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The Crisis in Sudan

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The Crisis in Sudan Peace in the Balance: The Crisis in Sudan Edited by Brian Raftopoulos and Karin Alexander A publication of the Institute for Justice and Reconciliation published with the generous support of the Royal Netherlands Embassy in South Africa sudan_text_prelims.indd 1 3/8/07 10:28:56 AM Published by the Institute for Justice and Reconciliation Ground Floor, House Vincent, Wynberg Mews, corner of Brodie and Ebenezer Roads, Wynberg 7800, Cape Town, South Africa Text © 2006 Institute for Justice and Reconciliation Photography: © ACNS Rosenthal p. 22 (top); © Christine Nesbitt / Africanpictures.net pp. 6, 99; © Bienjamien Karlie / Africanpictures.net p. 16; © Eric Miller / Galbe.com pp. 49, 112, 147; © Jose_Cendon / Galbe.com pp. 118/119; © Charles K. Mironko pp. 80, 88, 132, 133, 136; © Sven Torfinn / Panos pp. 37, 45, 62/63, 155; © Caroline Penn / Panos p. 69; © Sarah Crawford- Browne p. 56 Maps: © European Coalition on Oil in Sudan p. 31 ISBN 0-9585002-9-0 Produced by Compress www.compress.co.za Distributed by Blue Weaver PO Box 30370, Tokai 7966, South Africa Fax: +27 21 701 7302 E-mail: [email protected] sudan_text_prelims.indd 2 3/8/07 10:28:56 AM Contents Sudan Fact Sheet .............................................................................................iv Map of Sudan ..................................................................................................vi Introduction ......................................................................................................1 1. Sudanese Civil Wars: Multiple Causes, Multiple Parties – One ‘Comprehensive’ Agreement? Sara Basha .......................................................7 2. The Comprehensive Peace Agreement – A Synopsis Sara Basha .................23 3. The Internal Post-conflict Dynamics Yasmine Sherif and Noha Ibrahim ......39 4. The Battle for the South Sarah Crawford-Browne .........................................51 5. The Regional and International Dimensions of the Crisis in Darfur Ayesha Kajee ....................................................................................................71 6. Talking Peace, Making War in Darfur Fanie du Toit ..................................103 7. Darfur – Understanding a Complicated Tragedy Susan E Cook and Charles K Mironko .........................................................................................123 8. Obstacles to Transitional Justice in Sudan Sarah Crawford-Browne, Sara Basha and Karin Alexander ...................................................................139 Chronology of events ....................................................................................158 Abbreviations ................................................................................................ 161 References .....................................................................................................162 Contributors ..................................................................................................170 sudan_text_prelims.indd 3 3/8/07 10:28:56 AM Sudan Fact Sheet UNDP human Southern Sudan Sudan Human development indicators development SPLM areas¹ as a whole2 index data3 7.5 million (2003) Total population in millions (will increase with 31.8 million (2001) 32.2 million (2001) returnees) Rural percentage of the total 98% 63% 63% Percentage of population under 5 (2001) 21% 15% not available Percentage of population under 18 (2001) 53% 46% not available Life expectancy at birth (years) (2001) 42 58 55.4 Prevalence of child malnutrition 48% 17% 17% (weight/age) % under 5 (1995–2001) Infant mortality (2001) 150 per 1,000 64 per 1,000 65 per 1,000 Under 5 mortality (2001) 250 per 1,000 94 per 1,000 107 per 1,000 Education: primary completion rate % 2% 47% not available (1995–2001) Adult literacy rate (2001) 24% 57% 58.8% Poverty: population below $1 a day % >90% not available not available (1995–2001) Access to improved water source: 27 75 75 % of population (2000) HDI Rank (2003) 138 Gross National Income per capita $ (2002) <$90 $350 1 Approximately 88% of southern population. Excludes Abyei, Nuba Mts, Blue Nile & garrison towns 2 Information for Southern Sudan SPLM areas and Sudan is taken from New Sudan Centre for Statistics and Evaluation in association with UNICEF, ‘Towards a Baseline: Best Estimates of Social Indicators for Southern Sudan’. http://www.reliefweb.int/library/documents/2004/splm-sud-31may.pdf [accessed on 15 October 2006] 3 Information for the UNDP human development index data on the whole of Sudan is taken from UNDP Human Development Report, and is used to reflect more official figures. http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2003/indicator/cty_f_SDN.html [accessed on 15 October 2006] iv sudan_text_prelims.indd 4 3/8/07 