Men´s violence against women in "equal" Sweden - a prevalence study

Eva Lundgren, Gun Heimer, Jenny Westerstrand, Anne-Marie Kalliokoski Men’s violence against women in “equal” Sweden – a prevalence study

Eva Lundgren, Gun Heimer, Jenny Westerstrand, Anne-Marie Kalliokoski Brottsoffermyndigheten Uppsala Universitet Box 470 Box 821 S-901 09 UMEÅ S-751 08 Uppsala

First published in 2001 as Slagen Dam- mäns våld mot kvinnor i jämställda Sverige - en omfångsundersökning.

Translated by Julia Mikaelsson and Geoffrey French

Production Grafi c design: Kombi Marketing AB Cover: Daniel Norman Printed by: Åströms tryckeri AB, Umeå 2002

This book is available through Fritzes Offentliga Publikationer Postal adress S-106 47 Stockholm, Sweden Fax: +46 8 690 91 91, phone: +46 8 690 91 90 E-mail: [email protected]

ISBN 91-974139-4-1 Index

Preface ...... 5 Introduction...... 7 Violent experiences in total ...... 8 CHAPTER 1 Origins of this study...... 11 The research context...... 11 Design of the questionnaire...... 15 Methodological foundations ...... 16 Infl uence on the wording of the questions...... 19 Method ...... 21 CHAPTER 2 Violence within sexual relationships...... 24 Violence by former husband/cohabitant partner...... 24 Violence by present husband/cohabitant partner ...... 28 Controlling behavior ...... 30 Linkages ...... 32 Will it ever end? ...... 35 Children witnessing and falling victim to violence ...... 36 Violence by boyfriends with whom the woman has not cohabited...... 38

CHAPTER 3 Violence outside sexual relationships ...... 42 Extent, type of violence and frequency ...... 42 The most recent violent experience ...... 44 Worry about violence ...... 46

CHAPTER 4 The most recent violent incident, regardless of relationship...... 48

CHAPTER 5 Where do woman seek help? ...... 51 Was the most recent violent experience reported to the police? ...... 51 Then where do women seek help if subjected to violence by a man in a sexual relationship?...... 54

3 CHAPTER 6 Violence, a question of health and living conditions? ...... 57 Physical and psychological disorders and violent experiences ...... 57 Women’s perceptions of the effects of violence...... 60 Contemplating and attempting suicide...... 62 Violence and physical injury...... 63 Use of medication...... 63 Violence during pregnancy...... 64

CHAPTER 7 Sexual harassment ...... 67 The aggregate experience of sexual harassment ...... 68 Who are the victims?...... 68 Who are the perpetrators? ...... 70

CHAPTER 8 Myths about violence?...... 72

CHAPTER 9 Summary and comments...... 77 Recommendations...... 87

APPENDIX 1. Questionnaire ...... 92 2. Preliminaries to the study ...... 127 3. Ethical scrutiny...... 130 4. Method...... 131 5. Tables...... 136 References ...... 142

4 Preface The Protection of Women’s Integrity reform represents a legal and political milestone which has attracted attention even at international level. However, more rigorous legislation will not of itself solve the serious problem posed by men’s violence against women in our society. The reform was therefore combined with calls for changes in basic education along with efforts at the further education level to disseminate awareness of power and violence in close relationships and thus create wider opportunities for professional treatment of both crime victims and offenders. In conjunction with the Protection of Women’s Integrity reform, the Government commissioned the Crime Victim Compensation and Support Authority (Brottsoffermyndigheten) to carry out a specifi c study of victims of men’s violence against women. The Authority in turn commissioned Professor Eva Lundgren, incumbent of a government-appointed professorship specialising in violence to women, and Associate Professor Gun Heimer, Head of the Swedish National Center for Battered and Raped Women (Rikskvinnocentrum), to be responsible for conducting the survey. The survey elicited a high percentage of responses despite the fact that many of the questions can only be described as intrusively personal. The era of reticence seems to have passed. Women of all ages are both able and willing to relate their experiences of threats and violence. The overall state of affairs collectively described by these women constitutes a massive challenge to the myth of Sweden as already a land of equality. It is a scenario of threats and violence amounting to serious breaches of women’s human rights. The results of the study lend weight to the government’s remarks in the Protection of Women’s Integrity Bill urging the importance of increasing our understanding of the links between the culture of masculinity and violence against women. These results are of concern to everyone, but they mark a special professional responsibility for staffs working in the judicial system, social services or health and medical services and also for scholars and educationists. Read, refl ect and act for protection of women’s integrity.

Britta Bjelle, Director-General

5

Introduction

In 1998, the Government and the Crime Victim Compensation and Support Authority (Brottsoffermyndigheten) granted funds for a study of the extent of violence against women. The study is the first of its kind in Sweden.

In the preliminary phase a questionnaire was designed and, after a pilot study, sent to 10 000 women. Selection, distribution and collection were handled in cooperation with Statistics Sweden (Statistiska Central Byrån, SCB). The responses were then processed statistically and the data compiled and interpreted. This initial report presents the main fi ndings of the study.

Jenny Westerstrand, Graduate in Law, Uppsala University, acted as coordinator of the project, dealing with all aspects of the study, scientifi c as well as administrative. Anne-Marie Kalliokoski, Department of Sociology, Uppsala University, was responsible for processing the statistics. Maria Eriksson, Department of Sociology, Uppsala University, and Kristina Stensson, of the Swedish National Center for Battered and Raped Women, (Rikskvinnocentrum), Uppsala, took part in the project during the project’s initial and fi nal stages respectively. Thanks are due for their contributions to this project.

We also offer sincere thanks to all those women who responded to the questionnaire and by so doing helped to bring to light new and important knowledge on the subjects of men’s violence against women, of women’s experiences of violence, and of the connections between the various kinds of violence. We are convinced that the knowledge which we have gained and is now presented here will be of great service in combating violence.

Eva Lundgren Gun Heimer Professor of Sociology Associate Professor/Chief Physician

7 Violent experiences in total Physical and sexual violence Almost every second woman, i.e. 46 per and threats cent, has been subjected to violence by a One woman in four, i.e. 25 per cent, has man since her fi fteenth birthday. experienced physical violence on the part 56 per cent of all women have been of a man since her fi fteenth birthday. sexually harassed. Five per cent have been subjected to Nearly one woman in four between 18 physical violence in the last year. and 24 years of age has been subjected to One woman in three, i.e. 34 per cent, violence in the last year.1 has been subjected to sexual violence by a man at least once since turning 1 Last 12 months period fi fteen. Seven per cent have had such experiences in the last year. A total of 46 per cent of all women have Nearly one woman in fi ve, i.e. 18 per experienced violence by a man since their cent, has experience of being threatened fi fteenth birthday. Twelve per cent of women by a man since her fi fteenth birthday. have been subjected to such violence in Four per cent of women have been the last year. threatened in the last year.

All woman Violence + sexual 100% harassment 67%

Violence prior to Sexual Violence after fifteenth birthday harassment fifteenth birthday 31% 56% 46%

Sexual Violence outside Violence by Violence by Violence by violence sexual relationship boyfriend present husband former husband 20% 30% 15% 11% 35%

Physical Sexual Sexual Sexual Sexual violence violence violence violence violence 18% 25% 11% 3% 16%

Physical Physical Physical Physical violence violence violence violence 9% 7% 7% 28%

Fig 1. Male violence against Threats Threats Threats Threats women, distributed by per- 9% 5% 1% 19% petrator and type of violence.

8 Age Violence last year % n 46 Total 18-24 22.4 934 12 18 25-34 12.2 1536 Threats 4 35-44 10.9 1530 45-54 8.5 1620 Sexual 34 violence 7 55-64 9.2 1304 25 Ever Total 11.9 6926 Physical violence 5 Last 12 mths

Table 1. Women subjected to violence in 0102030 40 the last 12 mths, various age groups, and number of abused women as proportion Fig 3. Women subjected to violence since turning of all women (row per cent). fi fteen, by type of violence (%, N=6 926).

Ever EDUCATION Last 12 mths University, no degree 53 14 University, with degree 49 10 46 Secondary schooling 13 AGE No compulsory schooling 43 51 18-24 15 22 40 Compulsory schoolingg 48 12 25-34 12 OCCUPATION 51 35-44 11 Student 54 44 20 45-54 54 9 Unemployed 16 36 55-64 51 9 Self-employed 8 50 MARITAL STATUS Sick-leave/disability pension 12 67 Divorced 46 17 Parental leave 7 Cohabiting 50 Wage/salary-earner 44 15 10 Widowed 41 36 Looking after home 8 10 44 35 Unmarried Retired 10 9 43 Married INCOME 11 48 <5000 COUNTRY OF BIRTH 15 53 46 Nordic country 5001-10000 12 13 47 45 Other 10001-15000 10 16 48 46 15001-20000 11 Sweden 12 50 42 >20000 9 Europe 12 0102050 3040 0 204060 Fig 2. Women subjected to violence by a man Fig 4. Women subjected to violence by a man since turning fi fteen, by background variables (%). since turning fi fteen, by background variables (%).

9 Violence in the last year Summary and comments and the age factor These numbers illustrate the fact that Experiences of violence in the last year are violence against women is far from being most common in the age group 18-24. a marginal problem. Nearly every second Nearly one woman in four (22 per cent) woman has been subjected to violence at in this age group has been subjected to some point since her fi fteenth birthday. In violence. Of women aged 25-34 and 35-44, the light of this it is impossible to regard twelve and eleven per cent respectively have violence to women as a marginal and been subjected to violence. Among women isolated problem which can be dealt with aged 45-54 and 55-64, the corresponding separately from discussion of relations fi gure is nine per cent. between men and women in society as a whole. Moreover, for many women their Sexual harassment violent experiences are not distant in time; Fiftysix per cent of women in total have young women especially have undergone been subjected to sexual harassment, 16 such experiences in the last year. per cent in the last year. Nearly two thirds It is imperative that the knowledge of the of women aged 18-24 and 25-35 have extent of gender-related violence revealed been sexually harassed. by this study should result in measures to halt the violence. Such measures will need Experiences of violence and to take particular account of the scale of the harassment in total violence and its consequent bearing on the In total, 67 per cent of women aged 18-24 in everyday life of men and women. Sweden have been subjected to violence by a man and/or have been sexually harassed since their fi fteenth birthday.

Fig 5. Violence in various relationships, by age groups (%).

60 18-24 25-34 51 51 50 48 35-44 44 45-54 40 55-64 37 35 36 36 36 34 32 33 33 30 28

19 20 20 18 17 12 12 10 11 11 10 8 9

0 Violence outside a Violence by Violence by present Violence by former Total violence sexual relationship boyfriend husband/cohabitant husband/cohabitant partner partner

10 CHAPTER 1 Origin of this study

The research context Norway has been conducting two major This study is the first major national research programmes concerned with enquiry to have been carried out in Sweden violence to women2 since the middle of the with the object of studying the extent of 1980s, and Finland has recently initiated men’s violence against women. The results its fi rst research programme on gender are of interest not only because of the high and violence.3 percentage of responses – of the 10 000 In Sweden, the absence of research- women who received the questionnaire, based knowledge concerning violence to containing approximately 350 questions, women has caused violence to be treated 70 per cent responded – but also because as a marginal phenomenon, and society’s knowledge of the phenomenon of violence approach to it has been coloured by a long- to women contributed to the design established view – more or less in the nature and execution of the study. Knowledge of reasoned truth – of the perpetrator of developed by feminist research1 into violence as a deviant, exceptional man, and violence and its infl iction on women has of violence as a phenomenon occurring been of vital importance to our work, in special, socially deprived milieux.4 An and with its aid we have designed a study important part of the groundwork for the whose outcome has yielded increased gender-related study of violence was to fi nd knowledge of the extent of violence, of alternatives to the prevailing view of violence women’s experiences of violence, of the as a matter of behaviour by “deviant” links between different types of violence, individuals.5 The earlier quantitative and of the consequences of violence. Thus studies were supplemented by a qualitative the study may help to shed light on how methodological approach focusing on the prevalent violence is, and its results could experiences of women subjected to violence. form a foundation for future researches This focus on women’s experiences was a into the subject of violence. reaction against the way the established Until 2001, no statistics existed to forms of research analysed the cause of indicate the extent of violence against violence without giving voice to women’s women. Until recently, broadly speaking, experiences, thus failing to bring out the research-based knowledge about violence gender dimension or to study the relation to women was lacking in Sweden, and between power and gender. The emphasis studies aimed at developing theories of was on ameliorating the life-situation gender-related violence are still a neglected of women and combating the inequality fi eld. Nevertheless since the 1970s there has inherent in a society which subordinates been an explosive growth of gender-related women to men. research into violence against women, both According to the Norwegian research in the Nordic countries and internationally. programme “Battered Women” (Kvin-

11 nemishandling) (1986-1991), feminist One of the evidences for this is the fact studies emerged ”as a critical alternative that no major programme of research to studies which had focused mainly on into violence to women exists or has deviant personal attributes of the man existed in Sweden. which were able to explain that he did not know what he was doing, and deviant The Commission on Violence to personal attributes of the woman which Women: more than a milestone were able to explain that she wanted to be Very important changes of attitude with a victim”.6 The behaviour of the violent regard to violence to women have come man is explained by his pathology, i.e. about in the political world,10 where a lack of impulse-control, or in terms of number of initiatives have been taken individual psychological factors such as to restrain men’s violence to women “disturbance”, “illness” or some other by means of both legislative measures deviation, sexual for example. Social and special fi nancial appropriations for infl uences, such as an unhappy childhood the police and medical services.11 These or “social heredity”, are also invoked as changes of attitude are especially apparent explanations.7 Feminist studies reacted in the legislative fi eld. During the 1980s, against the shift of responsibility between the laws relating to sexual offence were perpetrator and victim which resulted changed. Following the report of the from this, and they began discussing the Commission on Sexual Offences of 198212 problems involved in concepts such as (whose proposals came into force in “normal”, “abnormal” and “deviant”. 8 198413) assaults in public places and rape Gender was introduced as an analytical were brought into the category of offences concept in the study of violence, and the subject to public prosecution. In 1988, a problem of violence was discussed and law was enacted enabling visiting bans to analysed from a structural perspective, be imposed for the purpose of protecting which raised new questions.9 people from harassment and persecution, A new understanding of the problems “particularly women who are being was generated through the new and subjected to assault and other abuse”.14 This critical gender-related studies, and violence law soon became an instrument frequently against women gained status as a public resorted to, although still not always with and societal issue requiring to be tackled much effect, in combating violence. The at political level. However, in Sweden number of visiting bans granted against there are still large gaps in what we know men increased from 62 in 1988 to 2 295 about violence. No attempt has been in 1999.15 made to collate and scrutinise the few The Commission on Violence to Women and isolated research contributions which was established by the then Deputy Prime exist on the topic of violence against Minister and Minister of Health and women, or to develop and fl esh out a Social Affairs, Bengt Westerberg, in body of research-based knowledge such 1993. The Commission, chaired by Britta as would be essential to enable the scale Bjelle, Member of Parliament and now of violence to be combated effectively. Director-General of the Crime Victim

12 Compensation and Support Authority the Commission on Violence to Women (Brottsoffermyndigheten), was charged was the introduction of a new crime in with the task to “scrutinise issues related the form of breach of a woman’s integrity. to violence to women from a female The proposal was adopted after some perspective and to propose measures to changes and was termed gross violation of counteract such violence”.16 The ”female a woman’s integrity.18 The new ”breach of perspective” was then clarifi ed in the text a woman’s integrity” crime is based on as being synonymous with the perspective the knowledge we have of the effects of which has emerged from feminist studies the normalisation process and the impact of violence to women. The result of this of repeated violations on women subjected initiative was to create an alliance of to them.19 The intention behind the new gender-related studies, politics and the law crime is to raise the penalty value of acts in order to combat violence to women, a which, viewed separately, are relatively move which has given Sweden a leading minor but when repeated may lead to position internationally in this fi eld of substantial violation of the victim’s integrity. legislation. In this way the legislature has taken One of the main tasks of the Commis- account of the changes which a woman sion on Violence Against Women was to gradually experiences while being subjected overhaul chapter 6 of the Penal Code, to violence and of the fact that violations dealing with sexual crimes. Ten years had which may seem fairly minor when viewed passed by then since the 1982 Commission separately have a grave negative effect on on Sexual Crimes had presented its report. a woman when they are part of a process, The legislature felt that since opinions thus meriting severe punishment. Other about violence to women had changed legislative changes touching on violence considerably during the interval between to women also ensued from the work of the two Commissions, it was a matter of the Commission. One of the provisions of urgency to overhaul not only sex offences Government Bill 1997/98:55 Protection but also other rules of penal law. The of Women’s Integrity was a proposal to Commission put forward a number of enlarge the defi nition of the crime of rape, radical proposals for changes in the criminalisation of the purchase of sexual legislation pertaining to violence against services and a tightening up of various women and children. The Government aspects of legislation relating to equality of introduced a few of the proposed changes the sexes.20 Thus fairly considerable efforts to the Penal Code in its Bill 1997/98:55 have been made in political quarters to Protection of Women’s Integrity. A com- adapt the legislation relating to violence mittee was appointed to scrutinise all sex to the research-based knowledge available crime legislation, materially, systematically today of the way in which violence affects and technically, partly as a result of the women subjected to it. Commission’s comments concerning the One of the investigatory tasks assigned by lack of protection for women and children directive to the Commission on Violence exposed to violence.17 against Women was to determine whether One of the key proposals presented by criminal statistics ought to be broken

13 down by sex to a greater extent in order violence to women and give an insight to furnish a better basis for estimating into other elements of importance in criminal trends related to violence against preventing such violence and reducing women.21 However, criminal statistics the harmful effects of the violence which record only those offences which come to occurs”.26 It would also improve our the knowledge of the police. Since the knowledge of what resources should be number of unrecorded cases of violence deployed to combat the violence to which to women is large, a great deal of such women are subjected. The Crime Victim violence remains invisible.22 It is generally Compensation and Support Authority thought that only about 25% of all crime was commissioned by the Government to is reported.23 The number of unrecorded conduct a survey of criminal victims.27 The cases involving violence towards women is Authority in turn commissioned Professor most likely higher than for violent crime Eva Lundgren and Associate Professor in general. Three elements in particular and Chief Physician Gun Heimer, both are considered to infl uence the propensity of Uppsala University, to carry out the of victims to make a police report: gravity survey. of the crime, relation to the perpetrator, and the place where the crime was committed. Dominant perspectives on This indicates that much of the violence violence in Sweden infl icted on women is never reported since The model of explanation commonly used this kind of violence is quite commonly in Sweden when trying to understand committed by the woman’s partner in their men’s violence against women is of joint home.24 Lack of information about the an individual psychological character. true scale of violence to women seriously This model has been devised mainly by affects society’s scope for combating the psychologists engaged in clinical work, crime. Moreover, the criminal statistics on and the samples in the studies they have violence available today do not furnish any conducted are based on clinical samples. detailed knowledge concerning the situation This approach links the violence to the of the victim nor of the consequences of individual violent man, who is regarded as the violence, which is why many pressing “mad”, “sick” or “deviant” in some other questions remain unanswered. way, and the explanation of his violent The Commission on Violence Against actions is sought in his personality.28 Women considered the time had come Inherent in this approach is the concept of to conduct the fi rst major crime victim violence as consisting of isolated, deviant survey on the incidence of violence deeds committed by special, abnormal against women. A crime victim survey was men. Possibly too, the women subjected carried out in Canada in 1993 and had to violence may be regarded as deviant in contributed important knowledge about some way, for example as “inadequate” or the incidence of violence.25 A similar “provocative”.29 Alongside this perspective, survey in Sweden, the Commission felt, a socially-oriented perspective has had a would be able to “ increase our knowledge strong infl uence on the understanding of the incidence and distribution of of men’s violence to women.30 These

