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Home , Ralpacan, Songtsen Gampo, Thonmi Sambhota, Tibetan literature

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-5, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

Tibetan Literature: An Analysis

Chiranjib Kar Ph.D Scholar of the Department of Indo-Tibetan Studies, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan-731235

Abstract : Literature communicates the socio- written verbal art forms, and thus it is difficult to cultural status of a group of human being, in every agree on its origin, which can be paired with that of part of the world; literature has been more or less language or writing itself. a mirror of the society because it’s where we find a In content, comprises clear reflection of the ancient social, political, everything which is included in the word religious as well as the cultural history of various ‘literature’ in the broadest sense of the term: countries. Apart from the Buddhist point of , religious and mundane, epic and lyric, dramatic and their Tibetan literature divided into four sections. didactic poetry as well as narrative and scientific Literature belonging to Early Period (Up to 10th prose. Developments in print technology have century C.E.), Middle Period (11th to 18th century allowed an ever growing distribution and C.E.), Modem Period (Up to 1950 C.E.) and proliferation of written works, culminating Contemporary Period (1950 C.E. downwards). in electronic literature. In this article, I have tried to give little light upon the meaning to literature and the Different interpretation of definition of Buddhist Tibetan literature of these four periods Literature from 7th century C.E. (At the time of Thonmi There have been various attempts to define Sambhota) to 20th century C.E. (At the time 14th "literature". Simon and Delyse Ryan2 begin their Dalai Ven. Tenzin Gyatso) and show the attempt to answer the question "What is development of Buddhist Tibetan literature in Literature?" with the observation: course of time. The quest to discover a befitting definition for "literature" is a road that is much travelled, Key Words: , , though the point of arrival, if ever reached, is āntarak ita, Kagyur-Tangyur, Four Buddhist seldom satisfactory. Most attempted definitions are School, 14th Ven. Tenzin Gyatso. broad and vague, and they inevitably change over Ṡ ṣ time. In fact, the only thing that is certain about

Literature communicates the socio-cultural status defining literature is that the definition will change. of a group of human being to describe its mind and Concepts of what is literature change over time as face. In every part of the world, literature has been well. Definitions of literature have varied over more or less a mirror of the society because it’s where we find a clear reflection of the ancient time; In Western Europe prior to the eighteenth social, political, religious as well as the cultural century, literature as a term indicated all books and history of various countries. writing. A more restricted sense of the term Literature consists of written productions, emerged during the Romantic period, in which it began to demarcate "imaginative" often restricted to those deemed to have artistic or 3 intellectual value. Etymologically, the term derives literature. Contemporary debates over what from Latin root literatura/ litteratura ("learning, constitutes literature can be seen as returning to the writing, grammar," originally "writing formed with older, more inclusive notion of what constitutes letters," from litera/littera "letter" or handwriting1) literature. Cultural studies, for instance, takes as its was used to refer to all written accounts, but subject of analysis both popular and minority intertwined with the roman concept of cultura: genres, in addition to canonical works. learning or cultivation. The concept has changed meaning over time: nowadays it can broaden to include non- 2 Simon Ryan; Delyse Ryan. "What is Literature?". Foundation: Fundamentals of 1 Meyer, Jim (1997). "What is Literature? A Literature and Drama. Australian Catholic Definition Based on Prototypes". Work Papers of University. Retrieved 9 February 2014. the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of 3 Ross, "The Emergence of "Literature": Making North Dakota Session 41 (1). Retrieved 11 and Reading the English Canon in the Eighteenth February 2014. Century", 406

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-5, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

