, 42 soulless beings, 77 shibboleth of faith, 109 South Africa, 14, 137, 138, 150, 180 Shiraz Bible merchant, 78 African Nations Cup tournament, shoes, removal of, 120 180 Siddiqui, Ataullah, 25, 29 Kairos document, 181 Sierra Leone, 104, 106, 112, 113 Southern Baptist Convention sincerity, interreligious, 81 Missionaries, 53 sincerity within interreligious southern Nigeria, 38–41, 61, 62, 130, understanding, 81 131 Singulari quadam, 92 civil war in Nigeria, 40, 64, 67, 130 sitz im leben, 15 creation of Southern Protectorate, 39 slavery and slave trade, 14, 38, 43, 52, framework for understanding 55, 181 conflicts within Nigeria, 38–41 abolishment, 111 historical competition with North, freed slaves, 110 34, 35 historical legacy, 49 north as Muslim, south as Christian, Smart, Ninian, 15 34, 41 Smith, Huston, 83 Soyinka, Wole, 13, 66, 67, 132 Smith, Jane, 80, 81 spice trade, 50, 51 social issues, 26–8, 57, 129, 144, “Spirit-Chi,” 124 150–63 spirit of renewal enlivening Christianity 21st century sociopolitical landscape, and Islam, 12 14 spirit of solidarity and service, 65–7 creative ways of relating gospel to Spirit of the Lord, 121–6 concrete existential conditions, See also Holy Spirit 89, 90 spiritual sophistry, 145, 146 human quest to make sense of society, spiritual warfare, 55 167 Sri Lankan priest, 158 ideals of social commitment, 173 St. John of Damascus, 76 interconnectedness of Christianity St. Luke, 147 and Islam, 25 St. Paul, 135 Islamization of society vs. St. Theresa’s Catholic Church in Islamization of state, 133 Maddalla, 193n41 responsibility to transform society, St. Thomas Aquinas, 77 168, 169 stereotyping, 31, 66, 72, 73, 75, 97, social action, retreat from religion, 173 136, 177 within context of religion, 31, 89, 180 student killings, 58 See also liberation theology Sudan region, 39, 43–5, 48, 186n21, Society of Holy Ghost Fathers, 53 208n20 Socratic approach to justice, 157 Sufism, 17 Sokoto Caliphate, 39, 45–8, 52, 55, anti-Sufi movement, 191n16 130, 133, 152 Tariqa (Sufi Brotherhoods), 43 244 INDEX

Suleja bombings, 193n41 Timbuktu, 43, 44 Summoned from the Margin: Timothy, 196n6 Homecoming of an African, 59 “to each his own,” 157 Sunday Sabbath, 119 Toft, Monica Duffy, 19 sunna of Prophet Muhammad, 46, 151 tolerance, traditional ethos in Africa, supererogatory prayers, 118 105 superstitition, 19, 76, 114, 115 Tracts for Mohammedans, 107 Surat Al-Hujurat 49:13, 186n18 trade. See commerce and trade surreptitious conversions, 93, 99 traditional African religions, 19, 53, suum cuique, 157 114–16, 139 The Sword of Truth, 45, 48 appropriation in religious symbiotic religious experiences, 15, 22 transmission, 7, 18, 19, 29, 43, 49, “symbolic imposition,” 78, 79 53, 68, 100, 110, 111, 118, 121, synthetic model of contextual theology, 152–5 90 ethos of hospitality and tolerance, 105 Syrian Christians, 22 jointly waged war against, 114–16 See also indigenenous African people Tainan Theological College, 88 training of clerics, scholars, lawyers, takbír, 134 doctors, and administrators, 44, takdhib, 84, 197n25 107 Tambaram Missionary Conference, 96 transcendence, 85 Tanakh, 111 “transcendent moralism” that justifies taqlid (blind obedience to piety), 44, 78 violence, 67 Tariqa (Sufi Brotherhoods), 43 transcendental model of contextual Tawhid, 74, 196n6 theology, 90 taxation, 17, 46 transformative power of religion, 11–30, “teacher’s complex,” 165 165 technology, modern, 92 translation model of contextual Internet evangelism, 55 theology, 90 TEF (Theological Educational Fund), translation model of indigenization, 89 88 transnationalism, 87 television. See media The Transparency International Ten Commandments, 118, 119 Corruption Index, 55 terrorist groups, 35, 128 Trent, Council of, 94 See also Boko Haram trickery Tessiers, former Archbiship from clandestine approaches in conversion Algiers, 34 and mission, 95 Thangaraj, Thomas, 154 tension between evangelism and “The Gospel, Cultural dialogue, 95 Contextualization and Religious Trinitarian doctrine, 74, 112, 114 Syncretism,” 89 trinity, 125 “the People of God,” 91 trinity, questions regarding, 112 “theocratic class,” 145 Triune God, 22 Theological Educational Fund (TEF), The Trouble with Nigeria, 56 88 truth, fidelity to, 101 This House has Fallen: Midnight in The Truth about Muhammed: An Appeal Nigeria, 33, 37 to Englishmen in Nigeria, 124 Thomas Aquinas, 77 Tuareg populations, 47 Tijaniyya Brotherhood, 42 Tunisia, 17 Tillich, Paul, 175 Tunolashe, Moses Orimolade, 118 INDEX 245