14 perspectives have been developed within in the Commission’s words meant that the criminological fi eld and the samples “the violence must be viewed from the in the studies conducted are based mainly perspective of gender power”.33 The Com- on men who appear in the criminal mission takes the view that a society which statistics as being guilty, accused or merely shares power and control equally between suspected of various violent or sexual women and men takes an important step crimes. These men too may be regarded in combating violence to women.34 Thus as “deviant”. From this angle of approach the fact that men subject women to the spotlight falls on the social conditions violence may be regarded from a structural applicable to the perpetrator of violence, perspective as an expression of male such as social exclusion, alcohol abuse superiority which may manifest itself in or unemployment. The two perspectives actual physical attacks on women, but may also be combined, such as when the also in less drastic phenomena such as “social heritage” is linked to so-called sexual harassment or verbal abuse. On this re-victimisation.31 These circumstances, view, the violence to which men subject whether they exist now or were present women not only expresses superiority during the man’s childhood, are presumed but also helps to re-create it and to shape to cause his violent behaviour. Another men’s and women’s conceptions of what related way of understanding violence being a man or a woman means. to women may be said to be based on the so-called systems theory, in which the Design of the questionnaire “special violent family” is placed at the The main purpose of the study has been centre and related to the family and its to form as clear a picture as possible of the structure, its discords and imbalance. The extent of men’s violence against women. systems theory models of explanation However, to produce a picture of “how concentrate on the balance between things are” is very diffi cult in all types individual members of the family, the of research work, and this study is no excep- parties being regarded as fairly equal tion. The kind of knowledge which can be whereas systematic power imbalance gained is limited by the fragmentary form between men and women is ignored. of the questionnaire and the simplifi cation A new perspective, represented here of the questions at issue which it requires. by the Commission on Violence Against In addition to this, it is also difficult Women, gradually began to manifest to ask questions about experiences of itself. The directive to the Commission violence. If women suffering violence in a on Violence Against Women states that relationship are in a process of change and “the Commission is being established in degradation, a process in which the man’s order to scrutinise issues related to violence violent acts have become continuous and to women from a female perspective and are gradually assuming a new meaning as to propose measures to counteract such the boundaries shift, we cannot believe violence”.32 The female perspective was that simple questions such as “Have you then defi ned as being synonymous with been abused?” will provide us with the the perspective of feminist studies, which most reliable picture of the prevalence

15 of violence to women. The questions Ethical scrutiny about violence put to women by the This study, including the design of the researcher must penetrate behind any questionnaire, has undergone ethical possible reinterpretations or minimising of scrutiny by the ethical committee of the violence if we are to attain knowledge the HSFR (the Swedish Council for of women’s experiences. Research in the Humanities and Social A comprehensive survey of male violence Sciences). The committee approved the to women, using questionnaires distributed study following the incorporation of 35 by post, was conducted in Finland in 1997, additional provisions for the protection of and the percentage of responses was high. participating informants. The committee Because of this, and because it was considered particularly emphasised the importance important to lay a foundation for other of clearly stating that participation in the Nordic and European comparative studies, study was voluntary.39 questionnaires distributed by post were the method chosen for the Swedish survey Methodological foundations 36 as well. The questions were worded and What we have asked for is women’s grouped together in a way facilitating experiences of violence, which means that comparisons with the Finnish study. in designing the questionnaire we have had to allow for women making their own Preliminary work on the interpretations as to which experiences they questionnaire consider to constitute violence. The questionnaire was tested on several pilot Anyone aspiring to understand anything groups before being distributed. Each group about violence or wanting to ask other made comments on the questionnaire, people questions in this fi eld will soon which was amended accordingly.37 On the discover that there is little help to be had whole, the women took a favourable from the defi nitions used in everyday life, view of the questionnaire’s design, and there which are often taken from jurisprudence. was little criticism of its length. No On the contrary, the fi xed jurisprudential radical changes to the questionnaire were breakdown into different categories necessitated as a result of the pilot groups’ of crime soon turns out to be useless comments, but minor adjustments were when women are questioned about their made which in our judgment considerably experiences of subjection to violence. There increased the questionnaire’s readability. are no watertight bulkheads between A consultative group was linked to different kinds of violence. For example, the project as well.38 The group met how can one tell the difference between twice for detailed discussions of the sexual and physical violence? Does not organisation of the study and the design of much sexual violence involve the use of the questionnaire. The group’s members physical violence? And where is the line were appointed on the basis of their to be drawn between threats and actual qualifications in the field of statistics violence? For a woman who has been and/or their familiarity with violence to beaten, the threat of further assault is a women as a fi eld of research. reality which may be as frightening as the

16 violence itself. Threats to kill the woman manifest themselves in different ways, the may likewise be uttered at the same time common denominator is that the abused as threats of abuse made earlier are being woman is negatively affected. Looking at put into effect, so that threats of violence violence as a continuum enables us to see and actual violence become very hard the linkages between its various forms, to separate. These and other questions putting serious violence on the same scale of definitions of violence, along with as acts which are less serious, perhaps questions concerning the choice of not criminalised, or even considered categories in which to arrange the questions acceptable. The concept thus links together about violence, have been necessary and commonly-used expressions of sexism continuous accompaniments throughout and acts of criminal violence. the work on the questionnaire and the The continuum concept thus makes it analysis of the responses. possible to understand that actions which the law defi nes as minor may signify an Violence as a continuum explicit or implicit threat to an abused “Sexual violence” is haunted by the concept woman, i.e. that they are anything but of a continuum of violence, a continuous minor to her. At the same time this may series of physical, verbal and sexual help us to understand why women often assaults committed by men on women. play down the importance of violent The concept of “sexual violence” includes actions, for example by comparing them “any physical, visual, verbal or sexual act with how much worse they might have that is experienced by the woman or girl, been: the threat could have been physical at the time or later, as a threat, invasion violence instead, or the sexual assault or assault, that has the effect of hurting could have been a rape. her or degrading her and/or takes away The idea of violence as a continuum her ability to control intimate contact”, means that all forms of gender-related hereafter referred to as gender-related violence are understood to be serious; violence.40 This approach views threats, the concept is not to be construed as a violence and sexual abuse as actions method of creating hierarchies of more or impossible to isolate from one another; less serious abuses. However, the concept characteristically the boundaries between can be utilised to analyse the incidence of them are fl uid and actions merge into one different types of gender-related violence another. A sexual assault may include in such a way as to indicate that there are physical violence or threats; threats may forms of gender-related violence which be related to previous violent acts, and so most women experience at some point in on. A woman’s experience of a violent their lives and which they will probably deed may also be coloured by and related also experience repeatedly. to earlier experiences she has had of gender-related violence, and well-defi ned Violence: its dynamics and boundaries between different types of normalisation process violence are therefore impossible to draw. Violence is not a clear-cut phenomenon, Even though separate violent actions may as is illustrated not least by the discussion

17 above. For abused women the problems fear, guilt and shame. Defi ning the violence of definition which are central to an as something other than actual violence, understanding of violence bring dif- thus making it less serious, may be one way ficulties in naming and defining their of coping with these violent experiences. If own experiences. Furthermore, living in violence has been employed in a relationship a violent relationship changes the parties and if it has been going on for some involved, including their (re)interpretations time, developing a systematic character, and understandings of the violence. The this dynamic is reinforced through the concept of normalisation of violence brings normalisation process. 44 these changes under scrutiny by pointing In interviews with women who have out that women cohabiting with men left violent men, an important difference who abuse them are living in a process emerges in their retrospective understanding where boundaries are being shifted and of the violence compared with the way acts of violence gradually take on a new they viewed the man’s actions when they meaning. 41 An attack which an outsider were still living with him and with the would regard as violence may for the violence.45 It is only when the woman isout woman involved be a manifestation of of the relationship and out of the violence something wrong with herself; the violence that she can fully bring herself to describe has assumed a new meaning in her eyes the experiences as violent. This difference of in that the man’s understanding of it possible interpretation can be understood in has become valid for her as well. She the light of the dynamics and normalisation accepts his interpretation of his violence process of the violence, as can the control as a manifestation of her own failure as exercised by the man over the woman a woman. by means of violence combined with e.g. Interview studies also prove that it is brainwashing, isolation of the woman, and diffi cult for women to interpret and put switching between violence and warmth. into words violence to which they have been A prerequisite of a woman’s being able subjected by men in close relationships.42 to interpret the man’s violent actions One of the reasons for this is stereotyped as simply violence is that she should no notions that violence is a marginal pro- longer normalise these acts, nor should she blem, that it is practised under special internalise his image of her as constituting circumstances, and that it is directed at the “problem”. This “denormalisation a special type of woman and practised process” is a social process requiring that by a special kind of man.43 In addition, many the woman’s isolation shall have been women feel a strong inner resistance against broken and that the man shall no longer identifying themselves as “battered women” have the same control over her. It further and regarding their husbands/partners requires that she should no longer be as “abusers”, i.e. against identifying at risk of subjection to further violence. both themselves and their partners as Paradoxically, one of the adaptive strategies deviants from the norm of an equal paired employed by women to avoid triggering relationship. In addition, women subjected violence makes it impossible, as long to violence by their partners experience as they are in the relationship and in

18 the violence, to interpret or name these with questions about more “remote” actions as constituting violence. experiences, i.e. not experiences of violence by men in close relationships. Because Infl uence on the wording of of this the questionnaire is longer than the questions it would have been if the questions had When viewed from the perspective been grouped by types of act, since discussed above, the experiences of the respondent has to answer the same violence sought by the questionnaire may question several times, but in respect of be very diffi cult for women to defi ne or men with whom they have had different put words to. The defi nitions of violence types of relationship. To have arranged the current in society express a fragmented questions according to types of act would view of violence with fixed lines of also have encouraged an interpretation demarcation between different types of of the violence in which the woman’s act and their degrees of gravity, and there experiences would be fragmentised and may be none of them that corresponds to kept separate instead of being construed the way the woman herself would defi ne in context with each other and with life her experiences. In designing a postal as a whole. questionnaire on gender-related violence We know that the questions may be so as to form a picture of how common it very delicate. This is another reason why is for women to experience gender-related the questionnaire puts questions about violence, what sort of violence it is and the least close experiences fi rst, so that how it affects the women concerned, it is questions about unknown men and casual important to make use of knowledge of acquaintances precede those about men the ways in which the women interpret with whom the woman has or has had their experiences in the light of the type a sexual relationship, or where she has of relationship the woman is living in or has had a sexual relationship and and what her situation is. has cohabited with the man concerned. The design of the questionnaire thus Questions to focus on relationships resembles a kind of gradual progress from rather than type of act the remote and presumably less delicate A woman’s relationship with the perpet- experiences towards matters which may rator has a major infl uence on how she be both hard to express in words and interprets the violence to which she is painful to think about. This also makes subjected. For this reason, and in order it easier for the woman to recall things she to get round the reluctance which the may have “forgotten”; matters which woman may feel to relate unpleasant and have been too painful to remember abusive experiences, the questionnaire is may be brought out, little by little and designed so as to lead step by step to the somewhat less painfully. In this way violent experiences, while the questions the questionnaire takes account of the focus on the woman’s relationship to fact that women often interpret violence the perpetrator rather than the type of in close relationships differently from act committed. In addition, we begin violence on the part of a stranger.

19 We have divided the various relationships too the object is to penetrate beyond any into the following categories: possible reinterpretation and minimising of the violence by the women concerned. • Men with whom the respondent For a woman living in a relationship in does not have and has not had which violence occurs in some regular a sexual relationship (for example sense the question “Have you been neighbours, friends, colleagues, abused?” may be irrelevant. Instead of relatives or unknown men) grouping the questions according to types of violence – e.g. “Have you been • Boyfriends and other men with abused?”, “Have you been raped?” - we whom the respondent has or has have preferred to ask concretely: Has the had a sexual relationship but with man “punched you, struck you with a whom she neither cohabits nor hard object or kicked you?”, “-pushed, has cohabited held or dragged you?”, “-banged your • Present husband or cohabitant head against something?” etc. As regards partner sexual abuse, the questions are framed • Former husband or cohabitant in the same concrete manner, e.g. “Has partner your present husband/cohabitant partner ever forced you into any form of sexual Another idea underlying the framing activity by threatening you, holding you of the questions to elicit relationships or hurting you in any way?” rather than actions has been to make the The experiences which we have asked questionnaire adaptable so as to focus on about can be roughly divided into: certain areas judged to be particularly important.46 For example, questions • Physical violence concerning physical violence are framed • Sexual violence in greater detail in the section on present • Threats of violence and former husbands/cohabitant partners respectively than in the sections on other • Sexual harassment relationships. Questions about controlled • Controlling behaviour behaviour appear only in the sections dealing with present and former husbands/cohabitant partners. Questions about sexual harassment Violence, a holistic approach are asked only in respect of men with According to the conception of gender- whom the woman has never had a sexual related violence as a continuum, threats, relationship, not in respect of present or violence and sexual abuse are acts which former husbands/cohabitant partners cannot be isolated from each other; they or boyfriends.47 are characterised by the fl uidity of the boundaries between them. We can also Concrete questions see this from the women’s answers; many Regarding the wording of the questions, we of them have experienced all types of have made this as concrete as possible. Here violence, and their experiences are not

20 isolated. In accordance with this view, grouped in accordance with the present or when violence is mentioned in the analysis past relationship subsisting between the of the results in the report below, this woman and man in question. means physical violence, sexual violence and The data were collected in coopera- threats. (Sexual harassment and controlling tion with Statistics Sweden (Statistiska behaviour are not defi ned as violence, since Centralbyrån, SCB). A probability we have tried to restrict our defi nition sampling of 10 000 women aged 18-64 of violence to criminalised actions) In resident in Sweden was extracted from those instances where a breakdown into SCB’s register of the total population. The categories has been considered necessary in data were collected between 15 October order to illustrate differences of experience 1999 and 27 January 2000. A thank- which can be linked to variables such you and reminder card was sent out on as age, for example, this is indicated by 27 October, after which two additional using the terms physical violence, sexual reminders with questionnaires attached violence and threats. Thus the analysis shifts were sent out in November and December. between breaking down the various types By the time the collection of data had of violence and keeping them together. been completed, 6 926 replies had been The idea of violence as a continuum received, signifying a response rate of and the interpretative perspective on the 70.1 per cent. The total non-response was normalisation of violence have thus had a thus 2 957. Considering the length of the considerable infl uence over the design of the questionnaire and the sensitive nature of questionnaire. As will be shown below, these the questions, the percentage of responses perspectives have also played a part in the must be considered high.50 We interpret way the material has been analysed. the women’s high degree of willingness to respond to constitute an acknowledgement Method that the questions raised and the way they Since an important aim of the study was were asked touched a chord that echoed to describe the experiences of women in women’s experiences. Despite the fact that Sweden of male violence occurring after the questions awakened painful memories their fifteenth birthday, we elected to among many women, or may very likely base the study on a large sample (N=10 have taken some time to answer, these 000) in order also to obtain enough women did respond and return the ques- data for subgroups of women in Swedish tionnaire to us. Of those who responded, society.48 43% replied in the affirmative to the A survey of violence against women question whether they would be willing was conducted in Finland in 1997.49 We to take part in an eventual follow-up were infl uenced by this study and wanted study. to design the Swedish questionnaire to resemble the Finnish as far as possible so as to facilitate comparisons between the two countries. The questionnaire consists of 115 questions in various sections,

21 1 The term ”feminist research” is used synony- mously with ”research into women’s issues” and ”gender-related research”. 2 Forskningsprogram om kvinnemishandling 1968-91 and Forskningsprogram om seksualisert vold. NAVF. 3 Makt, våld och kön, Finlands Akademi. 4 Brantsæter 2001. 5 Ibid: chap 9. 6 NAVF Rapport 1, 1985 p 6f. 7 Brantsæter 2001 p 323. 8 See e.g. Brantsæter 2001. 9 The sociologist Ann Edwards has compiled a survey of developments in modern feminist studies, which in her view have focused on 1) violence as a vital instrument in maintaining male dominance, 2) sexualised violence as an indivisible problem (that is, instead of distinguishing between rape, assault, incest etc, the problem is viewed collectively from the analytical standpoint, concentrating on the fact that these are all examples of the oppression of women) and 3) sexuality as a social construct and its relation to violence, power and men’s control over women. See Jeffner 1997 chapter 7 for an overview of the research fi eld. 10 In 1990, the Government established a professorship in sociology, especially women’s research focusing particularly on violence to women. This post has been held by Eva Lundgren since 1993. Responsibility for offi cial judicial statistics was transferred from Statistics Sweden (Statistiska Centralbyrån, SCB) to The National Council for Crime Prevention (Brottsförebyggande rådet, BRÅ) in 1996. A Government Bill (1997/98:55) affi rmed the need for speedy action to improve statistics relating to crimes of violence against women. See further footnote 12 for details of action in the medical services fi eld. 11 The Government decided in the autumn of 1994 to establish a national resources and information centre at the Department of Women’s and Children’s Health (Kvinnokliniken) of the Uppsala University Hospital to be responsible for surveys, research, education and information services relating to battered and raped women, and for improving the care available to such women. It was in this way that the Swedish National Center for Battered and Raped Women. (Rikskvinnocentrum, RKC) came into existence. The Center is headed by its chief physician, Associate Professor Gun Heimer. 12 SOU 1982:61 13 Prop 1983/84:105, bet. 1983/84Ju25, rskr. 1983/84:332, SFS 1984:399 14 Prop 1987/88:137 p 9. 15 Rikspolisstyrelsen, Kirunaenheten. 16 SOU 1995:60 Kvinnofrid, Del A p 49. 17 Dir. 1998:48 Översyn av lagstiftning om sexualbrott. SOU 2001:14. 18 Prop 1997/98:55. 19 Prop 1997/98:55 p 74 ff and Lundgren 1993 and 1995. 20 The banning of the purchase of sexual services was not investigated by the Commission on Violence Against Women but was prepared in SOU 1995:15 Könshandeln. However, the Government dealt with this issue along with the introduction of the crime of gross violation of a woman’s integrity in Government Bill 1997/98:55. The ban has not been embodied in the Penal Code but is formulated as a separate law (1998:408). 21 Not until 1981 did it become possible to distinguish from the offi cial statistics those cases of reported violence in which a woman was the victim. 22 The fi gure for unrecorded cases indicates the proportion between the actual number of crimes and the visible or reported number of crimes. If for example the fi gure for unrecorded cases is one, all crimes committed are reported. If the fi gure for unrecorded cases is two, the actual number of crimes committed is twice as many as the visible number of crimes. Source BRÅ, http://www.bra.se/web/brott/rattsvasendet/ordlista.html, 2001-01-10. 23 Heimer & Nylen 1999 p 3. 24 Ibid:1999. 25 Statistics Canada 1993. 26 SOU 1995:60 Kvinnofrid p 91.