The value judgment definition of literature The entrance of carried by the priests considers it to exclusively include writing that in the south-west , as the tradition speaks, possesses high quality or distinction, forming part during the early consolidation of Yar-lungs of the so-called belles-lettres ('fine writing') leadership leaves small literary records to construct tradition.4 This is the definition used in the a separate chapter. A chapter dealing with the Encyclopedia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910– Tibetan literature regarding the ecclesiastic Bon 11) when it classifies literature as "the best precepts does not narrate its early period. The use expression of the best thought reduced to of Zhang-Zhung scripts in the model of ranjana- writing."5 However, this has the result that there is lipi (lanchana or lancha), as claimed by the Bonpo no objective definition of what constitutes priests prior to the innovation of Tibetan scripts "literature"; anything can be literature, and (7th century C.E.), may be hard to substantiate. The anything which is universally regarded as literature Bonpo priests in Dusa (Wyl. ’bru zha; a district in has the potential to be excluded, since value- Tibet) might claim their semblance with the speech judgments can change over time. Brukshi which might have been in Vogue by 2nd Jim Meyer6 considers this a useful century C.E. in the Western County in between the characteristic in explaining the use of the term to down course of the Sindhu and the north-eastern mean published material in a particular field (e.g., border of Iran. "scientific literature"), as such writing must use In 7th century C.E. Thonmi Sambhota language according to particular standards. The (Wyl. thon mi sam bHo ta) is accredited with the problem with the formalist definition is that in authorship of Tri ika Text (Wyl. sum cu pa) and order to say that literature deviates from ordinary verse treatise on grammar (Wyl. rtag kyi ’jug pa) uses of language, those uses must first be as he endeavouredṁṡ to systematize the Trans- identified; this is difficult because "ordinary Himalayan speeches spoken by the inhabitants of language" is an unstable category, differing Western Tibet (Wyl. stod bod). Numerous oral according to social categories and across history.7 traditions about ’dre, srin, khi, gdon, btsan, sgra gtsam, ’bran etc make one inquisitive regarding the The Tibetan literature is divided into four nomenclature of the early Tibetan Literature prior sections: to the growth of ecclesiatism in Tibet. i. Literature belonging to Early Period (Up The advent of Buddhist literature in to 10th century C.E.) Central Tibet and its predominant role through the ii. Literature belonging to Middle Period patronization of the Btsan rulers was well (11th to 18th century C.E.) documented. Also the support of the T’ang iii. Literature belonging to Modem Period emperors of , the assistance of the Buddhist (Up to 1950 C.E.) teachers from with the source materials and iv. Literature belonging to Contemporary the influx of the Buddhist erudition for centuries Period (1950 C.E. downwards) paved the path for the Early-Spread (Wyl. snga

Literature belonging to Early Period dar) of in Tibet. It was the glamorous period of the Tibetans when they could control The stories of Ling Gesar which had been popular over the Central Asian routes on the north and in oral traditions may claim the early phase of the Uigyurs and the Arabs in the West. As a result creative composition among the Tibetans and of that the Tibetan language and literature obtained others Tibetan speaking people of Mongolia, China a wide scope to grow. and some people of Indian Himalayas side. The Buddhist literature in Tibetan extends The scriptures which fall on the roof of the in three sections, e.g. translation work (Wyl. yig royal palace of Lha-Tho-Tho-Ri (Wyl. lha tho tho bsgyur), revelations (Wyl. gter ma) and elucidatory ri; 4th century C.E.) probably was a symbolic compilations (Wyl. bstan bcos) by the Tibetan myth. At that time the scriptures were in which Buddhist scholars. language no one knows. In 8th century C.E. Padmasambhava (Wyl. pad ma 'byung gnas) visit Tibet and succeeded in application of the old (Wyl. rnying rgyud) to 4 Eagleton, Literary theory: an introduction, 9 subdue his opponents. He therefore ensured the 5 Biswas, Critique of Poetics, 538 base of Buddhism in Tibet by installing the Samya 6 Meyer, Jim (1997). "What is Literature? A Monastery in Tibet. He and ntarak ita took Definition Based on Prototypes". Work Papers of active part in building this monastery. Padmasambhava carried some Ṡ Sanskritṣ Tantric the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of texts from and translated there into Tibetan, North Dakota Session 41 (1). Retrieved 11 like Vajramantra-bhiru-sandhimūla-tantra text. It February 2014. was translated by him in collaboration with 7 Eagleton, Literary theory: an introduction, 4 . On the other hand ntarak ita