10:28:56 AM Sudan Fact Sheet Demographics1 Ethnicity Religion Black 52% Sunni Muslim 70% Arab 39% Indigenous 25% Beja 6% Christian 5% Foreign 2% Other 1% Economic performance and expenditure UNDP human development index data2 Gross Domestic Product (US$ billions) (2001) $12.5 Gross Domestic Product per capita (PPP US$ millions) (2001) $62.3 Gross Domestic Product per capita (US$) (2001) $395 Imports of goods and services (as % of GDP) (2001) 16% Exports of goods and services (as % of GDP) (2001) 13% Public expenditure on health (as % of GDP) (2000) 1% Military expenditure (as % of GDP) (2001) 3% Total debt service (as % of GDP) (2001) 0.4% Telephone mainlines (per 1,000 people) (2001) 14 Cellular subscribers (per 1,000 people) (2001) 3 Internet users (per 1,000 people) (2001) 1.8 1 Information taken from the Central Intelligence Agency, Government of the United States of America https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ geos/su.html [accessed on 15 November 2006] 2 Information for the UNDP human development index data on the whole of Sudan is taken from UNDP Human Development Report, and is used to reflect more official figures. http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2003/indicator/cty_f_SDN.html [accessed on 15 October 2006] v sudan_text_prelims.indd 5 3/8/07 10:28:56 AM vi sudan_text_prelims.indd 6 3/8/07 10:28:58 AM Introduction As many analysts have pointed out, and as the authors in this book clearly show, the crisis in Sudan is very complex. Often portrayed in the media as a categorical conflict between an ‘Arab’ north and an ‘African’ south, the lines of battle are far more multifaceted. The Turko–Egyptian and later Anglo–Egyptian colonial domination in the 9th century as well as the slave trade, racism and marginalisation of the south has formed the dominant frame of reference of the Sudan crisis. Today the conflict has become a more generalised confrontation between a small Arab elite in the north and other economically and politically marginalised areas in the south, the north- eastern Red Sea and Kassala states, and Darfur in the west. The lines of fracture in Sudan have thus spread well beyond any simple Muslim–Christian dichotomy to include intra-Muslim battle lines. Never- theless, it is clear the various attempts by successive Sudanese governments since the 950s to impose exclusive policies of ‘Arabisation’ and ‘Islamisation’ on a diverse population continue. This, Adar suggests, ‘impose[s] limitations on the drive to establish a durable consensus on the Sudanese national identity’. (Adar, 200: 8) The process, in turn, demonstrates the enormous challenges of building nation states in Africa and the persistent resonance of particular tribal, ethnic and religious affiliations in the context of long-term economic exclusions. (Jooma, 2006) Sara Basha’s opening chapter clearly sets out the complex historical and sudan_text.indd 1 3/8/07 10:26:01 AM Peace in the Balance: The Crisis in Sudan political background to the contemporary challenges in Sudan, noting that national identity, religion and ethnicity in the context of economic and political exclusion by a northern, riverine elite have contributed to the ‘multiple causality’ involved in the Sudanese civil wars. In chapter two, Basha outlines the major features of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) signed in January 2005, which brought to a close the 2-year war waged by the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM) against the Government of Sudan. One of the major problems of this agreement, as Basha notes, was that it was essentially an attempt to resolve the north–south conflict and thus left out of its arrangements the problems of other marginalised areas of the country. Chapters three and four look at the politics of the north and south respectively. In chapter three, Sherif and Ibrahim describe some of the difficult attempts to develop a plurality of views in the north in the face of the rigidities of the existing state. They note that slow progress has been made in the development of civil society, opposition politics, and the media and in engendering the idea and practice of the rule of law. Crawford-Browne’s chapter on the south tracks the enormous challenges faced by the SPLM in attempting to deal with the combined demands of the CPA and the need to build sustainable state structures and policies in the south. As Crawford- Browne observes, the leadership in the south have had to deal with several major issues: strengthening the south’s representation in the Government of National Unity; establishing state and local government structures in the south; developing a constitution; establishing social, educational and health services for the people of the south; demobilising and reintegrating soldiers; establishing the rule of law; preparing for elections and referenda;
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