22 27 Prop. 1997/98:130 p 149. 28 Brantsæter 2001 chap 9, Lundgren 1994 p 25-32. 29 Bergman 1989. See also NAVF Rapport 1, 1985 p 6f. 30 Brantsæter 2001 chap 9. 31 Theories of re-victimisation aim to show a connection between perpetrators having themselves been abused as children and subsequently, as adults, infl icting violence on those around them. 32 Dir. 1993:88 p 1. 33 SOU 1995:60 Kvinnofrid p 106. 34 Ibid. 35 Faith, Hope, Battering. A Survey of Men’s Violence against Women in Finland. Markku Heiskanen, Minna Piispa, Statistikcentralen, Finland, Justice 1998:20. In 1993, a survey of the incidence of male violence against women was conducted in Canada by means of telephone interviews. Statistics Canada 1993. 36 Since many of the questions raised by the questionnaire are very delicate in numerous ways, there was some debate in the project’s initial phase as to whether it would be possible at all to use a questionnaire distributed by post. Would women with experience of violence throw the questionnaire away when the questions became too painful? Or would respondents be provoked by the detailed nature of the questions and the length of the questionnaire? In previous Swedish studies of delicate issues the interview method had been employed (Sex i Sverige. Om sexualitet i Sverige 1996. Bo Lewin, ed p 31). The reasons were mainly that a postal questionnaire must be very limited in length and that it is impossible to jump about between the questions as can be done during an interview. At the same time the Finnish postal questionnaire, which the Swedish one resembles closely both in length and in the substance of the questions, elicited a very high percentage response. After weighing the pros and cons (comparability with the Finnish study being one of several important reasons), we decided on the postal questionnaire method. 37 For a more detailed discussion of the results from the pilot groups, see Appendix 2. 38 The members of the consultative group were Eckart Külhorn, the National Council for Crime Prevention (Brottsförebyggande rådet, BRÅ), Monika Olsson, the National Council for Crime Prevention (Brottsförebyggande rådet, BRÅ), Britta Bjelle, director-general of the Crime Victim Compensation and Support Authority (Brottsoffermyndigheten), Bo Lewin, associate professor at Uppsala University, Maud Eduards, professor at Stockholm University, Gunnel Gustafsson, professor at Umeå University, and Sven-Olof Isacsson, professor at Lund University. 39 For a more detailed description of the ethical scrutiny, see Appendix 3. 40 Kelly 1988 p 41 41 Lundgren 1993 42 Kelly 1988 43 Ibid 44 Lundgren 1993 45 Mellberg 2002. See Bibliography. 46 Of course it would have been desirable to ask detailed questions concerning all types of violence in all types of relationships, but the need to limit the length of the questionnaire weighed more heavily in this regard. We develop briefl y the considerations underlying the choice of specifi c questions pertaining to different kinds of relationships in the relevant passages of the text. 47 From a legal point of view, sexual harassment is a concept found in labour legislation. However, we have chosen to widen our defi nition of the concept to include also harassment to which a woman may be subjected outside a work relationship but with a man with whom she does not have and has not had a sexual relationship. 48 See also Appendix 4. The effective sample comprised 9 883 women since 117 women had died or emigrated. 49 Heiskanen & Pispa 1998. 50 See footnote 37.

23 CHAPTER 2

Violence within sexual relationships

Questions about violence within sexual relationships were asked pertaining to Total 35 1. Men with whom the women have Physical violence 28 or have had a non-cohabiting sexual Threats 19 relationship Sexual violence 16 2. Present husbands/cohabitant partners 3. Former husbands/cohabitant partners 0 10203040 Fig 6. Type of violence suffered by women in former marriage or cohabitant relationship (%, N=2 755). Since criminal statistics indicate that physical violence against women occurs have had at least one former husband most commonly within close relationships, or cohabitant partner. The number of we considered it important to ask further women in this group is 2 755. and more precisely worded questions about physical violence in the questionnaire Physical Violence sections concerned with close relationships A total of seven concrete questions were (present and former husbands/cohabitant asked regarding women’s experiences partners respectively).1 of physical violence on the part of a The wording of the questions aims to former husband/cohabitant partner. The penetrate beyond possible reinterpretation questions asked were the same for both and minimising of the violence. present and former husbands/cohabitant partners. They concern whether the man Violence by former husband/ has ever thrown anything at the woman cohabitant partner which could have injured her, whether • 35 per cent of women who have he has pushed her, held her or dragged been married to or cohabiting with her, punched her, struck her with a hard a man have been subjected to object or kicked her, throttled her or tried violence by the former husband/ to suffocate her, banged her head against cohabitant partner. something or threatened to use, or used, 3 • Half of divorced2 women have a fi rearm or other weapon. been subjected to violence by a • In total, 28 per cent of women former husband/cohabitant partner. have experienced being subjected to physical violence by a former The fi gures presented in this section husband/cohabitant partner. are based on the number of women who

24 Nearly one woman in four, i.e. 23 per he had tried to force her into any form of cent, has been pushed, held or dragged by sexual activity by threatening her, holding her former husband/cohabitant partner. her or hurting her in any way, whether Sixteen per cent have been punched, he had forced or tried to force her into struck with a hard object or kicked by a any form of sexual activity when she was former husband or cohabitant partner, unable to defend herself, e.g. because and 13 per cent have had a hard object or she was asleep or under the infl uence an object that could cause injury thrown of drugs, and fi nally, whether he had at them. Eight per cent have experience touched her in a sexual way against her of a man throttling or trying to suffocate will, e.g. by grabbing, holding, kissing them. Seven per cent of the women have or hugging her. had their heads banged against some hard surface and six per cent state that a man • In total, 16 per cent of women has threatened them with, or used, a knife, have experienced sexual violence fi rearm or some other weapon. on the part of a former husband/ Three per cent have been pushed, cohabitant partner. dragged or held in the last year. Two per cent have had things thrown at them Seven per cent of the women have been which could have caused injury. One per forced into a sexual activity by a former cent have been punched, struck with a husband or cohabitant partner as a result hard object or kicked. of his threatening, holding or in some way hurting her. Eight per cent have experienced Sexual violence attempts by a former husband/cohabitant Four questions were asked about sexual partner to force her into sexual activity. violence. The respondent was asked Thirteen per cent of the women state that whether her former husband/cohabitant former husbands/cohabitant partners have partner had forced her into any form of touched them in a sexual way against sexual activity by threatening her, holding their will. her or hurting her in any way, whether

Thrown something at you which could have injured you 13

Pushed you, held you or dragged you 23

Punched or kicked you, struck you with an object 16

Throttled/tried to suffocate you 8

Banged your head against somethingt 7 Threatened you with or used a knife, firearm or other weapon 6

Been violent in any other way 12

0 5 10 15 20

Fig 7. Has a former husband/cohabitant partner ever behaved violently towards you in any of the following ways? (Yes in %, N=2 755).

25 Threats Frequency % As regards threats, there is one question Once 19.9 about whether the man has threatened 2-10 times 38.2 the woman with physical harm. 11-50 times 16.6 >50 times 9.5 • In total, nearly every fi fth woman, No response 15.8 i.e. 19 per cent, has been thre- atened by a former husband/ Table 2. Frequency of violence by former husband/ cohabitant partner cohabitant partner (% of women responding to the question, N=941)

Two per cent have been threatened by AGE 33 a former husband/cohabitant partner 18-24 3 in the last year. 36 25-34 6 37 How frequent was the violence? 35-44 6 36 We asked two questions about the number 45-54 of times women have been subjected to 4 55-64 33 violence by their former husband/cohabitant 8 partner, viz how many times it has hap- MARITAL STATUS pened in the last year and how many times Divorced 50 it has happened earlier. Respondents 11 Unmarried 43 may thus have indicated affirmatively 8 Cohabiting 32 to both these questions, depending on 3 their experiences. Married 28 3 Widow 16 • In total, almost two thirds, i.e. 64 per cent, of women who have FAMILY SITUATION 45 Lone with children experienced violence on the part 9 54 of a former husband/cohabitant Lone without children partner report that this has hap- 5 Married with children 34 pened more than once. 4 Married without children 20 2 Thirtyeight per cent of women who Cohab. with children 29 have been subjected to violence by a 3 Cohab. without children 37 former husband/cohabitant partner state 2 that they were subjected to sexual or Ever 01020304050 physical violence or threats 2-10 times and Last 12 mths 17 per cent state that they were subjected to it 11-50 times. One woman in ten with Fig 8. Women subjected to violence by former experience of violence has been subjected husband or cohabitant partner, by women’s back- ground variables (% of women who have former to it more than fi fty times. In total, 27 per husband/cohabitant partner).

26 cent of women with experience of violence currently cohabiting with a man and on the part of a former husband/cohabitant who have been married to/cohabiting partner have been subjected to it more than with a man before, 30 per cent have such ten times. Only 20 per cent state that they experiences. Thus, looking at women’s were subjected to violence only once. current marital status, women not living with a man report a higher level of Age experiences of violence on the part of There are no major differences between former husbands/cohabitant partners different age groups as regards their than do women who are currently living experiences of violence on the part of with a man. a former husband/cohabitant partner. Women aged 35-44 show the highest level Summary and comments of reported violence on the part of former What emerges from the responses is that husbands/cohabitant partners, more than being subjected to violence on the part one woman in three (37 per cent) having of a former husband/cohabitant partner had such experiences. The lowest reported is a common experience among Swedish level is found among women aged 18-24, women. More than one third of women but the differences are small: Thirtythree have had such experiences. In total, 28 per cent of women in this age group per cent have been subjected to physical have experienced violence by a former violence, 16 per cent to sexual violence husband/cohabitant partner. and 19 per cent to threats by a former husband/cohabitant partner. Thus physical Marital status and family violence, sexual violence and threats all circumstances occur, but physical violence seems to be Of lone women with children under particularly prevalent. The violence was the age of eighteen, 45 per cent have not confi ned to isolated incidents: only been subjected to violence by a former one fi fth of women subjected to violence husband/cohabitant partner. Nearly one by a former husband/cohabitant partner in ten lone woman with children has been report one incident (of those so subjected subjected to violence in the last year. Of lone more than one year ago). In total, 27 per women without children the proportion is cent of the women report more than even higher, 54 per cent having experienced ten violent incidents, which indicates violence by a former husband/cohabitant that the violence has been of systematic partner. However, the latter group reports character, with repeated and continuous a lower level of violence - fi ve per cent - offences.4 in the last year. There is a signifi cant difference between If the women are divided up into those the violence reported respectively by lone living with a man today and those who women and women cohabiting with a are not living with a man, we see that man. One of many possible interpretations 43 per cent of women living alone have of the reasons for this is that women who experiences of violence by a former have experienced violence choose, more husband/cohabitant partner. Of women often than those who have not, to refrain

27 from embarking on a new relationship with violence, and the information sought was a man. Another possible interpretation is whether the husband/cohabitant partner that women living with men under-report had thrown anything at the woman which the violence to which they were subjected could have injured her, whether he had by previous men; in other words a woman’s pushed, held or dragged her, punched her, interpretation of her experiences of violence struck her with a hard object or kicked are infl uenced by whether she is “in” or “out her, throttled her or tried to suffocate of ” a relationship with a man - and not only her, banged her head against something the man who employed violence towards or threatened her with or used a fi rearm her. As we shall see below, there are also great or any other weapon.5 differences between reported violence on the In total, seven per cent of the women part of the former husband/cohabitant partner have been subjected to physical violence and on that of the present husband/cohabitant by their present husband/cohabitant partner respectively. partner. Six per cent of women cohabiting with Violence by present husband/ a man report that he has pushed, held or cohabitant partner dragged them. Two per cent report that The research material contains data relating to the man has thrown something at them 4 771 women who are married/cohabiting. which could have injured them. Two per cent have been punched, struck with a • In total, slightly more than one hard object or kicked. woman in ten, i.e. 11 per cent, Women in the 18-24 age group report has been subjected to violence by the highest level of physical violence on their present husband/cohabitant the part of present husband/cohabitant partner. Half of these have been partner (nine per cent), but the differences subjected to violence in the last between the age groups are small. There year. is a slight difference between married and • 7 per cent have been subjected to unmarried couples. Of the women who physical violence by their present are cohabiting and have children, nine per husband/cohabitant partner. cent have been subjected to violence by their present husband/cohabitant partner. Physical violence The corresponding number for married The questions about physical violence are women with children is six per cent. the same with respect to both present and former husbands/cohabitant partners. As Three per cent have been subjected was discussed in the section concerning to physical violence in their present the questionnaire’s design, these questions marriage in the last year. were worded to allow for the tendency of women subjected to violence to reinterpret Sexual violence and minimise it. The questions were The questions about sexual violence are accordingly made as concrete as possible. the same for all kinds of relationships: Seven questions were asked about physical four were asked. They concerned whether

28 the woman had been forced into any form Threats of violence of sexual activity as a result of the man In total, one per cent of the women have threatening, holding or hurting her in been threatened with violence by their some way, whether he had tried to force present husband/cohabitant partner. 6 her into any form of sexual activity by Physical threatening, holding or hurting her in violence 7 some way, whether he had forced or tried Sexual 3 to force her into any form of sexual activity violence when she was unable to defend herself, Threats 1 e.g. because she was asleep or under the Total 11 infl uence of drugs, and fi nally whether he 0246810 had touched her in a sexual way against her Fig 9. Women subjected to violence by present will, e.g. by grabbing, holding, kissing husband/cohabitant partner, by type of violence or hugging her. (%, N=4 771). Age In total, 3 per cent of the women have Violence on the part of a present husband/ been subjected to sexual violence by their cohabitant partner is most prevalent in the present husband/cohabitant partner. youngest age group, but the differences are fairly small on the whole. In total, Women aged 45-54 reported the highest twelve per cent of women aged 18-24 level of sexual violence (i.e. four per cent) on have been subjected to violence by their the part of their present husband/cohabitant present husband/cohabitant partner, the partner. However, the differences are small; corresponding fi gure for women aged two per cent of the women aged 25-34 25-34 being approximately nine per report sexual violence by their present cent. In the 35-44, 45-54 and 55-64 age husband/cohabitant partner. There is groups, just over one woman in ten has no real difference between married and been so subjected. unmarried women in this respect: reports Ever Last 12 mths of sexual violence amounted to about AGE three per cent in respect of married and 12 18-24 unmarried couples, with or without 6 9 children. 25-34 4 As regards the extent of the various types 10 of sexual violence on the part of present 35-44 5 11 husbands/cohabitant partners, the reports 45-54 6 amount to less than one per cent, with 11 55-64 6 the exception of the question whether the man has touched the respondent in 0510 a sexual way against her will; three per Fig 10. Proportion of women subjected to cent report such experiences. violence by present husband/cohabitant partner, by different age groups (% of women currently in a relationship)..

29 Summary and comments serious violations of the woman’s integrity Reports of violence on the part of present and self-esteem. In cases where the husbands/cohabitant partners are considerably man also employs physical violence, the fewer than women’s reports of violence by controlling forms of behaviour can be former husbands/cohabitant partners. At regarded as being related to the woman’s the same time it appears that just over one other experiences of the man’s violence. woman in ten has been subjected to violence Ten questions were asked concerning by the man she is married to or cohabiting different forms of controlling behaviour. with. In half of these instances the most The respondents had to decide in respect recent such violent experience occurred in of each of the stated forms of behaviour the last year. As was the case with violence whether it constituted an appropriate by former husbands/cohabitant partners, it description of their former or present 9 is physical violence that appears to be the husband/cohabitant partner. Examples most common form. of such behaviour might be wanting to The differences between the age groups know whom she had met and what she had are small, but a difference can be detected been doing, calling her disparaging names, between married and unmarried couples forbidding her to see her relatives/friends or in that women who are not married to to have money or buy things, deliberately their male partners report a slightly higher damaging her belongings, or threatening degree of violence. to harm himself if she left him.

Controlling behaviour Former husbands Not only reported crimes but other aspects /cohabitant partners too must be taken into consideration to be This group of respondents comprises 2 able to elucidate satisfactorily how violence 755 women, i.e. women disclosed by the infl uences the circumstances under which research data to have had at least one women live. It is also important to take former husband/cohabitant partner. account of the control and exercise of Fortyeight per cent of these women state power to which men subject women that their former husband/cohabitant and which is not covered by any code of partner employed controlling forms of punishments.7 Therefore questions were behaviour towards them. asked in the questionnaire about women’s One in three women, i.e. 33 per cent, experiences of behaviour which might not states that a former husband/cohabitant all be categorised as criminal but which partner was jealous and wanted to know enables the woman and her personal space whom she had met and what she had been to be controlled. The term controlling doing. Sixteen per cent of the women stated behaviour includes such manifestations as that their former husband/cohabitant jealousy, the man preventing the woman partner threatened to harm himself if she from seeing relatives and friends, calling left him. Twentynine per cent stated that her disparaging names or forbidding her their former husband/cohabitant partner to make her own decisions about money.8 made them feel useless and inferior, and These forms of behaviour may constitute 25 per cent were called disparaging names

30 by a former husband/cohabitant partner. their former husband/cohabitant partner Seventeen per cent reported that their to see relatives/friends. In eleven per cent former husband/cohabitant partner of cases, the women were not allowed provoked a quarrel when they were going to make decisions about money or buy to see relatives or friends, while seven things they wanted. per cent of the women were forbidden by

Ex-husband jealous 33

Made the woman feel inferior 29

Called the woman disparaging names 25

Provoked a quarrel when the woman wanted to see relatives and friends 17

Threatened to harm himself 16

Woman not allowed to make decisions about money 11

Deliberately damaged the woman’s belongings 10 Forbade the woman to see her relatives 7

Threatened to harm the children 3

Forbade the woman to work 3

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Fig 11. Controlling behaviour by former husband or cohabitant partner (%, N=2 755).

• In total, nearly one woman in two • Just over one woman in four states that her former husband/ states that her former husband/ cohabitant partner exhibited con- cohabitant partner made her feel trolling behaviour towards her. inferior and useless. • One woman in three states that • One woman in four has been her former husband/cohabitant called disparaging names by her partner was jealous and wanted to former husband/cohabitant part- know whom she had met and what ner. she had been doing.

Present husbands /cohabitant partners The group responding to these questions • consists of 4 771 women. More than one woman in ten, There are fewer reports of controlling i.e. 12 per cent, states that her behaviour in current relationships than present husband/cohabitant part- in relationships which the women have ner exhibits some degree of con- had previously. trolling behaviour towards her.

31 Six per cent of the women state that make them feel useless and inferior. their husbands/cohabitant partners are Two per cent state that their present jealous and want to know where they husbands/cohabitant partners provoke have been and whom they have met. Four quarrels when they are going to see per cent have been called disparaging relatives or friends and two per cent are names by their present partners and fi ve not allowed to make decisions about per cent feel that their present partners money or buy things they want.

Husband/cohabitant partner jealous 5.8

Makes the woman feel inferior 4.5

Calls the woman disparaging names 3.5

Woman not allowed to make decisions about money 2.2

Provokes quarrel when the woman wants to see relatives and friends 2.1

Threatens to harm himself 1.1

Forbids the woman to see her relatives 0.4

Damages the woman’s belongings 0.3

Forbids the woman to work 0.2

Threatens to harm the children 0.1

0123456

Fig 12. Controlling behaviour by present husband/cohabitant partner (%, N=4 771).

Summary and comments Half of the women who have a former back to this discrepancy in our concluding husband/cohabitant partner report control- discussion and link it to the question of ling behaviour on his part. If the fi gures how the relationship infl uences women’s for controlling behaviour by former interpretation and understanding of the husbands/cohabitant partners are compared violence to which they are subjected. with the reports of controlling behaviour by the women’s present husbands/cohabitant Linkages partners, we can see that the women paint a The material in the prevalence study lighter picture of their current relationships opens the possibility of investigating than of the relationships they have left. Just whether for example there is a linkage, in as was the case with violence, controlling the sense of covariance, i.e. correlation, behaviour seems to have occurred in the between a man’s threatening to hurt a terminated relationships but to be found woman physically and his subjecting her more rarely in the relationships in which to physical and sexual violence.10 women are living today. We shall come

32 Linkages between controlling Present husband Former husband behaviour and violence controlling controlling • Four out of ten women who Ye s No Yes No Violence Yes 44.6 5.9 state that their present husbands/ in present marriage No 51.8 91.1 cohabitant partners are jealous Violence Ye s 63.4 8.8 in former have been subjected to violence marriage No 32.5 90.9 by them. No 3.6 3.0 4.1 0.3 response • Three out of four women Total 100% 100% 100% 100% called disparaging names by their Number 568 4031 1316 1428 present husbands/cohabitant part- Table 3. Correlation between controlling behaviour and ners have been subjected to vio- violence in present and former marriage or cohabitant lence by them. relationship (%).