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-5, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in preaching the Buddha’s teaching to the people of sgam po) to Khri (Wyl. khri ral pa can), Tibet. in this period over five hundred and fifty one The teachings of kyamuni the Buddha Tibetan and Indian scholars had contributed in the were carried to Tibet in India original since the translation works. And the later period of the great introduction of Buddhism byṠ the Indian Buddhist translator Rinchen Sangpo (Wyl. lo tsa ba rin chen missionaries. The Tibetans also paid high regard to bzang po, 958-1055 C.E.) to Lochen rī those sayings by preserving them in Tibetan (1654-1717 C.E.), spanning over seven hundred translation and by codifying them as the sacred eighteen years, there were more than hundred andṡ texts of the India. Those texts are generally known seventy scholars involved8. According to the Derge as the Buddhavacana (Tib. Kagyur; Wyl. Bka’ (Wyl. sde dge) edition of Dharma publication, there ’gyur) and the Sastra (Tib. Tangyur; Wyl. bstan are 870 scholars involved in translation works ’gyur). The Kagyur collection includes the , figuring, 250 in Kagyur collection containing 1,115 Sūtra and Tantra texts. It is also known as Three texts and 620 in Tangyur having some 3387 texts Baskets of teaching (Tripitaka). Here with additional 607 supplementary copies of texts9. replace the Tantra. Those gave great importance in Individual historical works in Tibetan the Ideological Studies. language already existed in this early period. There also existed Tibetan translations of some works of Vinaya: historical significance-particularly such as Vinaya texts mostly comprise literatures that deal 10 11 Go ga-vyākara a , Vimalaprabhā-parip cchā with monastic discipline. These texts also deal with 12 and -sa ghavardha a-vyākara a , which origin of these rules and their further development. giveṡṛṅ interesting onṇ the history of Khotan.ṛ The Apart from monastic rules, the Vinaya texts also reference of thoseṃ translationsṇ find inṇ one of the include doctrinal expositions, ritual and liturgical earliest catalogues of Tibetan canon (Wyl. ston texts, biographical stories, and some elements of than ldan dkar ma) compiled towards the end of the "Jatakas", or birth stories. There are six 13 the 8th century . that exist in their entirety. These include the Vinaya The latter collections of the works of Therevada School, Mula-, composed by the Indian Buddhist exponents like Mahasanghika, Sarvastivada, Mahashasika, and Ngrjuna (1st-2nd century C.E.), ryadeva (2nd Dharmagupta. The first of these was written in century C.E.), Asa ga and his brother and exists in the same way. The others were (4th century C.E.), Padmasambhava and originally written in but survive ntarak ita (8th ṅ century C.E.), Kamala ila (8th completely only in Tibetan (second one) and Chinese translations (last four). Other Vinaya texts Ṡ ṣ ṡ exist in various languages but only in parts. 8 Tshalpa Kunga Dorje (Wyl. tshal pa kun dga’ rdo

rje), Red Annals (Wyl. deb ther dmar po), Sūtra: These texts are those that include discourses given annotated by Dungkar Blozang Thinlas (Wyl. dung by the Buddha himself or anyone of his close dkar blo bzang ’phrin las), Kokonor Nationalities disciple. These texts are known as Buddhavacana Languages Press (Wyl. mtsho sngon mi rigs dpe or the word of the Buddha. These discourses were skrun khang), 1981, 331 p. arranged on the basis of the manner in which they 9 Bookmarks pamphlet. In Nyinma edition of the were delivered. Originally they were nine, later on Derge Kagyur (Wyl. ) and became twelve. These include Satra, Geya, sde dge bka’ ’gyur Vyakarana, Gatha, Udana, Ityukta, Jataka, (Wyl. bstan ’gyur). California: Dharma Abhutadharma,Vaipulya, Nidana, and Publishing, 1983. Upadesha 10 See. Kagyur of Derge edition, sūtra (Wyl. mdo sde), vol. xxxii (A), fols. 220b 6-232a 7. Abhidharma: 11 a b Known as Abhidhamma in Pali language, Ibid, vol. xv (ba), fols. 211 1-259 7. 12 Abhidharma implies ‘further dharma’ and deals See Tangyur, Peking edition, commentary of with the analysis of phenomena and relationship Sūtra (Wyl. mdo ’grel), vol. xciv (ne), fols. 435a 8- between them. It originally emerged out of the list 444a 2. of teachings such as the Bodhipaksika- or 13 This catalogue entitled pho bran ston than ldan the 37 Factors leading to Awakening. Abhidharma dkar gyi ba ka dan bstan bcos ’gyur ro cog gi dkar is not taken as canonical by many Buddhist schools. For example, the Sautrantika do not chag is available in Tangyur (Wyl. bstan ’gyur), include Abhidharma, they consider only Vinaya commentary of Sūtra (Wyl. mdo ’grel), vol. cxxxvi and as canonical. (cho), fols. 352b 5 – 373a 8. The works on the In the span of two hundred years starting history of Khotan, indicated here, are mentioned in from Emperor (Wyl. srong btsan the catalogue on fols. 361a 2, 356a 8 and 371b 1.

