Dual and Mutual Interaction Between Microbiota and Viral Infections: a Possible Treat for COVID-19
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Baghbani et al. Microb Cell Fact (2020) 19:217 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12934-020-01483-1 Microbial Cell Factories REVIEW Open Access Dual and mutual interaction between microbiota and viral infections: a possible treat for COVID-19 Taha Baghbani1, Hossein Nikzad1, Javid Azadbakht2, Fatemeh Izadpanah3 and Hamed Haddad Kashani1* Abstract All of humans and other mammalian species are colonized by some types of microorganisms such as bacteria, archaea, unicellular eukaryotes like fungi and protozoa, multicellular eukaryotes like helminths, and viruses, which in whole are called microbiota. These microorganisms have multiple diferent types of interaction with each other. A plethora of evidence suggests that they can regulate immune and digestive systems and also play roles in various diseases, such as mental, cardiovascular, metabolic and some skin diseases. In addition, they take-part in some current health problems like diabetes mellitus, obesity, cancers and infections. Viral infection is one of the most common and problematic health care issues, particularly in recent years that pandemics like SARS and COVID-19 caused a lot of fnancial and physical damage to the world. There are plenty of articles investigating the interaction between microbiota and infectious diseases. We focused on stimulatory to suppressive efects of microbiota on viral infections, hoping to fnd a solution to overcome this current pandemic. Then we reviewed mechanistically the efects of both microbiota and probiotics on most of the viruses. But unlike previous studies which concentrated on intestinal micro- biota and infection, our focus is on respiratory system’s microbiota and respiratory viral infection, bearing in mind that respiratory system is a proper entry site and residence for viruses, and whereby infection, can lead to asymptomatic, mild, self-limiting, severe or even fatal infection. Finally, we overgeneralize the efects of microbiota on COVID-19 infection. In addition, we reviewed the articles about efects of the microbiota on coronaviruses and suggest some new therapeutic measures. Introduction of microbiota colonizing in human body. For exam- Mammalian animal species and human are colonized ple, as far as we know there are almost 10–100 trillion by a group of microorganisms called as microbiota. Tis microbial cells and more than 1000 diferent bacterial group of microorganisms includes bacteria, archaea, species that just inhabit in human distal digestive tract fungi, protozoa, helminths, and viruses [1]. Tese com- [6, 7]. About their origin, plenty of articles suggest that mensal and symbiotic communities of microbes take up microbial colonization starts immediately after the birth residence in almost any part of mucocutaneous areas of [8]. Formation of the microbiota have several stages. at the body such as digestive system [2], oronasopharynx frst in pregnancy and during the physiological changes and respiratory system [3], urinary system and vagina like weight gain and metabolic or hormonal alterations [4], and all over the skin [5]. Tere are numerous types [9], and then during vaginal delivery, when the neonate is directly exposed to vaginal normal fora. It results in *Correspondence: [email protected]; [email protected] similarities between mother’s microbiota and that of 1 Anatomical Sciences Research Center, Institute for Basic Sciences, her child. Depending on mode of delivery, there are dif- Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran ferences between microbial distribution of the neonates Full list of author information is available at the end of the article born by cesarean delivery, which is similar to that of skin, © The Author(s) 2020. 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The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creat iveco mmons .org/publi cdoma in/ zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data. Baghbani et al. Microb Cell Fact (2020) 19:217 Page 2 of 25 and vaginal delivered neonates, microbiotia of whom is and promoting immunological tolerance to the normal similar to that of healthy vagina [8, 10]. Te third stage is microbiota components. NLRs participate in adjustment milking period. Breast milk includes almost 10^9 bacte- of IL-18 level, immune response, dysbiosis and intestinal rial cells/L and transfers healthy microbiota from mother hyperplasia [22–26]. Microbiota antigen binding to these to the child, which increase infant’s immunity through receptors, starts a cascade of signaling pathways lead- competing with pathogens [9–11]. And then, this micro- ing to producing several antimicrobial substances, like biomes gradually changes to adulthood microbiomes defensine, stimulating several group and subtypes of T under infuence of several factors such as the breed, the cells like T helper 1 and 17 to produce IL-1, IL-2, IL-15, family ,geographic and socio-economic factors, diet and IL-17, IL-22, and IL-23 and also to afect B cells to pro- nutrition, nutritional supplements, exercises, medica- duce various antibodies [25, 26]. As a result, any altera- tions like antibiotics, age, some pathological conditions tion in the balance between microbiota and immune like infammatory disorders, diabetes, stress-related fac- system can lead to infections [27], infammations [28, 29], tors [12] and fnally genetic factors, which play a cru- allergies, several kind of cancers like oral and colorectal cial role in all stages of microbiota formation [13–16]. cancers [30, 31], autoimmune [32] and endocrine disor- For example, a study on twins revealed an association ders like IBD, diabetes type 1, hepatic diseases which will between Bifd bacterium and the lactase (LCT) gene locus be explained with more details in ‘’gastrointestinal system and also a correlation between the host gene ALDH1L1 disease’’ section. Generally, the microbiome afects den- and the bacteria SHA-98 [14]. But of note, there are few dritic cells, epithelial cells, ILCs, T regulatory cells, efec- articles suggesting that the role of genetic factors might tor lymphocytes, NKT cells and B cells [33]. be not signifcant [17]. Many articles demonstrated that every person has special microbial spectrum. Even Microbiota and metabolism there are diferences between monozygotic twins, so it Tere are many articles on the infuence of microor- can be considered as a microbial fnger print [9, 14, 18]. ganisms, especially intestinal microorganisms, on body Te microbiota also have multiple stimulatory or sup- metabolism via comparing to germ-free and normal pressive interactions between themselves, for example, microbiota colonized animals and humans or through as an suppressive efect, they compete with each other in-vitro studies on gut culture models. Microbiota have either directly, like nasal Staphylococcus species strains enzymes which are not coded in human genome, but which afect other spices via production of some growth they are necessary to fulfl some physiologic tasks or to inhibitory substances [19], or indirectly, contesting over contribute digestive enzymes to break down substances diferent sources like nutrient, oxygen and the place of like polysaccharides, polyphenols and to help in vita- colonization [20]. Additionally, they have stimulatory and mins synthesis. According to this they can regulate body synergic efects on each other [1]. energy balance and cellular metabolism [34–36]. Interactions between microbiota and host Microbiota and cancers Microbiota have a dual key role in homeostasis, metabo- Te microbiotas can impact upon cancers through difer- lism, immunity, physiologic or pathologic situations like ent ways. Some of them can induce cancers, some oth- cancers, which can alleviate or aggravate various medical ers can prevent malignancies and the rest do not have conditions [21]. So here we categorized their efects on any efect on caners. Carcinogen microbiotas, contrib- various diseases pathophysiology, based on their impacts ute in carcinogenesis through three mechanisms. First, on diferent body systems, with a special attention to they stimulate infammatory substances release, which viral infections. can cause infammation, facilitate cell proliferation and mutagenesis, and activate oncogene and angiogenesis. Microbiota and the immune system Second, they inhibit cellular apoptosis via NF-κB activa- Te microbiota and immune system have communica- tion. Tird, they induce carcinogen substances produc- tion through several distinct mechanisms and stages. tion [37]. On the other hand, microbiota with protective At frst the microbiota induces alpha-defensin, secre- efects against carcinogenesis in the host, prevent malig- tory IgA and some other AMPs (antimicrobial