The material in the study shows strong cent of the women report having been linkages between the man’s employing subjected to violence. controlling behaviour towards the woman The linkages between controlling and his subjecting her to threatened or behaviour and employment of violence are actual physical or sexual violence. also evident in current relationships. For The incidence of controlling behaviour example, 100 per cent of women whose has been described above. Seven out husbands/cohabitant partners threaten of ten women who stated that a former to harm themselves have been subjected to husband/cohabitant partner was jealous violence by them. Of women whose men report having been subjected to violence are jealous, 41 per cent have been subjected by a former partner. Of those called to violence by their husbands/cohabitant disparaging names by a former cohabitant partners. Of women who have been partner or husband, 81 per cent have been called disparaging names by their present subjected to violence, and of women whose husbands/cohabitant partners, nearly three former husbands/cohabitant partners out of four, i.e. 72 per cent, have been provoked quarrels when they were going subjected to violence. In cases where women to see relatives/friends, 80 per cent have state that their present husbands/cohabitant been subjected to violence by a man they partners make them feel inferior and useless, have been married to or cohabiting with. Of more than half, i.e. 52 per cent, have been women whose former husband/cohabitant subjected to violence by them. partner threatened to harm her children Thus the questionnaire shows that or their joint children, 96 per cent were there is a strong linkage between control- subjected to violence. In cases where ling behaviour and the employment of the woman has stated that the former violence. husband/cohabitant partner deliberately damaged her belongings, 92 per cent have been subjected to violence, and where the man threatened to harm himself, 78 per

33 Linkages between threats and rent. Half (i.e. 51 per cent) of women physical violence who have been threatened by a former As was discussed in the section dealing husband/cohabitant partner have also with the conception of continuum, making been subjected to sexual violence. a sharp distinction between threats of Summary and comments violence and actual employment of violence is a complicated matter, as is illustrated The study reveals clear linkages between by the fact that violent acts often include controlling behaviour and violence, and threats of violence which subsequently also between threats and physical violence turn into actual employment of violence. and between threats and sexual violence. Threats can also have a terrifying effect The women’s responses show that the on a woman if the man has used violence various types of violence are intercon- towards her previously. nected; the women have experience The results from the questionnaire show of being subjected to different types a special linkage between the incidence of violence. We can comprehend the of threats and the incidence of physical apparent linkages between controlling violence. Of women subjected to threats behaviour and violence, and between by a former husband/cohabitant partner, threats and employment of physical and nearly nine out of ten, i.e. 88 per cent, sexual violence, from a process perspective, have also been subjected to physical in which the man, by means of physical violence by a former husband/cohabitant and sexual violence combined with threats partner. and controlling behaviour, gradually takes control of and limits the woman’s Threats in Threats in present marriage former marriage personal space. The high frequency of Ye s No Yes No violent experiences that women report from Physical violence Ye s 55.4 6.6 former marriages/cohabitant relationships in present marriage No 43.2 92.7 suggests that the process of violence as an Physical violence Ye s 87.9 13.3 interpretative perspective is of importance in former marriage No 9.4 86.1 when interpreting the answers to the No response 1.4 0.6 2.6 0.7 questionnaire. To distinguish between Total 100% 100% 100% 100% controlling behaviour and threats, or bet- Number 67 4547 514 2149 ween threatened and physical employment of violence, also appears, from a continuum Table 4. Correlation between threats and physical violence in present and former marriage or perspective, not to be a very fruitful way cohabitant relationships. of comprehending the circumstances of the lives of women who have extensive Linkages between threats and experiences of gender-related violence. sexual violence As has been remarked, covariance appears to be most in evidence between physical violence and threats, but a linkage between sexual violence and threats is also appa-

34 Will it ever end? With regard to the most recent former For a woman to leave a man who is marriage/cohabitant relationship in abusing her does not necessarily mean which violence occurred, 33 per cent the end of his violence towards her. On of the women state that they have been the contrary, the violence may escalate threatened by their former partner since if she breaks away, and it does happen the divorce. Thirtythree per cent have that women who are murdered by men received unwanted visits since their divorce have left or been about to leave the man and one woman in fi ve, i.e. 20 per cent, in question. In other cases the man has been followed by her ex-husband. continues to molest and harm the woman One woman in ten has been subjected to by pursuing her and threatening her, physical or sexual violence. with or without physical attacks. Even if the violence does not escalate, the man’s Threats 33 abusive behaviour may continue either Unwelcome visits 33 in the form of physical or sexual violence Waited for or waylaid 20 or by stalking her, loitering around her Physical or sexual violence 9 home or telephoning her. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Fig 13. Women subjected to violence or threats by Violence after a divorce former husband or cohabitant partner after divorce/ separation (% of women with a violent former We asked the women whether their former husband, N=970). husband/cohabitant partner, after their separation, had threatened her face to face Violence in connection with access or by telephone, whether he had come to children after a divorce to her home against her will, whether For a woman who separates from a man he had waited for, waylaid or followed who has used violence against her and her, or whether he had subjected her to with whom she has joint children, access physical violence. to the children may mean that she is Only women who had been subjected to compelled to continue in contact with the violence by a former husband/cohabitant man who violated and abused her. For partner answered these questions, i.e. this reason, our study contained questions 970 women in all. about violence in connection with access. These questions were addressed only to One in three women with a violent women with a former husband/cohabitant former husband/cohabitant partner partner who had been violent.11 The has been threatened by him since the questions about violence, threats and divorce. One in ten women with a harassment in connection with access to violent former husband/cohabitant or contact with joint children, or when partner has been subjected to physical or collecting or handing over the children, sexual violence by the former husband/ are the same as the questions regarding cohabitant partner since the divorce. experiences of violence after the divorce. The questions relate to threats face to face

35 or over the telephone, whether the man Children witnessing and has come to her home against her will, falling victim to violence waited for her or followed her, or whether Little research has been done concerning he has subjected her to physical or sexual the children of abused women. Studies in violence. which children have been asked whether or how they have been affected by violence have revealed that they have witnessed One in four women with a violent former a good deal of violence being employed husband/cohabitant partner by whom against the woman, and in approximately she has children has been subjected to half the cases they have themselves been threats by the former husband/cohabitant subjected to violence by the man.12 The partner in connection with access to women in our study were asked what they children. thought the children had witnessed or heard of the violence infl icted on them Twentyfour per cent of the women (the women), and also what the women stated that they had been subjected to had seen or heard of the physical and threats in connection with access to sexual violence infl icted on the children. children. Four per cent had been subjected Only women who stated that they had to physical or sexual violence by the man or had had a violent husband/cohabitant in connection with access to children. partner answered these questions.13 Seventeen per cent of the women stated that their former husband/cohabitant Children as witnesses partner had come to their home against We asked the women whether any of their their will and eight per cent had expe- children had seen or heard their present rienced the man waiting for, waylaying or former husband/cohabitant partner or following them. behave violently towards her. Summary and comments • More than half the women with When a woman leaves a man the vio- children and a violent former lence does not necessarily cease. One husband/cohabitant partner state woman in three has been subjected to that the children have seen or violence on the part of her violent former heard the man behaving violently husband/cohabitant partner after the towards the woman. divorce/separation. The present study • shows threats to be the form of violence Nearly one woman in three who most commonly employed. Unwanted has children and lives with a vio- visits are also common, and one in fi ve lent present husband/cohabitant women divorced/separated from a violent partner states that the children man has experienced being followed by have seen or heard the man sub- the man since the divorce. Consequently, jecting her to violence. separating from a violent man does not always help a woman.

36 The women’s responses show that More than one woman in fi ve who has children have witnessed a good deal of the violence. Fiftyfour per cent of the women been subjected to violence by a former who have children and have been subjected husband/cohabitant partner states that to violence by a former husband/cohabitant her children have been subjected to partner state that their children have seen physical violence by the man. or heard the former husband/cohabitant partner employing violence towards them Twentyone per cent of women who have (the women). had a former husband/cohabitant partner In current relationships where the hus- who was violent towards them state that band/cohabitant partner has employed their children have been subjected to violence, 29 per cent of respondents state physical violence by the man. that the children have witnessed the Two per cent of women state that violence. their children have been subjected to These fi gures refl ect what the women some form of sexual abuse by the former believe the children have seen and heard. husband/cohabitant partner. Thus it is possible, or even likely, that Five per cent of women with a current even more children have seen or heard husband/cohabitant partner who has violence infl icted on their mother than the subjected them to violence state that women’s responses disclose. their children too have been subjected to physical violence by the man. One woman Children as victims out of 331 states that she has children who For obvious reasons the questions concer- are being sexually abused by the current ning victimised children too were addres- husband/cohabitant partner. sed only to women with children. The questions were directed only to women Summary and comments who have experienced violence on the part We asked about the extent to which women of a former or present husband/cohabitant know whether their children have seen or partner.14 heard them being subjected to violence by We asked the women whether any of a former or present husband/cohabitant their children had been subjected to partner, and also about the extent to violence or any form of sexual abuse which the children have been subjected by the husband/cohabitant partner (or to violence and sexual abuse by the man former husband/cohabitant partner). in question. Thus what emerges from the We did not defi ne either violence or the answers is the women’s perception of what meaning of “any form of sexual abuse”. the children witness, not the children’s (Below we use the terms physical violence own reports. and sexual abuse). More than half the women subjected to violence by a former husband/cohabitant partner state that their children have witnessed or heard the violence. One woman in fi ve states that her children have

37 been subjected to physical violence by the paint a lighter picture of the current former husband/cohabitant partner. relationship in that the children are It is a traumatic experience for children reported as neither witnessing nor being to be forced to see or hear a parent being subjected to violence by current violent assaulted. It is impossible to defi ne the husbands/cohabitant partners to the same boundaries between a child as a witness or extent as was the case with the men that as a victim of violence; when a man infl icts the women have divorced or separated on a child the awareness that its mother from. is being abused, the child itself becomes a It is possible that as well as refl ecting victim of the violence. the facts, the difference between the The responses from women who have reports relating to former and current had children in a violent relationship which husbands/cohabitant partners respectively is now terminated - i.e. the responses may illustrate the diffi culty which the relating to former husbands/cohabitant women have in seeing and admitting partners – show a higher level of reports of that the children too are affected by the children having seen or heard violence than violence to which they themselves are those from women who are currently in a being subjected.15 violent relationship. The fi gures reporting the extent to which children have been Violence by boyfriends with subjected to violence in the terminated whom the woman has not relationships are likewise higher. It is four cohabited times as common for children to have been The questions concerning violence by subjected to violence by a former violent boyfriends were answered by 5 261 husband/cohabitant partner than to have women,16 and it is on these responses that been so subjected by a current one. the fi gures in this section are based. Exactly as is the case with the questions about violence by former husbands/ • 15 per cent of women have been cohabitant partners and current husbands/ subjected to violence by a boyfriend. cohabitant partners respectively, women

54 Children have seen/heard violence 29

Children subjected to physical violence 21 5 Former marriage

Children subjected to sexual abuse 2 Present marriage 0

0 102030405060 Fig 14. Women stating that the children have witnessed or been subjected to violence by present or former husband or cohabitant partner (% of women subjected to violence and with children, non- responses not included).

38 The questions pertaining to experiences by a man with whom they have had a of violence infl icted by men with whom sexual relationship but never cohabited. the women have or have had a sexual No major differences are observable in relationship but never cohabited are not terms of the women’s marital status. as detailed as those relating to violence by • 35 per cent of women subjected current and former husbands/cohabitant to physical violence were abused partners. Instead of the relatively specifi c in their own home on the last questions about physical violence, only one occasion. question was asked, the term physical violence being defi ned as “e.g. being struck Sexual violence on the face or body, being pushed, forced In total, eleven per cent of women state against a wall, kicked, held in order to be that they have been subjected to violence struck, bitten, cut with a knife or shot”. by a man with whom they have or have Two questions were asked regarding threats had a sexual relationship but have not of physical violence, the fi rst relating to cohabited. Of women with experience being threatened face to face and the of sexual violence by a boyfriend, 74 second to threats by letters or telephone. per cent report at least one experience The questions regarding sexual violence in the last year. were the same as those relating to current or Fourteen per cent of women in the former husbands/cohabitant partners. 18-24 age group have been subjected to violence by a boyfriend, while the Sexual violence 11 corresponding fi gure for the 55-64 age Physical violence 7 group is six per cent. Of single women Threats 5 without children, 14 per cent have been

Total violence 15 subjected to violence by a man with whom

0 5 10 15 they have or have had a sexual relationship but have not cohabited. Fig 15. Women subjected to violence by boyfriend, by type of violence (%, N=5 261). • Of women subjected to sexual Physical violence violence by a boyfriend, 28 per In total, seven per cent of women have cent were abused in their own experienced physical violence by a partner home on the last occasion and 29 with whom they have never cohabited, per cent were abused in someone and fi fty per cent of these report at least else’s home. one violent experience during the last year. Experience of violence is most common among women aged 25-34, nine per Threats cent of this age group having had such In total, five per cent of women who experience. In the highest age groups, have or have had a sexual relationship three per cent of women state that they with a man without cohabiting have been have been subjected to physical violence threatened by him. Fortyfi ve per cent of

39 these women report having been threatened women aged 18-24 compared with one at least once in the last year. per cent of women over 45 have been subjected to violence by a boyfriend in the last year. • Four out of ten women who have been threatened by a present or Pysical violence Sexual violence Threats N former boyfriend were threatened 18-24 8.9 13.6 6.9 751 in their own home on the last 25-34 9.4 12.4 7.5 1256 occasion. 35-44 6.5 12.7 5.5 1213 45-54 4.7 8.9 3.7 1187 55-64 2.7 5.7 2.1 853

Age Table 5. Type of violence by boyfriend, by woman’s age (% of age groups). There are relatively large differences between the various age groups. Reports of violence by boyfriends with whom the woman had Summary and comments not cohabited fall as age rises. Younger women are more liable to violence on the part of boyfriends than are older The youngest women make the most women, and the differences are fairly reports, one in five women in this large. For abused women, violence is not group, i.e.19 per cent, having been far away, and this applies to all types subjected to violence by a boyfriend. of violence. Sexual violence is the most commonly occurring type. Even if the Of the oldest age group, 55-64 years of woman is not living with the man, much age, approximately eight per cent report of the violence against her takes place in experience of violence in this kind of her own home. The home is thus not a relationship. The differences are even free zone even if the woman in question is bigger for violent experiences in the last not cohabiting with the man with whom year; approximately six per cent of the she has a sexual relationship.

1 Heiskanen & Pispa 1998, Statistics Canada 1993 2 The “divorced” group comprises women who have been married and are not currently cohabiting with a man. There are 425 such women in this material. 3 This question includes an element in which the respondent is asked whether the man has threatened her with or used a knife, fi rearm or any other weapon. This question is part of the basis of calculation of the incidence of physical violence. See the section above on “Violence as a continuum” for a discussion of the underlying problems of breaking violence down into different categories. 4 Since internal dropout is included in the calculations, the total sum does not amount to 100 per cent. 5 See footnote 54. 6 Because of an error in the printing of the questionnaire, the question about threats by the current husband/cohabitant partner disappeared. The fi gures pertaining to threats from present husband/cohabitant partner are thus based on a threat variable constructed from questions 51:8, 51:10 and 59. Measurement of threats from the present husband/cohabitant partner is therefore probably underestimated compared with that of threats from the former husband/cohabitant partner. 7 Kelly 1988

40 8 The term controlling behaviour has been chosen having in mind that these actions are presumed to imply a possibility of controlling the woman’s personal space, which, in accordance with the conceptions of violence as a continuum and the normalisation of violence, may be even more effective if the man also subjects the woman to violence or threats of violence. 9 Thus the way we have asked the questions differs from how we asked the women about their experiences of violence. In the section on controlling behaviour, the woman has had to comment on the character of her husband/cohabiting partner rather than concrete actions as is the case with questions pertaining to violence. 10 However, these linkages tell us nothing about the causal relation between the circumstances being studied, i.e. nothing about whether for example controlling behaviour causes violence. It is not possible to draw such conclusions and it is important to keep in mind that the linkages which we are studying have no bearing on causality. 11 Christensen 1990, Lundgren 1994. 12 The fi gures in this question are based on the number of women responding to the question with yes or no (N=497). Consequently women stating that they have no children with the man in question or who have answered Don’t know/Don’t remember are not included. 13 The questionnaire does not tell us how many women have children, their own or joint, from the various relationships. Therefore unless stated otherwise, the fi gures are based on the number of women who have answered yes or no to the questions about whether their children have witnessed violence or been subjected to violence themselves by a man with whom the woman has or has had a sexual relationship. These questions (questions 61 and 72) are addressed only to women with children. Thus, those not responding and those answering Don’t know/Don’t remember (these answers cannot be distinguished from one another in the coding) are not included in the fi gures. Out of 970 women with a violent former husband/cohabitant partner and 477 with a violent present one, 498 and 331 respectively answered yes or no to the questions enquiring whether the children had witnessed or heard the violence. 14 The question enquiring whether the children had been subjected to physical violence by a former husband/cohabiting partner was answered by 509 women, and the method of calculation explained in footnote 63 has been applied. The question was answered by 335 women with a violent present husband/cohabitant partner. 15 Mellberg 2002. 16 Boyfriend signifi es a man with whom a woman has or has had a sexual relationship but not cohabited.

41 CHAPTER 3

Violence outside sexual relationships

The category of men outside sexual tionship, and nearly one woman in three relationships comprises all men with whom aged 35-44 has had such experiences. a woman does not have and has not had a sexual relationship.1 For example they may In total, 30 per cent of women have had be colleagues, friends, teachers or men with experience of being subjected to violence whom the woman is unacquainted. The by a man outside a sexual relationship. questions in this section were put to all Reports of violence by men outside sexual women responding to the questionnaire. relationships differ between age groups. As with the questions relating to violence Again, the level of reporting is consistently committed by boyfriends, the questions much lower by women aged 55-64 than about physical violence by men outside by other age groups. sexual relationships are less detailed than those about such violence by men with whom the woman has or has had a close 34 relationship. In this section only one 18-24 15 question was asked about physical violence 2 32 25-34 and two about threats. On the other 6 hand, we asked for more details about 35 where the violence occurred and who 35-44 5 perpetrated it. 3 The questions about 28 sexual violence in this section of the 45-54 3 questionnaire are the same as for the Ever 19 other types of relationships. 55-64 Last 12 mths 2 Extent, type of violence 0102030 and frequency Fig 16. Women subjected to violence outside a In total, 30 per cent of the women have sexual relationship, by woman’s age (%). been subjected to violence by a man outside a sexual relationship. Four out of ten of these women state that the most recent Physical violence perpetrator was a colleague, fellow-student, In total, nine per cent of women have friend or acquaintance or neighbour. been subjected to physical violence by More than half of the women’s most recent a man outside a sexual relationship at experiences of violence outside sexual some point after their fi fteenth birthday. relationships consisted of sexual violence. The differences between the various age One in four women has been subjected groups are relatively large. Twelve per to sexual violence by a man outside a rela- cent of women aged 18-24 have been

42 subjected to physical violence by a man defend themselves. Twentytwo per cent outside a sexual relationship, whereas of the women have been touched in a the corresponding percentage for women sexual way against their will by a man aged 55-64 is four. with whom they have not had a sexual relationship. Sexual violence One woman in four has experienced • Altogether 13 per cent of women sexual violence on the part of a man with have been subjected to gross whom she does not have and has not had sexual violence outside sexual a sexual relationship. Such experiences relationships are most common among the younger half of the cohort studied; of women aged 18-24, 28 per cent report such experiences, Threats of women aged 25-34, 27 per cent, and In total, nine per cent of women have of women aged 35-44, 31 per cent. In been threatened once or several times the 55-64 age group, 17 per cent have by a man with whom they do not have experienced sexual violence outside sexual and have not had a sexual relationship. relationships. Seven per cent have experience of being threatened face to face and three per cent In total, fi ve per cent of all women taking have been threatened by telephone part in the study have been forced at least once into some form of sexual activity Frequency of violence by a man outside a sexual relationship. The women who reported experiences Nine per cent of all women responding of violence by men outside a sexual to the questionnaire state that they have relationship were asked how many times experience of a man outside a sexual they had been subjected to violence in relationship attempting to force them into the last year and earlier. The answers sexual activity by threatening, holding or show the women to have had more than hurting them in some way. Five per cent one violent experience. Sixty per cent of state that a man has forced them or women with experience of violence by tried to force them into some form of men outside sexual relationships report sexual activity when they were under the more than one instance of violence. infl uence of drugs or otherwise unable to In the Sexual violence 25 last year Earlier Total Once 48.7 33.8 35.1 Physical violence 9 2-10 times 41.6 53.4 52.6 Threats 9 11-50 times 2.0 6.5 6.2 >50 times 0.3 1.9 1.8 30 Total violence Don´t know /no response 7.4 4.3 4.3 0 10 20 30 N = 346 1805 1928

Fig 17. Women subjected to violence outside a Table 6. Frequency of violence outside sexual relationship, by type of violence (%, N=6 926). relationship (column per cent).