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-5, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in century C.E.), (9th century C.E.), Virupa comprehended in conformity of the logical ground (10th century C.E.), Ati a Dīpa kara (11th century of unyat among the Abhidharmika, the C.E.) and many other Indian teachers. In this way a Madhyamika and the Yogacara-Vijñaptimtrata relationship was establishedṡ betweenṁ the India and standpoints.Ṡ Also some philosophical texts basing the Tibetan Buddhists. on the Prajñpramit-Sūtras were composed with a tendency of compromise in Madhyamika Literature belonging to Middle Period Saut ntika, Yog c ra-Madhymaika (Sv tantrika) r The inhabitants of Central Tibet had the occasion standpoints. Like Abhisamayla kra ascribed to to be in touch of the Yuan emperors of China as Maitreyanth lays emphasis on such assimilation of well as the vast population of the Kokonor Yogcra-Madhyamika. Tattvasaṁ graha of . Again, a fusion in the antarak ita with its commentary of Kamala ila a could generate a new dimension of the Tibetan comprehensive attempt in this respect.ṁ literature through patronage and hostility. Ṡ ṣSimilar endeavors are also observedṡ Besides the translation works from the among the Buddhist philosophers of Tibet like India, the Chinese and the Central Asian sources, (12th century C.E.), Nag Lotsawa the Buddhist teachers and authors belonging to the (13th century C.E.), Tsongkhapa (15th century Tibet and Mongolia are accredited with the literary C.E.), Fifth Dalai Lama (Tib. Ngawang Lozang contribution in Tibetan about different aspects of Gyatso; Wyl. ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho, the Buddhist thought. Those are divided into five 1617-1682 C.E.). They followed the legacy of the parts: Buddhist philosophers of India. i. Annotations, elucidations and commentary iv. The historical annals (Wyl. deb ther) works of the Tibetan translated works which led to including biographies (Wyl. rnam thar) didactic further division in the Buddhist order of Tibet. deliberations spiritual correspondence, those of a. School advocated by pilgrimage account on Buddhist culture were Padmasambhava in the 8th century C.E. composed. With reference to four major doctrine of b. Kagyü School reformed by Lama Marpa Buddhist thought which developed in Tibet since in the 11th century C.E. the 11th century C.E. c. Sakya School founded by Kh n Konchok The triangular political struggles among Gyalpo in the 11th century C.E. the Chiness, the Mongols and the Tibetans in the d. School propounded by ӧTsongkhapa medieval period could bring forth a new dimension in the 15th century C.E. of the Tibetan literature when ecclesiastical Those are the major Schools of , authorities like Ngawang Lozang Gyatso produced there are also some minor schools like important political memoirs through epistles and founded by Rinchen dorje (Wyl. rin chen rdo rje), correspondence. Dikhung Pa, Talung Pa, Shije Pa grew The history of literature in Tibetan has a subsequently. wide scope to cover various aspects of literary ii. Esoteric experiences with or without contributions. In that respect the historical writings ritualistic formulae prescribed in the Tantra as and philosophical texts of the Buddhists and the related to in singular or in multiple. Such as, Bon Po teachers enrich the literature during its Stages of the Path (Wyl. lam rim), Rathid (Wyl. ra Middle period. The grammatical compositions and khrid), Sdhan Ma ala (Wyl. sgrub dkyil) texts lexicons in Tibetan provide the base in building up were composed by eminent Buddhist teachers in the elevated literary spread in Tibet. their collected worksṇḍ (Wyl. gsung ’bum). The The teachings of kyaputra Gautama the Miskodki Khorgyi Chong (Wyl. mi bskod dkyi Buddha flourished in Mongolia since the ’khor gyi chong) and Bandon Rabgsal (Wyl. dban inhabitants accepted BuddhismṠ from the Sakya don rab gsal) ascribed to Tsongkhapa belong to the teacher Kunga Gyaltsen (Wyl. kun Guhyasamāja class. Similarly, Chancan Gabi dga’ rgyal mtshan, 1182-1251 C.E.) and his Blodos (Wyl. dbyans can dga’ ba’i blo gros) nephew Chögyal Phagpa (Wyl. chos rgyal 'phags composed on the Guhyasamāja practice in his work pa, 1235-86 C.E.). In this way a good cultural Lamsha Legshad (Wyl. lam gzhag legs bshad). relationship was build up between Tibet and Tsongkhapa wrote rin po che’i phyag chen ba and Mongol. dpal gzhin rje gsed lha beu gsum ma rnams kyi The Tibetan monks were the source of dkyil khor du dban bskur bas grub pa’i thabs kyi inspiration to the Mongols erudite who devoted to cho ga etc. extensive translation of the Buddhist scriptures, iii. Epistemological analysis and doctrinal especially those of the Kagyur and the Tangyur. interpretations for general understanding. Several The royal family members preferred to hold the Buddhist philosophers like Ngrjuna, Buddhist faith avowedly at the early phase. In due Vasubandhu, ntrarak ita and Kamala ila have course Buddhism became so popular as many authors in Mongolia composed indigenous Ṡ ṣ ṡ Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Page 382