Turkey, liberal politics in, 20 van Gorder, Christian, 1 Turkish dominions, 109 Vatican II, 91–4, 99, 198n40 Turks “velvet curtain of culture,” 23 Euro-Mediterranean axis of vilification, 75 encounters, 27 violence and warfare, 40, 49, 58, 63–7, Turner, Harold, 53, 54 69, 152, 167 Tutu, Desmond, 13, 138, 158 civil war in Nigeria, 40, 64, 67, Tveit, Olav Fyske, 36 130 Crusades, 12, 23, 32, 50, 67, 68, 74, Ubuntu, 136, 158, 170 87 Ukah, Asonzeh, 126 institutionalization of religious Ukpong, Justin, 89 violence, 33 Ultimate Reality, 22, 50, 73, 155, 160, language of warfare, 64, 125 163, 164, 175 Liberian civil war, 208n17 Umar, Jibril B., 45 mass killings, 36 Umayyad period, 76 militant ideology, 32, 57, 65, 68, 74, umma, 11, 42, 43, 176 126–9 “unbelievers” vs. “believers,” 77 northern Nigeria, 35 understanding, gospel command for, obligation of warfare, 46 100, 101 rioting, 66, 131, 166 unilateral vs. multilateral evangelism, Saint Theresa’s Catholic Church in 126 Maddalla, 193n41 United African Methodist Church, 54, spiritual warfare, 55 117 terrorist groups, 35, 128 United Nations, 13, 58 traditional African religions, war United Native African Church, 54, 117 against, 114–16 United Presbyterians, 53 “transcendent moralism” that justifies United States, missionaries from, 52 violence, 67, 68 United States collection-plate money, 65 See also Boko Haram United States Commission on virgin birth of Christ, 32, 112, 113 International Religious Freedom visible and invisible, intrinsic connection (CIFR), 33, 138 between, 123 United States congress subcommittee visions, interpretation of, 44 on Africa, Global Health, and Volf, Miroslav, 135, 136, 168 Human Rights, 129 voting, elections in Nigeria, 12, 37, 60, unity in Nigeria, 32, 34, 165 125 ethos of, 40 potential benefits of breaking up the wali, 118 country, 57 Walls, Andrew, 144 “the universal sacrament of salvation,” war. See violence and warfare 91 Warner, Stephen, 3 “universal theory” of religion, water in rites and practices, 120 160 Watt, Montgomery, 84 University Obafemi Awolowo, 61 WCC (World Council of Churches), 36, University of Ibadan, 104 88, 93–100, 165, 172 University of Ife, 61 Weber, Max, 19 Upper Niger areas, 112 Webster, James, 54 “us versus them,” 13 well-being (maslaha), 143, 154, See also the Other/Otherness 156 Uzukwu, Elochukwu, 164 Wesleyan Methodists, 53 246 INDEX

“the West,” 23 Wuye, James Morel, 9, 166–8 West subregion, 38 the Pastor and the Imam, 166, 167, Western Sudan, 39, 43, 44 172, 173 Who Is This Allah?, 124 wholeness, 149–74 Yerima, Ahmed Sani, 131 Whose Religion Is Christianity: The Yobe, 58 Gospel beyond the West, 154 Yoruba people, 34, 38, 53, 54, 105–10, WIC (Women’s Interfaith Council), 156 139, 156, 157 Wilfred, Felix, 170, 178 ancestral origin, 61 Williams, Rowan, 206n74 communal responsibility, 157, 158 witness, personal, 81 grassroots dialogue, 62 woli, 118 language, 114 women, 5, 120, 124, 154, 156 liturgical innovation, 54 Women’s Interfaith Council, 156 secession of African religions from workshops on ways to foster peace foreign domination, 116–21 among Christians and Muslims, tolerance of religious worldviews, 168 60–3, 109 World Conference on Religion and traditional religion of, 157 Peace, 161 yuur, 208n20 World Council of Churches (WCC), 36, 88, 93–100, 165, 172 Zamfara, 131 World Missionary conferences, 94 Zango region, 166 worship. See liturgy/ritual Zebiri, Kate, 24, 98 wudu before prayer, 119 Zwemer, Samuel, 86, 125