43 Eight per cent of the women with such Fourteen per cent of the most recent experience report more than ten occur- violent incidents consisted of the man rences. Over one third, viz 35 per cent, forcing or attempting to force the woman report one violent experience. into some kind of sexual activity, either by threatening, holding or hurting her in The most recent some way, or else when she was unable to violent experience defend herself, e.g. because she was asleep We know that violence infl icted on women or under the infl uence of drugs. Fortytwo by their partners takes place indoors per cent of the most recent violent incidents for the most part, often in the woman’s happened when a man with whom the own home. In order to gain increased woman did not have and had not had a knowledge of the violence employed sexual relationship touched her in a sexual towards women by men outside sexual way against her will, e.g. by holding, relationships, questions about the most hugging or kissing her, by a man with recent experience of violence outside a whom the woman did not have and had sexual relationship were put to the women not had a sexual relationship. One in with experience of such violence. The ten women reported physical violence as questions concerned the type of violence constituting the last abuse and ten per to which she was subjected, when the cent reported threats. incident took place and who the man was.4 A total of 2 046 women were in this Who abused the woman? group, but the internal dropout varies. According to the women’s replies, the most The fi gures below include the internal common abusers are men who are known dropout and are calculated from the 2 to the women (e.g. friends, neighbours 046 women who replied that they had and work colleagues). More than four experience of being subjected to violence out of ten women report that the man by a man outside sexual relationship. who most recently abused them was a work colleague, fellow-pupil, a friend, When was the most recent acquaintance or a neighbour. Five per cent violent incident? were abused on the most recent occasion by In total, 38 per cent of the women subjected their superior at work supervisor or teacher to violence by men with whom they do not and seven per cent by a male relative. In a have and have not had a sexual relationship little less than one third of the cases, the experienced such violence in the last fi ve perpetrator was an unknown man. years. For 16 per cent of the women, the most recent violent incident occurred less Where does violence take place? than a year ago. A little under one third of the most recent violent incidents reported by women What type of violence did the most involving men with whom they do not recent experience consist of? have and have not had a sexual relationship In total, more than half of the most recent took place at home, i.e. the woman’s own violent incidents consisted of sexual violence. home or someone else’s. Thirteen per cent

44 of the women were assaulted at work or Where did sexual violence in school. Slightly over one third of the take place? women report that the most recent violent It is not unusual for women to be subjected incident occurred in a public place, indoors to sexual violence in public places. One or outdoors, half of them at a restaurant out of every fi ve women who reported or dance hall. that her most recent violent experience was of a sexual nature was assaulted at a Where did physical violence restaurant or dance hall. In 14 per cent of take place? cases, the most recent incident occurred Twent y fi ve per cent of the women whose in the woman’s own home, while 15 per most recent experience of violence was cent were assaulted in someone else’s physical report that it took place in their home. Twelve per cent of the women had own home. Altogether 40 per cent of the been assaulted at school or at work and most recent physical violence occurred six per cent in a street, square or some in a home environment (their own or other public place outdoors. someone else’s home, or in the courtyard or stairway of a block of fl ats). Eleven Where do threats take place? per cent were assaulted in school or at Of the women who stated their most recent work, 13 per cent at a restaurant or dance violent experience to consist of threats, hall and twelve per cent in a public place 29 per cent were threatened in their own outdoors (e.g. a street or square). home. Nine per cent were in someone else’s home. Fifteen per cent of the women were threatened at school or at work, nine per cent at a restaurant or dance hall and ten

Own home 17

Restaurant or dance hall 16

Someone else’s home 14

School/work 13

Other indoor location 7

Public place (street or square) 7

Other outdoor location 5

Car 3

Courtyard/stairs 2

Park/wood 2

Public transport 2

No response 12

0 24 6 8 10 1214 16 Fig 18. Location at which the most recent violent incident outside a sexual relationship occurred (% of women indicating a location, N=1 963).

45 per cent in a public place outdoors such must also take in the violence – of which as a street or square. the sexual variety seems to be particularly widespread – to which women are subjected Summary and comments by the men in the environment in which Violence against women on the part of they move, such as friends, acquaintances, men with whom they do not have a sexual colleagues, neighbours and superiors at relationship is widespread. Nearly one work. The women’s responses also seem woman in three has experienced this. to indicate that there are no free zones; Sexual violence is particularly prevalent, one violence can occur in a woman’s own in every four women having experienced it, home as well as in public places, in the and half of what were reported as the most streets or in parks. recent violent incidents outside a sexual relationship were of a sexual nature. In Worry about violence general the oldest women report markedly We asked the women whether they were fewer violent experiences than other worried in case of being subjected to age groups, while the reporting of such violence when walking home alone in the experiences by women aged 18-24, 25-34 dark or of being raped by an unknown and 35-44 is fairly similar. man. The responses are consolidated as What emerges from the women’s respon- worry about violence. ses is that violence is not a matter of isolated Women aged 18-24 report the highest incidents. Nearly two thirds of the women level of worry about violence; 85 per state that they have been subjected to cent in this age group worry about it. Of violence outside a relationship between women aged 25-34, 79 per cent worry two and over fi fty times. Just under four in case of being subjected to violence. out of ten women have been subjected to The lowest level of reporting such worry violence in the last fi ve years. is found among women aged 55-64, of If we look at the most recent violent whom 49 per cent worry about being incidents, in most cases these have involved subjected to violence. a man known to the woman. Only a little Women between the ages of 18 and under one third of the women report 24 are the age group most frequently the last assault as being by an unknown subjected to violence in the last year. One man. in fi ve women in this group has been The public debate has revolved largely 80 85 around violence infl icted on women by 79 husbands/cohabitant partners. In the 60 63 light of the picture which emerges from 58 49 women’s reports of violence outside sexual 40 relationships, it seems necessary to widen 20 the scope of the public debate concerning violence against women. Our study shows 0 clearly that scrutiny cannot remain focused 18-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 Fig 19. Women worried in case of being subjected on so-called partner violence alone, but to violence, by age groups (%).

46 subjected to violence by a man during to violence by a man since their fi fteenth this period. Women in this group are also birthday. In the light of this, women’s the ones most fearful of violence. Three worries, both in our study and in the SCB quarters of women aged 18-24 are afraid study, appear well founded. Women’s fear of walking home alone in the dark and thus corresponds to a violent reality. There two thirds are afraid of being raped by an is also a linkage between worry about unknown man. Of women aged 25-34, 71 violence and being subjected to it inasmuch per cent are afraid of walking home alone as younger women worry the most and after dark and 56 per cent are afraid of it is this group which is most frequently being raped by an unknown man. subjected to violence. More than one in fi ve women between 18 and 24 years of age has Summary and comments been subjected to some type of violence, Statistics Sweden (Statistiska centralbyrån, i.e. physical or sexual violence or threats, SCB) has published a study on women’s in the last year. and men’s worries about violence in Since there is a linkage between worry which comparisons are made between about violence and subjection to violence, worry about violence and so-called actual the worry cannot be separated from the exposure. A frequently-cited statistical violence but should be viewed in context picture of worry about violence, taken with women’s experiences of gender-related from the SCB’s so-called ULF study,5 is violence. The worry then becomes more that women worry more than men about than “just” worry: it becomes part of the violence but men are more frequently experience that violence exists as a reality in subjected to it. The message underlying many women’s lives. Taking the results of the statistics seems to be that women this study as a starting point and applying worry unnecessarily.6 the concept of violence as a continuum, The results produced by our study, worry about violence can be placed at one however, seem to show that violence to end of a scale running from grossly violent women is considerably more widespread acts via “milder” types of control, such than the fi gures in the ULF study suggest. as controlling behaviour, to the worry Our study shows that 46 per cent of which women feel about being subjected women in Sweden have been subjected to violence.

1 Husbands, cohabitant partners and boyfriends are included in the category of men with whom the woman concerned has had a sexual relationship. 2 The term physical violence is defi ned as “e.g. being struck on the face or body, being pushed, forced against a wall, kicked, held in order to be struck, bitten, cut with a knife or shot”. The questions about threats relate to threats face to face and threats by telephone or letter. 3 This section of the questionnaire also included questions on sexual harassment, but the results of the latter are reported in a section of their own below. 4 Not all women who stated that they had been subjected to violence responded to the questions about the most recent violent experience. The dropout is highest, i.e. 25 per cent, in respect of the question asking what the woman was subjected to most recently but signifi cantly lower for the questions about when it happened, where and by whom. Since the internal dropout is included, the total does not add up to 100 per cent in the fi gures given below. 5 På tal om kvinnor och män. Lathund om jämställdhet. Statistiska centralbyrån 2000. 6 Ibid.

47 CHAPTER 4

The most recent violent incident, regardless of relationship

Part of the questionnaire deals with most recent occasion. Physical violence violence experienced by the respondent constituted 27 per cent of the most recent in various types of relationship, including violent incidents. the most recent violent experience outside a sexual relationship, while another • One third of the most recent part focuses on the most recent violent violent incidents reported involved incident regardless of relationship. By sexual violence. asking questions about the most recent experience some idea may be gained about • In half of the most recent violent the general nature of violence towards incidents reported, the perpetrator women. We therefore asked all women was a man known to the woman. who reported some violent experience or • More than one woman in three experiences to answer questions about states that the perpetrator of the their most recent one.1 most recent violent incident was a man with whom they have or have The most recent violent incident, had a sexual relationship. by type of violence • Nearly one woman in fi ve with The most recent violent incident for 40 experience of violence states that per cent of women consisted of threats. physical violence on the part of a Sexual violence was the second most man with whom she has or has common form, 33 per cent of women had a sexual relationship consti- having been subjected to this on the tuted her most recent violent expe-

45 rience. 40 • The location at which violence is 40 35 most commonly reported to have 30 33 occurred is the victim’s own home. 25 27 35 per cent of women were sub- 20 15 jected to violence in their own 10 home on the most recent occasion. 5 • One woman in fi ve was in a public 0 Sexual Physical Threats 2 place outdoors (street or square) violence violence or in some other outdoor location (a park or wood) when the most Fig 20. Most recent violent incident regardless of recent violent incident occurred. relationship (% of respondents, N=1 377).

48 What kind of violence, in what kind for the perpetrator to be a man known to of relationship? the woman as it is for him to be unknown. Of the most recent violent incidents In 34 per cent of cases, the violence reported, one of the most common is was committed by a man with whom physical violence on the part of a man the woman had a sexual relationship. In a with whom the woman has or has had total of 51 per cent of cases, the perpetrator a sexual relationship. Eighteen per cent of the most recent violent incident was of women state this to be the most recent known to the woman, compared with 49 violent incident. A similar proportion of per cent of cases in which the perpetrator women, 18 per cent, state the most recent was an unknown man. incident to have been a man exposing himself indecently to them. The third most Unknown 49 Within a sexual common violent incident, reported by relationship 34 eleven per cent of women, involves threats Other by a man with whom the respondent has known man 17 or has had a sexual relationship. Ten per 02040 cent of women reported their most recent Fig 21. Perpetrator of the most recent assault violent experience to have consisted of (% of respondents, N=1 377). being touched in a sexual way against their will by an unknown man. If it is possible to draw conclusions as to Where did violence take place? the general nature of violence by asking The most recent violent incident in 35 per questions about the most recent violent cent of cases took place in the woman’s experience, the results derived from the own home and in eleven per cent of cases questionnaire reveal it to be as common in someone else’s home. Three per cent

Own home 35

Street/square 12

Someone else’s home 11

Restaurant or dance hall 9

School/work 8

Park/wood 6

Other outdoor location 6

Other indoor location 4

Public transport 3

Courtyard/stairs 3

Car 2

0 5 101520253035

Fig 22. Location at which the most recent violent incident occurred (% of respondents, N=1 608).

49 occurred in the courtyard or stairway of Summary and comments a block of fl ats. This means that half of Of the most recent violent experiences, one the most recent violence perpetrated on of the most common is physical violence on these women occurred either inside or the part of a man with whom the woman adjacent to a dwelling. Twelve per cent of has or has had a sexual relationship. If women suffered their most recent violent the most recent violent experiences are experience in a street, square or some broken down into physical violence, sexual other public place. In all, 24 per cent of violence and threats, threats are the most the violence is reported to have occurred common. In one third of cases the women outdoors in a public place, in a wood or had been subjected to sexual violence park or some other outdoor location. during the most recent violent incident. Nine per cent of the women were at a The commonest place for violence to be restaurant or dancehall on the most recent committed is the woman’s own home. The occasion they were subjected to violence, women’s experiences of violence occurred and eight per cent had their most recent fairly recently; in half the cases the most experience of violence either at school recent occasion was during the last fi ve or at work. years, and for one fi fth of the women it was less than a year ago. When did it take place? • 21 per cent of women had their most recent violent experi- ence less than a year ago.

In 29 per cent of cases, the most recent incident of violence occurred 1-5 years ago. Altogether half the women have suffered such abuse in the last fi ve years. In 18 per cent of cases, the most recent incident occurred 6-10 years ago, while 32 per cent of the women had their most recent experience more than ten years ago.

1 However, only half of the women reporting violent experiences since their fi fteenth birthday answered the questions in this section. Thus the fi gures in this chapter, unless stated otherwise, are based on those women who did answer the questions in this section, not on the total number of women reporting violent experiences since their fi fteenth birthday. The reasons for the dropout cannot be established. A possible interpretation is that the women themselves do not regard what they experienced as constituting violence. 2 Questions about indecent exposure were asked only in this section and the section on sexual harassment. In this section, experience of a man exposing himself indecently is assigned to the threats category. Sexual harassment has not been categorised as violence.

50 CHAPTER 5

Where do women seek help?

Was the most recent violent half of the women with experience of experience reported violence according the questionnaire. The to the police? percentages are based on the number of Some of the questions put to respondents women responding to these questions.2 concerning the most recent violent incident The questionnaire contains a question were designed to discover whether the enquiring whether the women reported women, and if so how many of them, the most recent violent incident to the police. report violent incidents to the police, The response options were “yes”, “no” and and also what crimes – if any – are most “no, but the police found out about the commonly so reported. incident in some other way”. The question In 1999, when the data for this study was answered by 1 740 women. were collected, 19 982 reports of violence against women were fi led with the police. • Only 15 per cent of the women The National Council for Crime Preven- reported the most recent violent tion (Brottsförebyggande Rådet, BRÅ), incident to the police. estimates that only about 25 per cent • of all violent crimes come to the notice In 81 per cent of cases, the of the police.1 It is generally thought by most recent violent incident did criminologists that many cases of violence not come to the notice of the against women go unrecorded. Thus the police. circumstances surrounding the violence inflicted on women by men in close Fifteen per cent of women replied that relationships indicate that much violent they reported the incident to the police. crime against women remains unknown Four per cent replied that they did not to the police and judiciary. make a report but the police found out In this study, a total of 3 193 women about it anyway. A total of 1 416 women stated that they had been subjected to replied that they did not report the violence at least once since their fi fteenth incident to the police nor did the police birthday. However, not all of these women fi nd out about it in some other way. answered the questions in the section of Why did the women not report the questionnaire dealing with the most the most recent violent incident recent violent incident. The number of women replying to the questions in this to the police? section varies between 1 400 and 1 750 In total, 1 416 women replied to the depending on the question, i.e. on average question why they did not report the most the questions were answered by about recent incident of violence to the police.

51 They were asked to indicate whether it be involved, and as many again, eight was because they did not think the police per cent, said that they did not think the would believe them, because the police police would be able to do anything. Six would not be able to do anything, because per cent of the women gave feelings of the incident was too trivial, because they shame as their reason for not reporting were ashamed or had feelings of guilt, the most recent violent incident to the because they were afraid the perpetrator police. About one half per cent of the might take revenge, because they did women said that they refrained from not want the police to be involved, or making a report because they did not because they did not want the perpetrator think the police would believe them. to go to prison. Type of violence • Nearly half of the women who If the women’s responses are broken down did not report the most recent vio- according to the type of violence to which lent incident to the police stated they were subjected most recently, we fi nd the reason for this to be that they that of the women whose most recent thought the incident was too tri- violent experience consisted of sexual vial. violence and who did not report it to the police, 51 per cent stated the reason to have Nearly half, i.e. 46 per cent, of the been that they thought the incident was women who did not make a report state too trivial. Eleven per cent of the women the reason to have been that they thought had feelings of shame and fi ve per cent did the incident was too trivial. Eight per cent not want to involve the police. said the reason for not making a report Of women who were subjected to was that they did not want the police to physical violence during the most recent

Type of violence in most recent incident

Reason no police report made: Sexual Physical Threats

Police would not believe 1.1 0.3 0.2

Police would not be able to do anything 6.3 4.1 14.3

Too trivial 50.7 45.8 50.2

Feelings of shame 11.2 4.9 0.9

Fear of revenge 1.2 4.9 2.9

Did not want police involved 4.8 4 17.2 5.

Perpetrator might go to prison 0.5 1.1 0.2

Other reason 11.1 11.0 11.5

No response 13.0 10.8 14.4 Total 100% 100% 100% N = 415 288 450

Table 7. Most recent violent incident not reported to the police. Type of violence and reason.

52 violent incident but did not make a • police report, 46 per cent replied that the Only 8 per cent of women sub- incident was too trivial to be reported. In jected to sexual violence during 17 per cent of cases the women replied their most recent violent experi- that they did not want to involve the ence reported the incident to the police, fi ve per cent said they had feelings police. of shame and fi ve per cent were afraid the perpetrator might take revenge. The propensity to make a report is low Of the women whose most recent violent regardless of the kind of perpetrator; 13 experience consisted of threats, 50 per cent per cent of women whose most recent stated as their reason for not reporting violent experience was at the hands of it that the incident was too trivial. Five an unknown man reported the incident to per cent said they did not want to involve the police. One woman in ten whose most the police. Three per cent were afraid recent violent experience was at the hands the perpetrator might take revenge and of a present or former husband/cohabitant 14 per cent did not think that the police partner reported the incident to the police. would be able to do anything. Where the perpetrator was another man whom the woman knew, nine per cent What types of violence in what made a report to the police.3 relationships do women (not) report? If the women’s most recent violent experiences are divided into categories The following figures are based on the according to type of violence – viz threats, number of women who stated, in respect physical and sexual violence - we see of the most recent violent incident, the type that physical violence is most commonly of violence and type of relationship, and who reported to the police. Of the women answered the question whether they reported whose most recent violent experience the incident to the police. There were 1 378 consisted of physical violence, 16 per women in this category all told. cent reported the incident to the police. The women show no major differences Where threats constituted the most recent pertaining to the relationship with the violent experience, 15 per cent of women perpetrator in their propensity to report made a report to the police.Sexual violence the most recent violent experience. The is least commonly reported; eight per propensity to make a report lies between cent of the women whose most recent 9 and 13 per cent irrespective of whether violent experience was of a sexual nature reported it to the police. the perpetrator is unknown, known or Unknown someone with whom the woman has or perpetrator 13 has had a sexual relationship. Thus, Perpetrator within a 11 this also applies to women whose most sexual relationship Other known 9 recent violent experience consisted of perpetrator

violence on the part of a current or former 0 5 10 husband/cohabitant partner. Fig 23. Propensity to report, by type of perpetrator (%, N = 1 377).