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-5, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

Buddhist texts in Tibetan as well as in Mongolian. notes for the use of the Europeans. The name of the As a result of that, the Buddhist literature in said Indian missionary has been now lost but his Tibetan focused in a new dimension for no less papers were edited by Mr. Schroter, a missionary than seven hundred years upto the century. of Bengal H.A. Jaschke, a member of the Moravian In Tibetan literature the literary Missionary, who worked at Kyelang of British contributions of the eminent Mongolian teachers Lahoul published his Tibetan-English Dictionary in like Spyansha (Wyl. blo gros rgyal 1881 C.E. and his Tibetan Grammar was printed mtshan, 1390 to 1448 C.E.), Leon Skya Hutuqtu later on in 1890 C.E. (Wyl. nag dban blo bzan chos ldon, 1642 to 1714 The Tibetan literature had a new turn C.E.), Jam Dbyans Bzhadpa (Wyl. nag dban brtson when the Gospel of Mathew of the Holy Bible was grus, 1648 to 1721 C.E.), Lcan Skya Hutuqtu (Wyl. translated in the first half of the 19th century C.E. rol po’I rdo rje, 1717 to 1768 C.E.) achieved by Rev. William. prominence. On the other hand, the Tibetan Scholars The founder of the Jonangpa (Wyl. jo like Mi Pham, Chogla Nampar Gyalba (Wyl. nang pa) grub chen yo mi bskyod rdo phyogs las rnam par rgyal ba), Gendün Chöpel rje (11th century C.E.) became well known for his (Wyl. dge ’dun chos ’phel, 1905-1951 C.E.), Collected works. In respect of the Gelugpa lineage Thirteen Dalai Lama (Tib. Thubten Gyatso; Wyl. Tsongkhapa (1357-1419 C.E.) was the mastermind thub bstan rgya mtsho, 1876-1933 C.E.) start personality accredited with a large number of reformation against the orthodox outlook. Buddhist works in different aspects. Among the Several Mongolian Buddhist authors successor of the lineage the collected works of The however continued the tradition of earlier First Dalai Lama (Tib. Gendün Drub; Wyl. dge composition. Such as, Khanchen Rabtanpa Chophel ’dun grub, 1391-1474 C.E.), The Second Dalai (Wyl. mkhan chen rab bstan pa chos ’phel, 1840- Lama (Tib. Gendün Gyatso; Wyl. dge 'dun rgya 1908 C.E.), Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (Wyl. 'jam mtsho, 1475-1542 C.E.), The Third Dalai Lama dbyangs mkhyen brtse'i dbang po, 1820-1892 (Tib. Sonam Gyatso; Wyl. bsod nams rgya mtsho, C.E.), followed the tradition. has 1543-1588 C.E.), The fifth Dalai Lama (Tib. enumerated their literary works in his Materials of Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso; Wyl. ngag dbang blo the Tibetan History of Literature. bzang rgya mtsho, 1617-1682 C.E.), The Seventh Dalai Lama (Tib. Kelzang Gyatso; Wyl. bskal Literature belonging to Contemporary bzang rgya mtsho, 1708-1757) enrich the Tibetan Period Buddhist literature. The Contemporary Tibetan Literature bifurcates Literature belonging to Modern Period from the traditional trends by the change of human values as One Worldism expands with the hallo of The proselytism of Christianity and Islam leaves a modernity. Ven. Tenzin Gyatso, the Dalai Lama room for diversion in the Tibetan literature. As a XIV administration in exile and the traditionally result of that the Buddhist and the Christian learned Tibetans outside Tibet endeavour to translation of literature in the Tibetan from external maintain the standard literary trend by adapting sources tended to mutual tolerance and harmony. some reformed style in composition as far as Such tendency makes the Tibetan literature not practicable, in their writing by compromise with only comprehensive but also universal. the modernism. Obviously, that makes them aware The Christian Missionaries in India took how to adjust the literary style in the changed an active part by translating the Bible in Tibetan for conditions. Thus a transitional phase goes in the Tibetan speaking people14. It may be mentioned Contemporary Tibetan literature for the last few that the first Tibetan Dictionary in European decades. Languages in India was composed by an Indian The Tibetans residing in TAR (Tibet Missionary from Serampur of Bengal in 1926 Autonomous Region) have also been enthusiastic C.E.15. A Roman Catholic Indian Missionary while in creative composition with their latest political working in the frontiers of , ventured to trend towards socialism and Marxism. Several collect Tibetan vocabularies with brief grammatical Journals and news papers have been published from and Beijing since 1950. The contest of Tibetan literature may 14 The Tibetan Literature and its Development by claim its distinction between monkish rigorist and Suniti Kumar Pathak. Bulletin of , Vol. the commoners in expressing the human feelings II,1996 and emotions tends to a broad bifurcation in the 15 The Tibetan Literature and its Development by Mediaeval Tibetan literature. As one of the prominent literatures of the Suniti Kumar Pathak. Bulletin of Tibetology, Vol. world, the Tibetan literature has a multidimensional II,1996