53 Summary and comments Then where do women seek Only 15 per cent of women reported the help if subjected to violence most recent violent incident to the police, by a man in a sexual and according to the women’s responses relationship? over 80 per cent of the most recent violent We asked questions about whether the incidents were not brought to the police’s women sought assistance from any service attention. Our data disclose no major or agency – apart from the police – in differences relating to the perpetrator in connection with having been subjected the women’s propensity to report. On the to violence by a husband/cohabitant other hand, sexual violence appears to be the partner. The respondent was supposed type of violence which women have the least to answer them by reference to the most propensity to report. recent “violent relationship”, i.e. present The low proportion of women reporting or former husband/cohabitant partner the most recent violent incident to the depending on the relationship in which police suggests that women do not consider the woman was subjected to violence it to be of any use to seek help from most recently. The response options given the police by reporting the violence to were women’s refuge, victim support, which they have been subjected. There social emergency services, social welfare may be some link here with the women’s secretary, lawyer, family counselling, responses indicating the reasons for not psychiatrist, other medical services or making a police report. Nearly half the “other services”. We also asked whether women state that no police report was the women were satisfi ed or dissatisfi ed made because they thought the incident with the help received. The basis for was too trivial. One interpretation of the fi gures in this section comprises 1 the women’s reluctance to contact the 373 women, i.e. the number of women police is that women have a propensity to replying either that they were subjected to play down the violence to which they are violence by a former husband/cohabitant subjected, especially when the violence partner or that they are being subjected to is of a sexual nature. The fact that only violence in their current relationship. The about half of the women stating that they dropout in this part of the questionnaire had had experience of violence answered is large, viz about 40 per cent.4 the questions about the most recent violent incident may also be interpreted as an • One third of the women with a indication that the violence is minimised violent current or former husband/ by the women themselves. cohabitant partner sought help from some service or agency. • The women seek help most com- monly from the medical services.

One third of the women who live or have lived with a man employing violence

54 towards them sought help. These women victim support, 75 per cent were satisfi ed and most commonly seek help from the of those applying to a women’s refuge, 70 medical services. Twelve per cent applied per cent. The highest level of dissatisfaction to a psychiatrist and nine per cent to is found among women applying to the other medical services. Twelve per cent social services: more than one woman approached family counselling agencies. in two who sought help from the social Eleven per cent of women sought assistance emergency services was dissatisfi ed with the from a lawyer and nine per cent from response. Of those who sought help from a social welfare secretary. Five per cent family counselling agencies, 46 per cent were of women state that they applied to a dissatisfi ed, while the corresponding fi gure women’s refuge, four per cent to the social for those who approached a social welfare emergency service and two per cent to secretary was 44 per cent dissatisfaction. victim support. The largest proportion of women satisfi ed Summary and comments with the response to their approach was It may be assumed that when women seek found among those who sought assistance help, one of the factors infl uencing their from health and medical services (not choice of agency is how they themselves including psychiatric care); 84 per cent of regard the violence to which they are these women expressed satisfaction with being subjected. Our data indicate that the help received. The corresponding fi gure most of these women’s approaches are for women seeking psychiatric help is 66 made to the psychiatric and other medical per cent. Of the women who approached a services, which may indicate that the lawyer, 77 per cent report satisfaction with women interpret the violence in terms of the assistance received. Of those applying to psychological disorder or physical illness. Another possible reason why women choose to approach the medical services Psychiatrist 66% 13 is that having delayed rather a long time

Family counselling 54% 12 before seeking assistance, in the end they incur quite serious psychological damage Lawyer 77% 11 as a result of the violence, or alternatively Other medical service 84% 9 that the violence eventually causes serious physical injuries. The proportion of Social welfare secretary 56% 9 women applying to women’s refuges is Women’s refuge 70% 5 relatively small, i.e. fi ve per cent.

Social emergency service 45% 4 The women’s assessment of the help % satisfied with help provided indicates that services focusing % dissatisfied with help Victim support 75% 2 on safeguarding the interests of women, 02468 10 12 such as medical services, lawyers, women’s

Fig 24. Services and agencies approached by refuge and victim support, receive the abused women, and women’s satisfaction with the highest satisfaction rating. However, help received (% of women subjected to violence by present or former husband/cohabitant partner, many women were dissatisfi ed with the N=1 373). assistance given by the social services.

55 Putting the abused woman, her interests she receives. It is also possible that an and situation at the centre of the picture agency’s knowledgeability on the subject when dealing with her case may infl uence of violence may play a role in how the her level of satisfaction with the help woman evaluates its help.

1 According to Heimer & Nylén 1999, p 3. On the number of cases of assault and battery of women, see htp://www.bra.se/extra/statistics/extraview. 2 The reasons for the dropout cannot be established, though here too a possible interpretation, cf footnote 74, is that the women themselves do not consider what they experienced to have been violence, and therefore had not thought it possible to report it to the police. 3 These figures do not indicate the general propensity to make a report to the police, but they do reveal the extent to which the women have reported the most recent violent experience depending on who the perpetrator was. 4 The internal dropout is included in the fi gures for the number of women applying for help. The fi gures showing the proportion of women satisfi ed/dissatisfi ed with the help received are based on the actual number of women stating that they sought help from each service respectively.

56 CHAPTER 6

Violence, a question of health and living conditions?

Previous studies of violence/health have Physical and psychological focused primarily on women seeking disorders and violent treatment. When the sample has been experiences based on women seeking treatment, a Women were asked in the questionnaire correlation has been found between the to assess their state of health, the response incidence of physical and psychological options being excellent, very good, good, disorders among the women and their fairly good, poor and very poor. Two having had experiences of violence.1 Since questions followed probing more closely women with experience of violence are into the women’s state of health. The more prone to seek treatment than women fi rst of these asked the women to assess without it, it is diffi cult to generalise the whether they had suffered from any one results derived from clinical selections as or more of a number of listed physical being applicable to the female population conditions in the previous month and if as a whole.2 However, even in studies so, whether they had suffered much or in which a random selection of women little as a result. The conditions listed were has been questioned, correlations have headaches, recurrent pain in other parts of been found between physical and sexual the body, stomach trouble, numbness violence on the one hand and depression3 of arms/legs, palpitation of the heart, and gynaecological problems 4 on the nausea or vomiting, dizziness, trembling other, and between sexual violence and of the hands, and heavy perspiration not backache5. following bodily exertion. The second of Our questionnaire was focused on the two questions concerned psychological studying the extent of violence to women conditions in the previous month and and the types of violent experience whether the women had suffered much women have. It also opens possibilities or little from them. These were over- of investigating what correlations may exertion, impaired memory or impaired exist between violent experiences and concentration, weakness or tiredness, health. The knowledge gained from earlier sleeplessness, nervousness, irritability, qualitative studies of the consequences depression, and fi nally a sense of “everything of violence indicates that violence and becoming too much” for them. health are connected, and that violence Women subjected to violence tend to can be regarded as amounting to changes suffer both more intensely and from for the worse in the living conditions of a greater number of physical ailments than the women subjected to it.6 do women who do not report any violent

57 experiences. There is a correlation between emerges from the other more specific experiencing violence and suffering from questions about health is that many of the psychological disorders. Women who have women do suffer from some disorders. been subjected to threats report suffering About 60 per cent of the women suffer both more intensely and from more from headaches and nearly half from physical and psychological disorders recurrent pain in other parts of the body. than do women subjected to other types More than half the women suffer from of violence. weakness and nearly 40 per cent from sleeplessness. Depression affl icts 36 per All women cent, and 30 per cent of all women have Nearly 80 per cent of the women stated suffered a sense of “everything becoming their general health to be excellent, very too much” for them. good or good. In spite of this, what

Headaches 11 49

Other pain 15 32

Stomach trouble 6 26

Dizziness 3 17

Numbness 5 13

Palpitation of the heart 2 13

Perspiration 3 11 Much Nausea 2 10 Little

Shakiness of the hands 1 6

0 102030405060

Fig 25. Physical disorders of women (% of all women, N=6 926).

Weakness 14 40

Irritability 8 41

Nervousness 10 32

Sleeplessness 10 29

Over-exertion 9 29

Depression 8 29

Impaired memory 5 26 Much Little Everything becoming too much 7 23

0 102030405060

Fig 26. Psychological disorders of women (% of all women, N=6 926).

58 Physical disorders and Psychological disorders and violent experiences violent experiences Among women who have had experience There is a correlation between reports of violence, the reporting of physical of violence and reports of psychological disorders is generally slightly higher than disorders. This applies to all the psyc- among those who have not. For example, hological disorders enumerated in the women with experience of violence suffer questionnaire. Here, as with physical more from bodily pain than women ailments, women who have been subjected without such experience. to threats report the greatest number and

20 intensity of psychological disorders. It is twice as common for women who have 19 18 18 been subjected to threats to suffer from 17 15 much over-exertion and/or depression compared with women who have not 13 reported any violent experiences. 10 15

14 5 10 11 11 11

0 7 No Total Pysical Sexual Threats 5 violence violence violence violence

Fig 27. Pronounced bodily pain among women and type of violence to which they had been subjected 0 (%). No Total Pysical Sexual Threats violence violence violence violence Furthermore there is a tendency for Fig 28. Pronounced overexertion among women and type of violence to which they had been women who have been subjected to subjected (%). violence to report more kinds of physical disorders than women who have not. There are no very great differences in the 15 reporting of physical disorders between 13 women who have been subjected to 10 11 11 violence in the last year and those whose 10 experience of violence came earlier. Women who have been subjected to 5 6 threats report the most intense ailments and the most physical disorders. Their 0 reporting is slightly higher throughout No Total Pysical Sexual Threats compared with the reporting by women violence violence violence violence subjected to physical and sexual vio- Fig 29. Pronounced depression among women lence. and type of violence they had been subjected (%).

59 Women’s perceptions of the The women’s responses indicate the most effects of violence common reaction after being subjected to In order to fi nd out how women themselves violence to be anger or hatred. This is stated regard the relation between experience of as a consequence by 38 per cent of women. violence and various symptoms we asked The next most common consequence is those women who had been subjected to fear; 33 per cent of women having felt this. violence in what way they considered their Almost as common a consequence of being experiences to have affected them.7 subjected to violence is poor self-esteem, Thirteen response options were offered: 30 per cent of women having marked this fear, feelings of shame, feelings of guilt, option. Slightly more than one woman in anger or hatred, depression, tiredness and fi ve state diffi culties in relationships with listlessness, poor self-esteem, sleeplessness men to be a result of being subjected to and nightmares, diffi culties in concentra- violence, and as many again report having ting, difficulties in relationships with suffered from depression. men, diffi culties during gynaecological Of women who have had experience of examinations, diffi culties at work or with violence, 36 per cent have not stated any 8 studies. consequences of the violence. Violence is reported by 64 per cent of the women to have had some negative effect on them.

Anger or hatred 38

Fear 33

Poor self-esteem 30

Feelings of shame 23

Difficulties in relationships with men 22

Depression 22

Feelings of guilt 21

Tiredness and listlessness 18

Sleeplessness, nightmares 18

Difficulties in concentrating 13

Difficulties with studies and at work 9

Difficulties during gynaecological examinations 6

Other problems 5

No consequences stated 36

0510 15 20 25 30 35 Fig 30. Women’s assessment of the consequences of violence. All violence (% of respondents, non- responses not included).

60 The most negative consequences with studies. Four out of ten women from threats state that they have had diffi culties in We have cross-tabulated the women’s relationships with men. responses stating what they consider the • Women who have been subjected consequences of the violence to have been to threats report the most, and the with the type of violence to which they most intensely negative, experi- have been subjected. ences compared with women who If the women’s responses are broken have been subjected to physical or down by categories according to the sexual violence. type of violence they have experienced, • Four out of ten women who have it is apparent that women who have been threatened in the last year experienced threats report the most, and report diffi culties in relationships most intensely negative, consequences with men. of violence. This applies not only to comparisons between violent experiences • Nearly one woman in fi ve who since the fi fteenth birthday but also to has been threatened in the last those between the women’s experiences of year reports having experienced violence in the last year. The difference is diffi culties at work or with studies. particularly conspicuous when experiences of threats in the last year are scrutinised. Summary and comments Anger or hatred is felt by 58 per cent Of the women who have been subjected of those who were threatened in the last to violence, 64 per cent consider that the year. Fear is felt by 50 per cent and 50 violence has had negative consequences for per cent have poor self-esteem. Of the them. When we compare the consequences women subjected to threats in the last reported by these women with the type of year, 41 per cent report having suffered violence to which they have been subjected, from depression while almost one woman we fi nd that women who have experienced in fi ve, i.e.17 per cent, states that she threats report the most, and the most has experienced diffi culties at work or intensely negative, consequences.

Anger or hatred 58

Poor self-esteem 50

Fear 50

Depression 41

Difficulties in relationships with men 40

Difficulties with studies and at work 17

0 102030405060

Fig 31. Consequences of having been subjected to threats in the last year (% of respondents, non- responses not included).

61 Contemplating and attempting suicide 5 per cent of all respondents state that they have attempted suicide and 23 per The women were asked in the questionn- cent state that they have contemplated aire whether they had ever attempted or contemplated suicide. suicide. Nearly three out of four women Of women who have attempted suicide, who have attempted suicide have been 72 per cent have been subjected to violence. subjected to violence and nearly two out Of women who have contemplated suicide, of three women who have contemplated 64 per cent have suffered violence. Thus, suicide have been subjected to violence. there is a clear correlation between women’s experiencing violence and their attempting 50 Ever suicide. Likewise there is a strong correla- Last 12 mths 43 40 37 tion between experiencing violence and 36 35 36 32 32 contemplating suicide. 30 To have contemplated suicide is more 30 21 than twice as common among women 20 15 who have experienced violence at some point as among women who have not. Of 10 women who have attempted suicide, 60 0 per cent have suffered sexual violence, No Total Sexual Pysical Threats violence violence violence violence 48 per cent physical violence and 42 per cent threats. Fig 32. Contemplated suicide and type of violence Among women who have experienced (%). violence in the last year, attempted suicide 16 Ever is nearly four times as common as among 14 14 The last 12 mths women who did not report such experiences, 13 12 12 viz eleven per cent compared with three 11 10 per cent. Among women who have been 10 9 subjected to sexual violence in the last year, 8 8 it is approximately fi ve times as common 8 6 for a woman to have attempted suicide 5 compared with women who do not report 4 3 any violent experiences. 2 The relation between gender-related violence to women and contemplated 0 No Total Sexual Pysical Threats and attempted suicide among them is a violence violence violence violence fi eld of which we have essentially lacked knowledge up to now. Fig 33. Attempted suicide and type of violence (%).

62 Violence and physical injury TYPE OF INJURY NUMBER In one of the questions, the women were Bruises, grazes 719 asked to state whether they had sustained Wounds 205 Pulled muscle, rupture physical injuries as a result of physical or dislocation of joint (s) 141 violence or sexual abuse and, if so, Fracture 40 whether they had sought treatment for Injuries to teeth 47 Miscarriage 25 their injuries. Women who had done so Internal damage 25 were also asked whether they had been Concussion 68 admitted to hospital for such treatment. Bodily ache/pain 382 A total of 873 women reported some Other injuries 111 form of physical injury, the most common Table 8. Types of injury suffered by women being bruises and bodily aches/pains. (n=873). Medical treatment was sought by 225 treatment. Of those who did not seek women. The injuries stated by the women treatment, 149 said that they ought to to have resulted from the violence infl icted have done so, while 468 women said that on them were fairly serious. Of these they did not do so because their injuries women, 28 were admitted to hospital for were only minor.

Use of medication In the questionnaire, the women were with psychopharmacological drugs is asked to state whether, in the last month, reported by a somewhat larger proportion they had taken medication in order of women with experience of violence to sleep, calm their nerves or relieve than of women without it. It is somewhat depression. When the women’s experiences more common for women who have of violence since their fi fteenth birthday experienced threats to use medication are scrutinised, it appears that treatment than for other groups.

Sedatives 10 Anti-depressants Sleeping pills 9 9 9 9 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 1 0 No Total Sexual Pysical Threats violence violence violence violence

Fig 34. Use of medication and type of violence (%).

63 Violence during pregnancy Violent former husband The questionnaire addressed enquiries /cohabitant partner about violence associated with pregnancy A total of 534 of the women who had only to women who reported that their a violent former husband/cohabitant present or former husband/cohabitant partner state that they have been pregnant partner had at some time employed violence by him. against them. The number of pregnancies was not gone into. It is therefore impossible Physical and sexual violence to use the responses from the questionnaire Sixteen per cent of women were subjected to calculate how common it is in Sweden to physical violence or sexual abuse by for violence to women to occur during the former husband/cohabitant partner pregnancy. during pregnancy. Seven per cent were Women subjected to violence by present subjected to violence or sexual abuse for or former husbands/cohabitant partners the fi rst time during pregnancy. All told, were asked in the questionnaire whether 19 per cent of women had been subjected they had been pregnant by the man in to physical or sexual violence before the question and, if so, whether they had child was one year old. been subjected to physical violence or sexual abuse while they were pregnant. Threats They were also asked whether the man Nineteen per cent stated that they had subjected them to threats during their been threatened by the husband/cohabitant pregnancy. partner during pregnancy. Eight per cent had been threatened for the fi rst

Threats during pregnancy 20 19 19 Threats began during pregnancy Physical or sexual violence 16 15 during pregnancy Physical or sexual violence began during pregnancy Total physical or sexual 10 violence before child 1 year old 8 7

5 4 4 3 2 2

0

Present husband/cohabitant partner, Former husband/cohabitant partner

Fig 35. Threats or physical violence by present or former husband/cohabitant partner in connection with pregnancy (%).

64 time during pregnancy. Altogether nearly suicide – sexual violence appear to be the one woman in four had been threatened forms exhibiting the strongest correlation before the child was one year old. with impaired physical and psychological health. These correlations do not tell us Violent present husband anything about causal relations, however. /cohabitant partner When the women were asked how they Of the women who report having been themselves consider the violence has affected subjected to violence by their present them, they declare clearly that they have husband/cohabitant partner, 382 state suffered negative effects in a variety of that they have been pregnant by him. ways. Prominent among these are such Of these, four per cent state that they negative emotions as anger, hatred, fear have been subjected to threats by the and depression. husband/cohabitant partner. Approxima- A dualism emerges in the women’s tely half of these women state that the reporting of how their violent experiences threats began while they were pregnant. have affected them. Anger or hatred is Three per cent were subjected to physical far the most common reaction, which violence or sexual abuse during pregnancy. indicates an attitude to their experiences in Two women out of three state that the which the women do not blame themselves violence began during pregnancy. Four for being abused. Feelings of guilt and per cent of women in all report having shame, for example, are reported by the been subjected to violence before the women to a much less extent than feelings child was one year old. of anger or hatred. On the other hand a high level of poor self-esteem and depression Summary and comments resulting from the violence is reported, Despite the fact that nearly 80 per cent which suggests that the violence has a of the women describe their own state of negative infl uence on the self-image of its health as excellent, very good or good, it victims. Slightly more than one woman turns out that physical and psychological in fi ve who has been subjected to violence disorders are fairly widespread. There is a states that her experiences have resulted in discrepancy between the women’s general diffi culties in relationships with men. depiction of their state of health on the The dualism manifested in the women’s one hand and, on the other, the specifi c reporting of how violence has affected them and more detailed picture which emerges can be interpreted to mean that women from their responses. who have been subjected to violence do not The women’s responses show that there is a consider themselves primarily as victims. correlation between experience of violence and However, the women’s own estimation of the impaired physical and psychological health. negative consequences of violence is that they Likewise, the use of psychopharmacological are quite severe. Society’s attitude towards drugs is slightly more common among gender-related violence may therefore be women with experience of violence. Of crucial to the way women subjected to the various types of violence, threats and – violence interpret their experiences. in cases of contemplated and attempted When the various types of violence are

65 scrutinised, it appears that experience almost three times as high among women of threats has particularly negative conse- who have had violent experiences as it is quences. Not only do women subjected among women who do not. to threats report the greatest number and Relatively few women seek treatment for variety of negative consequences: they the physical injuries caused by physical or also report the highest level of physical sexual violence. The number of women and psychological disorders, the greatest admitted to hospital is remarkably low in use of psychopharmacological drugs, proportion to the serious physical injuries and a high level of contemplated and for which women report having sought attempted suicide. Consequently, this treatment. Only 28 women in the study study provides no evidence to support report having been admitted to hospital the view of threats as “only” threats, less because of the injuries resulting from serious than physical or sexual violence. violence. This may be compared with the Any such notion is contradicted both by 873 women who state that they suffered the women’s own reports of their state physical injuries in consequence of the of health and by their assessment of the violence to which they were subjected. consequences of the violence. On the The responses to the questionnaire contrary, cross-tabulation of the women’s indicate threats during pregnancy by responses with the type of violence to violent former husbands/cohabitant which they have been subjected shows partners to be four times as common as threats to be a serious type of violence with by men in current violent relationships. severe consequences for its victims. The reports of former husbands’ violence There are clear correlations between during pregnancy match up well with experiences of violence and contemplated corresponding data from Finland.9 and/or attempted suicide. The correlation As elsewhere in the reporting of violence, is particularly strong between attempted the fi gures show a great disparity between suicide and subjection to sexual violence women’s reports of violence on the part in the last year, and between attempted of present husbands/cohabitant partners suicide and experience of threats. Overall, and former husbands/cohabitant partners the number of attempted suicides is respectively.

1 Drossman et al 1995, Felitti 1991, Muellerman et al 1998, Dahl 1993. 2 Felitti 1991. 3 Scholle et al 1998, Mullen 1988. 4 Plichta et al 1996. 5 Linton 1997. 6 Hamberg & Johansson 1999. 7 Not all women stating that they had had violent experiences (3 193) answered these questions. The number of respondents in this section was 2 364 women. 8 This does not mean that the violence did not have any consequences, only that the women did not mark any of the response options. 9 Heiskanen & Pispa 1998.

66 CHAPTER 7

Sexual harassment The concept of sexual harassment comes friends, colleagues and unknown men. from labour legislation. The factor determi- Eight questions in all were asked about ning whether an act or course of conduct obscene telephone calls, indecent exposure, is considered to be sexual harassment unwelcome comments, importunate under the terms of the Act Concerning attentions, uncomfortable proximity, Equality between Men and Women sexually threatening behaviour, stalking, (jämställdhetslagen) is whether it happens and threats of impaired career prospects if in the place of employment or is related sexual favours are refused. to the employment in such a manner that It should be noted that some of the the employer can be held responsible for grosser forms of sexual harassment are remedying the harassment. Behaviour excluded from the questions.2 The fi ndings which is considered to be sexual harassment with regard to sexual harassment would may also be criminalised: sexual molestation probably have been higher if these grosser for example, or more serious offences actions had been included as well. such as assault, sexual coercion or even As with the questions relating to physical rape. Other acts considered to be sexual violence within relationships, we have harassment may be unspecifi ed as offences striven to be as concrete as possible in under the terms of the Penal Code (i.e. wording the questions relating to sexual not criminalised), but the employer will harassment. We asked about eight fairly still be held responsible for remedying the specifi c incidents which the respondent may relevant working conditions to ensure that have felt to be uncomfortable or threate- the harassment ceases. The studies which ning, see question 24 of the questionnaire, have been made of the incidence of Appendix 1. Here too we were striving to sexual harassment are limited to working penetrate beyond any possible minimising life or educational environments. The or normalising of sexual harassment by the figures yielded by these studies vary women concerned. The concrete wording considerably.1 of the questions makes it possible to Since behaviour constituting sexual circumvent the resistance which a woman harassment may be presumed to be com- might otherwise feel against defining mon outside the work environment as well, the situation as sexual harassment and it is important to ask questions about the man in question as guilty of that women’s experiences of sexual harassment offence. in situations unrelated to employment. We therefore asked the women about their experiences of sexual harassment by men with whom they do not have and have not had a sexual relationship, i.e. neighbours,

67 The aggregate experience of Age sexual harassment The reporting of sexual harassment differs • A total of 56 per cent of women considerably between the age groups, have been subjected to sexual har- both with respect to experiences in the assment. last year and as regards overall experience of sexual harassment. Young women aged • 16 per cent have been so sub- 18 to 24 are the group most subject to jected in the last year. sexual harassment; 37 per cent of women of that age range state that they have been One woman in four has experienced sexually harassed in the last year. Slightly uneasiness at some time through intrusive more than one woman in fi ve aged 25 physical proximity on the part of a man. to 34 reports sexual harassment in the More than one woman in four has been last year, while seven per cent of women made to feel ill at ease by a man’s comments aged 55 to 64 had such experiences in on her body or private life, or by his making the same period. sexual allusions. Not quite one woman in In total, i.e. in terms of aggregate fi ve states that she has felt uneasy because experience of sexual harassment after a man asked her out several times and did the age of fi fteen, there is no difference not take no for an answer. Sixteen per cent between the youngest age group and of women report having been subjected to women aged 25-34. Approximately 64 per sexual harassment in the last year. cent of the women in these two age groups Who are the victims? report experiences of sexual harassment. The corresponding figure for women Younger women are the most liable to aged 55-64 is 40 per cent. be sexually harassed: almost two thirds of women aged 18-24 and 25-34 have Occupation suffered sexual harassment. Nearly When we scrutinise the women’s occu- four out of ten women aged 18-24 pations we fi nd that it is students who have been sexually harassed in the last report the most sexual harassment. All in all 65 per cent, or nearly two thirds, year. Students, irrespective of age, of the women in this group have been are the group most subject to sexual sexually harassed, and one third of female harassment. Every third female student students have suffered this in the last has been sexually harassed in the last year. year. Nearly two thirds of students Of gainfully employed women, 13 per all told have experienced sexual cent report sexual harassment in the last harassment. Of women who have year. In total, 58 per cent of the gainfully completed university education but employed women have been sexually do not have a degree, seven out of ten harassed. have been sexually harassed.

68 Education university degree also report a high level As regards education, women who have of such experiences, a total of 65 per completed university education but do not cent of the group having been sexually have a degree report the highest level of harassed. However, compared with the sexual harassment. One woman in four in group of university-educated women this group, i.e. 26 per cent, has been sexually without a degree, women with a degree harassed in the last year, and altogether report a considerably lower level of sexual 71 per cent of university-educated women harassment, i.e. only 14 per cent, in terms without a degree have had experience of incidents in the last year. of sexual harassment. Women with a Of women whose education did not proceed beyond compulsory schooling, eleven per cent have been sexually harassed Ever Last 12 mths in the last year. In total, 40 per cent of women who have completed compulsory AGE schooling have been sexually harassed. 18-24 64 37 25-34 64 21 Income 35-44 61 13 Reporting of sexual harassment differs 45-54 51 between income groups: there seems to be a 8 55-64 40 correlation between income and experiences 7 of sexual harassment. When asked about EDUCATION experiences of sexual harassment after University, no degree 71 26 the age of fi fteen, women with the highest University, with degree 65 14 incomes have been subjected to them Secondary schooling 56 more than those with the lowest: 69 per 17 Compulsory schooling 40 cent of women earning more than SEK 11 20 000 a month after tax have been No compulsory schooling 33 19 sexually harassed, whereas for women ear- OCCUPATION ning SEK 15 000 – 20 000 a month after 65 Student 34 tax, the fi gure is 61 per cent. The correspon- 59 Parental leave 9 ding fi gure for women earning up to SEK 58 10 000 is 53 per cent. Self-employed 13 55 As regards experiences of sexual harass- Wage-/salary-earner 13 54 ment in the last year, the positions are Unemployed 20 reversed: women with low incomes are 52 ck-leave/disability pension 13 harassed more than women with higher 40 Retired 8 incomes. Nearly one woman in four, i.e. 35 Looking after home 24 per cent, earning less than SEK 5 000 a 8 month after tax has been sexually harassed 0 20 40 60 in the last year. The corresponding fi gure

Fig 36. Women subjected to harassment, by for women earning more than SEK 20 000 women’s background variables (%). a month after tax is twelve per cent.

69 Ever Fourteen per cent of students who Last 12 mths INCOME have been harassed report a superior/ 69 > 20000 supervisor/teacher to have harassed them 12 sexually while 26 per cent state that a 15001-20000 61 13 fellow-student or fellow-pupil did so. Of 57 10001-15000 13 salary- or wage-earners, twelve per cent 5001-10000 54 were harassed by a superior and 22 per 16 53 cent by a colleague. < 5000 24

Unknown 69 0204060 80 Fig 37. Women subjected to harassment, by Friend/acquaintance 27 women’s income (%). Colleague 21

Superior 12 Ethnicity Customer/client 7 Women born in African countries report Relative 6 the highest level of harassment in the 0 10203040506070 last year. Of women in this group, 42 Fig 38. Who are the perpetrators? (% of harassed per cent were sexually harassed during women, N=3 862) this period. As regards women’s experiences of sexual harassment after the age of fi fteen, Summary and comments women born in North America report More than half of Swedish women have the highest level of incidents at 91 per been sexually harassed. Younger women cent. However, the groups of women and students are the ones most at risk. born abroad are small and the percentage Of female students, one in three has of responses from them was low. It is been sexually harassed in the last year. therefore hard to draw reliable conclusions The perpetrators can be either men with from the responses of these groups. whom the woman is unacquainted or men known to her, such as friends, work Who are the perpetrators? colleagues or superiors. In most cases of sexual harassment, the There are differences in the total reporting perpetrator is a man whom the woman of sexual harassment and the reporting does not know; 69 per cent of the women of harassment in the last year, and these harassed were unacquainted with the seem to be associated with education and man concerned. In total, one woman in income level. The lower the education and fi ve, i.e. 21 per cent, of women who have income, the more harassment was suffered been sexually harassed was subjected in the last year, which contrasts with the to the experience by work colleagues/ considerably higher level of incidents in fellow-students or fellow-pupils. Friends, the total perspective reported by women acquaintances/neighbours were reported of higher education and income. These to be the perpetrators in 27 per cent correlations are not related to age. One of cases. interpretation is that women in the latter

70 groups are in a position which enables understand women’s conditions of life in them to acquire knowledge and awareness terms of the incidence of sexual harassment. with regard to sexual harassment, and this Along the scale hypothesised in the may result both in the possibility of action continuum concept, with serious crimes to put a stop to harassment and in realistic of violence at one end and controlling reporting, whereas the reverse situation may behaviour at the other, there is a slot for prevail for women less favourably situated sexual harassment. in this respect. Another interpretation In this way it becomes possible to observe is that the public debate about gender the linkages between the various forms in equality produces different normative which control over women is exercised, effects on these groups, which may result which should be of great relevance in in under-reporting of harassment in the the context of the extent of violence and last year. the high level of reported experiences of Our discussion of the continuum concept both controlling behaviour and sexual in an earlier chapter may be of importance harassment. when interpreting and attempting to

1 According to a study made by the National Swedish Police Board (Rikspolisstyrelsen) of female civilian employees in police service (2 700 women were included in the study), 20 per cent of women stated that they had experienced sexual harassment in the last three years. Press meddelande 990202 – undersökning om sexuella trakasserier, http://www.police.se/gemensam/rps/press/sextrxk.htm. A study made at Uppsala University showed that twelve per cent of the female students had been subjected to sexual harassment, Tydén 1999. 2 Some of the acts are criminalised under the terms of the Penal Code (molestation or unlawful threats) while other forms of behaviour can be very uncomfortable or intimidating to a woman even though not criminalised. Questions about grosser forms of behaviour are to be found in other sections of the questionnaire and are then categorised as sexual violence.

71 CHAPTER 8

Myths about violence? As well as the commonly accepted picture husband or cohabitant partner were of violence towards women as a weapon asked about his country of birth, his used only by men of the lower social groups, parents’ countries of birth and his level of men who abuse alcohol or men who are education and alcohol habits. unemployed, there is another stereotype. This is the violent “male immigrant”, the Immigrants man who practises violence as a result The number of women of foreign back- of his patriarchal cultural heritage. It is ground who responded to the questionnaire assumed that this cultural heritage, in was relatively low. The data therefore had contradistinction to the Swedish culture – to be weighted. In terms of exposure to which is interpreted as being characterised violence and country of birth, a small by equality – leads the man to commit difference is observable in the material as violence.1 There is also a conception of regards reporting by women born in the the abused woman as being “special”: she Nordic countries.2 These show a slightly experienced abuse as a child, for example, higher level of reporting of all experiences which makes her “seek out” violent men of violence since the age of fi fteen. The after reaching adulthood. differences are small, however. In the questionnaire we enquired about Of men who according to women’s the respondent’s education, her income responses have employed violence towards after tax, her occupation and her own their current wife/cohabitant partner, and her parents’ country of birth. We also several of the groups are too small to enable asked for her present husband’s/cohabitant any conclusions to be drawn. 3 Where partner’s country of birth, his parents’ comparisons are possible, the differences countries of birth, his alcohol and drug are small. The exception is women whose habits and his education. Women who present husband/cohabitant partner was reported having had a violent former born in the Nordic countries or Asia. These report a higher level of violent Yes No experiences at the hands of their present Number % Number % Sweden 407 9.6 3 665 86.4 husband/cohabitant partner, i.e. 21 per cent and 25 per cent respectively, than Nordic countries 34 20.8 124 76.2 the average (eleven per cent) for the whole Europe 29 13.6 173 81.4 group of women subjected to violence Africa 3 24.0 8 60.8 by their present husband/cohabitant Asia 23 25.3 59 64.0 partner. North America - - 13 100.0 Table 9. Women subjected to violence by present Latin America 2 15.1 8 60.3 husband/cohabitant partner, by his country of birth Australia 1 33.3 2 (row 66.7 per cent, calculated for women in present relationships, non-responses ignored).

72 Social classes • Eight out of ten women sub- As regards women’s reporting of violence, jected to violence in their present some differences can be detected pertaining relationship are married to or to the education and income of the cohabiting with a man who was women. As regards education, women born in Sweden with university education but no degree show the highest total level of violence Of women subjected to violence by reported (53 per cent compared with their present husband/cohabitant partner, an average of 46 per cent for all women 82 per cent have a husband/cohabitant subjected to violence). Slight differences in partner born in Sweden. Of women exposure to violence can also be observed stating that a former husband/cohabitant with respect to the women’s income. partner subjected them to violence, 72 Women with the highest and lowest level per cent were married to/cohabiting with of income respectively report the highest a man born in Sweden. Of women with a total level of violence. former husband/cohabitant partner who infl icted violence upon them, seven per cent were married to/cohabiting with a INCOME man from the Nordic countries, seven 48 per cent to/with a man born in Europe, <5000 15 46 two per cent to/with a man born in Asia 5001-10000 13 and two per cent to/with a man born in 45 10001-15000 10 Africa. Seven per cent of the women did 48 not respond to this question. 15001-20000 11 50 >20000 Sweden 72 9 01020304050 Nordic country 7

Europe 7 Fig 40. Total women subjected to violence, by women’s income (%). Other 7

0 204060 Fig 39. Women subjected to violence by former Fig 41. Total women subjected to violence, by husband/cohabitant partner, by the man’s country women’s education (%). of birth (% of women with a violent former husband/cohabitant partner, N=970). University, no degree 53 14 University, with degree 49 10 46 Secondary schooling 13 43 compulsory schooling 15 40 Compulsory schooling 12

0102030 4050

73 Two thirds of women subjected to Alcohol violence by their present husband/cohabitant The women were asked to state how partner state that the man is a wage- often they drink alcohol, how often their or salary-earner. Regarding the man’s husbands/cohabitant partners (if any) do so, education, almost one fourth, i.e. 23 and, if they have had a husband/cohabitant per cent, of women who have been partner who was violent to them, how subjected to violence by their present often he consumed alcohol. The questions husband/cohabitant partner state that the are thus linked to alcohol habits, not to man in question has a university education the committing of violence; that is to with a degree. say, we did not ask questions to elicit whether the man was drunk when he OCCUPATION was violent. Wage-/salary-earner 65 We found no differences of subjection to Self-employed 11 violence associated with women’s alcohol Unemployed 7 consumption. Retired 6 Four out of fi ve women who have been Student 5 subjected to violence by their present Sick-leave/disability pension 2 husband/cohabitant partner belong to EDUCATION the category of those stating that the man Secondary schooling 47 concerned consumes alcohol 1-2 times a University, with degree 23 week or less. Consequently, the majority, Compulsory schooling 21 i.e. 83 per cent, of those men who

University, no degree 6 have infl icted violence on their current No compulsory schooling 1 wife/cohabitant partner consume alcohol 1-2 times a week or less. 0204060

Fig 42. Women subjected to violence at some point by present husband/cohabitant partner, by 3 the man’s occupation and education (% of women Every day with a violent present husband/cohabitant partner, 2-3 times/week 14 N=499) 1-2 times/week 31 If we compare the men who – according Once a month or so 28 to the women’s reports – have subjected Every other month 3 the woman to violence during their Once a year or so 13 marriage/cohabitation with those who Never during the past year 2 have not, there are no real differences in Never 7 terms of educational level. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Fig 43. Women subjected to violence by present husband/cohabitant partner and the man’s alcohol consumption (% of women subjected to violence, N=499).

74 In cases where the woman has stated Sexual violence that her husband/cohabitant partner before turning fi fteen drinks more frequently than 1-2 times a Yes No week, and in cases where the man had not Yes 57.2 27.5 consumed alcohol during the past year, Sexual violence the level of violence reported is slightly since turning fi fteen No 42.8 72.5 higher compared with the average for the Total 100% 100% women in the group as a whole. N = 1 416 5 510 Previous experience of violence Table 10. Women subjected to sexual violence We asked the women two questions about before and after their fi fteenth birthday. their experience of violence prior to their fifteenth birthday. One of these Summary and comments concerned physical violence by a family The results of the study indicate that member, an acquaintance or some other violence is widespread in all groups of man unknown to the woman, while women. They show that Swedish men the other concerned sexual violence by are responsible for 82 per cent of the a man. violence infl icted upon women in current Thirtyone per cent of the women have marriages/cohabiting relationships. This been subjected to violence by an adult calls into question the stereotypes of the before their fi fteenth birthday (the latter “violent” immigrant male and the “equal” group may include women who have Swedish male. committed violence). Twenty per cent of As regards the women, it is observable all women have had experience of sexual that highly educated women report a violence by a man (including sexually slightly higher level of violent experiences, threatening behaviour) by the time of as also do those women with the highest their fi fteenth birthday. incomes. As far as men’s education is Of women with experience of sexual concerned, there are no substantial dif- violence prior to their fi fteenth birthday, ferences in terms of his committing or 57 per cent reported having also been not committing violence on his present subjected to sexual violence after turning wife/cohabitant partner. fifteen. Of women who did not have Regarding the women’s alcohol habits, such experiences before their fi fteenth there are no differences between women birthday, 28 per cent reported having who report experiences of violence and been subjected to them since. Thus there those who do not. Nor can the notion is a correlation between experience of of the violent man as an alcoholic be sexual violence before the age of fi fteen substantiated. Of those women who report and the reporting of such experience later having been subjected to violence by their on in life as well. present husband/cohabitant partner, four out of fi ve state that the man concerned drinks alcohol once or twice a week or less.

75 Consequently the stereotype idea that into a society where violence to women it is principally men of the lower social is a common feature in all spheres and classes and/or with drinking problems stages of life. We have no reason to believe who commit violence on women does not that violence begins, say, at the fi fteenth square with the results of the study. birthday or any other particular age. Women who reported having had One interpretation of the links subsisting experience of sexual violence before the between the reporting of sexually violent age of fi fteen report a higher degree of experiences before and after the fi fteenth violence since their fi fteenth birthday. birthday is that when women designate There is accordingly a correlation between later experiences of violence as having these experiences. However, the connec- actually been violence, this also colours tion is not causal. their understanding of earlier experiences, The picture emerging from this study in the same way as the earlier experiences is one in which violence against women may colour the later. is widespread, frequent and employed Our results show that the question mark in private as well as in public. The men we used in the heading of this section who employ it are partners, friends, can be deleted. The notion that men acquaintances, colleagues and unknown commit violence against a particular men. In the light of these facts, it would type of woman, and that most of these be somewhat surprising if women did not men are immigrants, alcohol abusers or have experience of violence prior to the ill-educated is a myth. age of fi fteen as well. Women are born

1 There are distinct tendencies in the Swedish debate to portray foreign cultures as patriarchal, in contrast to the Swedish culture. Whereas violence on the part of Swedish men is explained in terms of individual and/or social factors such as a diffi cult childhood, unemployment, drug abuse or other social problems, “foreign cultures” are singled out as the reason why men of foreign origin resort to violence. 2 “Nordic countries” does not include Sweden. 3 Three men were born in Australia and eleven in Africa.