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-5, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

growth within the span of about one thousand five hundred years in East Asia. The Tibetan literature becomes a varied exposition of a culture complex which has been contributed by diverse ethnic groups. The Tibetans also endeavoured to enrich their ways of life by assimilation and compromise with the neighboring peoples. Those are verily presented in literature.

Bibliography  A.R. Biswas. Critique of Poetics (vol.2). Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Dist, 2005, ISBN: 978-81-269-0377-1  Alexander Csoma de Koros. Analysis of the Kagyur. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1982.  Eagleton, Terry. Literary theory: an introduction: anniversary edition (Anniversary, 2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2008, ISBN: 978-1- 4051-7921-8  Keith, A. Berriedale. A History of Sanskrit Literature. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 1996, ISBN: 81- 208-1100-3  Kiesow, Holger. Literature as a Mirror of Society: The Representation of Masculinity in Contemporary British Fictio. U.K: Gardners Books, 2007, ISBN: 38-364-0817-1  Meyer, Jim. What is Literature? A Definition Based on Prototypes. University of North Dakota Session: Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1997.  Nariman, J.K. Literary History of Sanskrit Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 1992, ISBN: 81- 208-0795-2  Ryan, Simon. & Ryan, Delyse. "What is Literature?". Foundation: Fundamentals of Literature and Drama. Australian Catholic University.2014.  Vostrikov, A. I. Tibetan Historical Literature. Calcutta: R. D. Press, 1970.  Wintrnitz, Maurice. A History of Indian Literature (Vol. I). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 1996, ISBN: 81- 208-0264-0  Wintrnitz, Maurice. A History of Indian Literature (Vol. II). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 1999, ISBN: 81- 208-0265-9

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