76 CHAPTER 9

Summary and comments

Men’s violence against women: widespread, frequent and happening now The results of the prevalence study illustrate that violence against women is far from being a marginal problem. Almost every other woman has experienced violence on the part of a man at some point since her fi fteenth birthday. The women concerned also report repeated violence: e.g. one woman in every four subjected to violence by a former husband/cohabitant partner reports it as systematic. Nor is the violence remote either: one woman in four experiencing it did so in the last year. Violence starts early too. Almost one woman in three has experienced it before the age of fi fteen.

The knowledge which this study has afforded us about the extent and character of gender-related violence must have an impact on our understanding of violence. If nearly fi fty per cent of women in Sweden have been subjected to violence since their fi fteenth birthday – and close to one woman in three before that – and if such a large proportion of women report numerous experiences of violence and such a large proportion of these experiences are recent, as this study has shown, this means that violence is a widespread, frequent and topical phenomenon. This contradicts the notion that it is only a few men who practise violence on women. Any measures taken to stop the violence, if they are to be successful, must rest upon anew understanding in which knowledge about the role of violence in the life of women and men is linked to their everyday lives.

Violence outside sexual relationships – no free zones Our study also shows that the previous focus on the so-called partner violence to which women are subjected constitutes too narrow a perspective. It is certainly true that much violence is infl icted on women by their partners, in the women’s own homes. At the same time, one woman in three has been subjected to violence outside a sexual relationship. It is sexual violence that seems to be particularly prevalent outside partner relationships. Thirteen per cent of all women report experiences of gross sexual assaults – rape, attempted rape, sexual coercion, sexual exploitation or attempted sexual exploitation by a man outside a sexual relationship. The violence is committed in the woman’s home, in indoor and outdoor public places and at women’s places of work. The results seem to show that there are no free zones for women.

77 Violence is everywhere. Our results highlight the need for awareness of all the violence – especially the sexual violence – to which women are subjected by the men around them, by friends, acquaintances, colleagues and neighbours.

Sexual harassment – part of the violence in women’s everyday life The results of the study show sexual harassment to be widespread. More than half the women in Sweden have been sexually harassed. Nearly two out of three women aged 18-24 and 25-35 have been subjected to sexual harassment. Universities and colleges seem to be a “high-risk” environment; nearly two out of three female students have been sexually harassed. Of women with university education but no degree, 71 per cent have been sexually harassed. The perpetrator in 14 per cent of cases of harassment of female students was a superior/supervisor/teacher, and in 26 per cent of cases he was another student or a colleague. Of wage- or salary-earners, twelve per cent were harassed by a superior while 22 per cent were harassed by a colleague.

Sexual harassment as we have defi ned it, which includes harassment not connected with working life, slots in along the scale envisaged in the continuum concept, in which gross crimes of violence are placed at one end of the scale and controlling behaviour at the other. In this way sexual harassment can also be included among the diverse mechanisms for exercising power and control over women.

The concept of continuum make it possible to view as aconnected whole the various forms in which violence, harassment and other kinds of control over women manifest themselves. The extent of violence against women (almost fi fty per cent of all women have experienced violence), the distribution of its perpetrators (partners, friends and acquaintances as well as unknown men) and the places at which violence is practised (in women’s homes, in public places and at work) indicate that women’s experiences must be regarded as a connected whole, illuminating the conditions in which they live. From this point of view, the widespread incidence of sexual harassment is yet another manifestation of vulnerability and a life-situation, not infrequently linked to the working environment, in which violence forms one of the conditions of women’s lives and everyday experience.

“Mere” threats The continuum concept tries to break away from the idea that there are well-defined boundaries and hierarchies separating different kinds of violence, with threats, for example, being considered as distinct from and

78 less serious than so-called actual physical violence. The intention is not to deny the seriousness of so-called gross violence but to show the seriousness of incidents which might otherwise be considered less severe while also bringing to view the links that exist between the various forms of violence.

The results of our study suggest there is a link between controlling behaviour by the male and his subjecting the female to violence, including threats. There is also a clear link between threats on the one hand and the exercise of physical and sexual violence on the other. Linking women’s own reporting of the consequences of violence to experiences of being threatened shows that threats are a serious matter. Women who have been subjected to threats report more negative consequences of the violence, and in addition they report more physical and psychological disorders than women who have been subjected to physical or sexual violence. Women with experience of threats and women with experience of sexual violence show the highest reporting rates for contemplated and attempted suicide.

Women’s own understanding of their experiences shows that one cannot speak of “mere” threats: on the contrary, threats appear to be a severe form of violence. When we speak of “psychological violence”, what this may involve is a combination of threats and controlling behaviour on the part of the man - a type of violence which women who have suffered it sometimes describe as “the worst kind”. This perspective on the problem may provide a new angle of approach for studies of “psychological violence”, a phenomenon which has not previously been investigated in depth. The lack of research in this area is probably due to the fact that the phenomenon appears diffuse and diffi cult to pin down.

Physical violence within sexual relationships – sexual violence outside sexual relationships? Our study has highlighted differences between women’s reports of violence within and outside sexual relationships respectively. Physical violence appears to be a particularly common feature in partner relationships, whereas sexual violence is the most common type of violence employed by men outside partner relationships. These differences may refl ect the different manifestations of violence, but a supplementary interpretation might be that they express the kind of relationship the woman has with the man, whether it is sexual or not, and that this colours her interpretation of her experiences. 1 The public debate has revolved around physical violence within partner relationships and this may be why it is easier for women to report such experiences rather than experiences of sexual violence. Moreover, it has been shown that one of the

79 factors governing young people’s view of rape is the relationship between the girl and the boy, inasmuch as an established sexual relationship between them is a circumstance which helps to diminish or completely obscure the issue of whether the boy has committed sexual acts upon the girl against her will.2 The analysis of young people’s reinterpretations of sexual violence committed within sexual relationships offers a possible interpretative perspective on the differences in women’s reporting in our material. That is to say, perhaps adult women, just like younger people, reinterpret sexual abuse when it occurs within sexual relationships.

There are differences of reporting associated with age which show that younger women are at greater risk of violence than older women, both outside relationships and on the part of boyfriends. Older women (aged 45-54 and 55-64) report a markedly lower level of violence outside partner relationships. Regarding violence perpetrated by former or current husbands/cohabitant partners, the levels reported do not differ between age groups. Perhaps the wide difference between younger and older women in their reporting of violent experiences outside relationships refl ects the view prevalent in our culture that younger women are more attractive. In this perspective, the low level of reporting by older women may be explained in terms of their experiences of this kind of violence dating further back in time. We shall therefore leave open the possibility that there may have been under-reporting in respect of this group.

60

Children seen or heard the violence 50 Children subjected to physical violence Children subjected to sexual violence 40

30

20

10

0 Former husband Present husband /cohabitant partner /cohabitant partner

Fig 44. Percentage of women who have or have had a violent husband/cohabitant partner and state that they have children.

80 The violence that vanished About half of the women who stated that they had been subjected to violence by a man since their fi fteenth birthday did not respond to the questions relating to “the most recent violent incident”. Of those who did respond to this section of the questionnaire, only 15 per cent had reported the most recent violent incident to the police. The reporting of sexual violence is particularly low. When we asked women why they did not report the most recent violent incident, more than half of them replied that they thought it was too trivial to report. Women themselves thus seem to play down and minimise their experiences of violence. When we consider the substantial difference between women’s reports of the children’s situation in current and terminated violent relationships respectively, it may be that even the violence infl icted on children may be minimised. Perhaps the women concerned cannot bear to “see” the violence?3

Of the few abused women who do seek assistance, the majority approach the health and medical - mainly psychiatric- services rather than the police. It appears that among the women who sought treatment for physical injuries, the injuries involved were relatively severe. It may be that in the same way, women who sought psychiatric treatment did not do so until serious mental health problems presented themselves. Viewed from this perspective, it is only when the consequences of violence become serious that the women concerned ask for help. Might one interpretative perspective on what amounts to a depreciation and minimising of violence be the one represented by the common attitude of society, viz that “mere threats” are too trivial to really count? Could it also be that the normative pressures of gender equality policy cause women to play down and minimise experiences that do not fi t in with the norm of an equal relationship?

Better and better day by day? The women’s reports indicate terminated relationships to be considerably more violent than current ones. The reporting of violence committed by current husbands/cohabitant partners is considerably lower than that of violence by former ones. This difference forms a pattern throughout the women’s responses, applying to the reporting both of controlling behaviour and of violence during pregnancy. The same applies to the children: according to the women’s responses, it is four times as common for a violent former husband/cohabitant partner to have committed violence on the woman’s children as it is for a violent present husband/cohabitant partner to do so. On the whole, a much more favourable picture is painted of current relationships compared with relationships that the women have terminated.

81 The difference between “then and now” can give rise to various interpretations. One way of understanding the lower level of reported violence and controlling behaviour within current relationships is that current relationships are more equal than terminated relationships and that in the long run, men who control women will eventually be left by them. Such an interpretation means that violence should generally become less prevalent in course of time. No such development is evidenced by other statistics on violence towards women, nor has it been borne out by charitable organisations or professional workers in the fi eld of violence to women.

In the light of our earlier discussion of violence as a continuum, the dynamics of violence and the normalisation process, in the course of which we drew attention to the way in which boundaries are shifted and actions merge into one another, it is pertinent to point to the possible interpretation that the woman does not understand the violence which occurs within her

Jealous and wants to know where she goes and whom she meets

Makes the woman feel inferior

Calls the woman disparaging names

Provokes quarrel when the woman wants to see relatives and friends

Threatens to harm himself

Woman not allowed to make decisions about money

Forbids the woman to see relatives and friends

Threatens to harm the children

Forbids the woman to work outside the home

0102030

Former husband/cohabitanty partner Current husband/cohabitanty partner

Fig 45. Controlling behaviour by present and former husband/cohabitant partner respectively (%).

82 current relationship and the controlling behaviour to which she is subjected by her current partner as actually being violence or controlling behaviour, which thus can result in under-reporting by the woman of the treatment to which she has been subjected.

In interviews with women who have left violent men, an important difference appears in the women’s retrospective understanding of the violence compared with the way they regarded the man’s actions while they were still in the relationship with the man and in the violent situation. It is only when the woman is out of both the relationship and the violence that she can fully put words to her experiences as actually constituting violence. One prerequisite which has to be met to enable the woman to interpret the man’s violent actions as amounting to actual violence is that she should no longer normalise these actions and no longer internalise his picture of her as “the problem”.4

The “de-normalisation process” is a social process which requires the woman’s isolation to have been broken and the man to be no longer controlling her. It also requires her to be no longer at risk of more violence, i.e. to be “out” of the relationship. Paradoxically, as long as women are in the relationship and in the violent situation, one of the adaptive strategies which

Former husband/cohabitanty partner Current husband/cohabitanty partner

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0 Physical Sexual Threats Total violence violence violence

Fig 46. Types of violence in present and former marriage/cohabitant relationship respectively (%).

83 they use in order to avoid triggering the violence may entail their being unable to interpret and verbalise these acts as violence.

Apart from the diffi culties of naming violence as violence, the woman’s experience of being subjected to violence by her husband/cohabitant partner confl icts with strong normative conceptions of what a modern Swedish heterosexual partner relationship is supposed to be like. In a culture whose offi cial message is that equality shall prevail between the sexes, it may be presumed that both men and women will develop a propensity to interpret their lives in conformity with this norm. In other words the Swedish self-image, and Sweden’s very strong tradition as “the most equal country in the world”, may set their impress on how women view and interpret their experiences of life. Gender equality can here be seen as a discursive truth, a discourse that functions as a standard for the interpretation of social life.5 The normative character of the Swedish equality ideology may mean as far as women are concerned that they shrink from interpretations of their partners that deviate from the ideal of an equal relationship. From this perspective, the contrasting of the previous partner as a controlling and abusive fi gure compared with the present partner as an equal can be interpreted as a device for maintaining the women’s image of themselves as equal. In this way the woman’s own interpretation of her life-situation is brought into harmony with the discursive imperative that women and men ought to have relationships built on gender equality and that women should leave men who abuse them.

More alike than unlike? A comparison with the Finnish study In 1997, a prevalence study of men’s violence against women was carried out in Finland. The Swedish questionnaire was designed so as to facilitate comparison between the studies.6

Comparison of the Swedish and Finnish results shows that 46 per cent of the Swedish women report having been subjected to violence by a man since their fi fteenth birthday while the corresponding fi gure in the Finnish study is 40 per cent. If experience of violence in different relationships is compared, it is found that Swedish women report less violence committed by husbands/cohabitant partners, whether former or current, but a higher level of violence by other men. One in fi ve women in Finland reports violence on the part of a present husband/cohabitant partner compared with one in ten in Sweden. Half the Finnish women with a former husband/partner report having been subjected to violence by him, compared with 35 per cent in Sweden. At the same time it should be noted that the total reporting of violence is higher in Sweden than

84 in Finland, at 46 per cent of the Swedish women compared with 40 per cent of the Finnish. It is violence by men who are not and have not been the woman’s husband/cohabitant partner that is higher for Swedish women, 35 per cent of them having had experience of violence outside a husband/cohabitant partner relationship. In the Finnish study, 24 per cent of the women reported having had such experience.

A comparison also reveals that the Swedish women report more sexual violence outside husband/cohabitant partner relationships than do the Finnish women: 30 per cent of Swedish women have experienced such violence compared with 17 per cent of women in the Finnish study. On the other hand the Finnish women report more physical violence and threats by husbands/cohabitant partners (present or former) than do the Swedish women. In current marriages/cohabitant relationships, 20 per cent of Finnish women report physical violence compared with seven per cent of Swedish. In former marriages/cohabitant relationships, 45 per cent of Finnish women report physical violence compared with 28 per cent of Swedish.

One factor common to both studies is that physical violence by both present and former husbands/cohabitant partners is the kind of violence most frequently reported by the women. As regards other men, sexual violence is the type most frequently reported by both Swedish and Finnish women. The reporting of sexual harassment is similar in both studies at 52 per cent of Finnish and 56 per cent of Swedish women respectively. The difference in the reporting of violence prior to age fi fteen, at 31 per cent for Swedish women and 29 per cent for Finnish, is insignifi cant.

The results of the two studies show that violence against women is widespread in both Sweden and Finland. However, whereas the Finnish women report more violence within marriage/cohabitant relationships, both

Violence by Violence by Violence by Violence Total unknown or present former before violence boyfriend husband/cohab husband/cohab age fi fteen Sw Fi Sw Fi Sw Fi Sw Fi Sw Fi All violence 46 40 35 24 11 22 35 50 31 29 Physical violence 25 30 13 10 7 20 28 45 18 21 Sexual violence 34 — 30 17 3 6 16 19 20 16 Threats 18 — 12 11 1 9 19 34 — —

Table 11. Comparison between the Finnish and Swedish prevalence studies of violence against women, by relationship and type of violence (%).

85 present and past, Swedish women report a higher level of violence outside such relationships. The difference between women’s reporting of violence by present and former husbands/cohabitant partners is also greater in the Swedish study; Swedish women’s reporting of violence committed by former husbands/cohabitant partners is more than three times as high as that by current husbands/cohabitant partners (eleven per cent compared with 35 per cent). In the Finnish study, the level of reporting is more than twice as high in this respect (22 compared with 50 per cent).

One way of interpreting these differences is to say that they refl ect different realities. Men’s violence to women is an issue of public concern and has formed the subject of legislation in Sweden to a greater extent than in Finland. This may have resulted in a diminution of violence towards women. A complementary interpretation is that the differences are connected with the infl uence of the Swedish gender equality norm on the women’s reporting. It may be that Sweden has a stronger gender equality norm than Finland, one which puts more pressure on women in Sweden and may manifest itself in the way women report violence on the part of their present husbands/cohabitant partners.

86 Recommendations Developments in the fi eld of gender-related violence, resulting mainly from the efforts of scholars engaged in gender studies, have opened the way for an analysis of the infl uence of structural and cultural dimensions on violence against women, and also of the signifi cance of gender in this respect. Our prevalence study of violence against women in Sweden forms an abundant and reliable body of empirical data furnishing a unique opportunity to enhance the knowledge we have about violence towards women. The results of the study show that violence to women is so prevalent and of such a character that some of the received explanations and theoretical interpretations of that violence must be abandoned and new theories developed.

There is an urgent need for further improvement of our theoretical and empirical expertise on the topic of violence by means of more intensive analysis of the prevalence study and the theoretical demands which it makes, especially because until now violence to women has been a neglected fi eld of research in Sweden.

We recommend that like Norway and Finland, Sweden should establish a research programme in order to create a new understanding of gender-related violence in which results from the prevalence study which appear to be particularly interesting are studied more intensively. Theoretical developments in the field of gender studies should be applied and further elaborated within the framework of the research programme.

The data amassed by our study suggest the following research fi elds and problem areas to be particularly interesting:

• Different reporting of types of violence in different relationships It appears that the type of male violence within sexual relationships which women report most frequently is physical violence, while the most common type occurring outside sexual relationships is sexual violence. How do women interpret sexual violence inside and outside sexual relationships respectively?

• “Psychological violence” Is it possible to arrive at a defi nition of the concept of psychological violence from the results of the study pertaining to the mutual relations between threats and violence, controlling behaviour and violence, and women’s reports of how they are affected by the violence? The fi eld is

87 unexplored, and the reliable data in the prevalence study provides an opportunity to study the relationships between various “milder” types of violence and control and the way in which these affect the quality of life of the women concerned and their interpretation of their violent experiences.

• Threats The results of the study show threats to constitute a serious violation of the woman to whom they are made. There are clear correlations between threats and the exercise of physical and sexual violence. At the same time public opinion has a tendency to minimise the importance of threats: people say they are “only” threats. There is a pressing need for some study to be made of the signifi cance of threats in the violence process, and of the possible impact which the playing down of existing threats has on the conditions of women’s lives.

• Systematic violence The results of the study show that the majority of women subjected to violence report more than one such experience and that, for example, more than one woman in four with a violent former husband/cohabitant partner has been subjected to violence more than ten times. This situation calls for studies of the extent of systematic violence to women and of the way in which the conditions of women’s lives are affected by their being victims of such violence.

• Children of abused women The results show that the violence to which a woman is subjected also affects her children. The children may be forced to see or hear the violence and/or may themselves suffer physical or sexual violence. The results of our study also indicate that women fi nd it very hard to talk about these matters. It is therefore a matter of urgency to examine more closely the situation of children whose mothers are being subjected to violence.

• Young women One woman in fi ve between the ages of 18 and 24 has been subjected to violence in the last year, and this group is also particularly liable to sexual harassment. An important task for researchers is to investigate how young women are affected by the frequent violence and what their everyday (violent) experience of life is like. What are the consequences of the violence in terms of the conditions in which young women live?

• Sexual harassment Sexual harassment is very widespread. Female students are particularly subject to it; one female student in three has been sexually harassed in the last year. Seven out of ten women with university education but no degree have been sexually

88 harassed. How does the high incidence of harassment affect women’s life-situation and opportunities for study, and what sort of structures are found in the work environments where harassment occurs?

• Suicide and violent experiences What links are there between contemplated and attempted suicide by women and their experiences of violence? The prevalence study provides a platform for continued studies of this unexplored fi eld, in which the consequences of violence in terms of women’s will to live may be examined in greater detail.

• Violent experiences and health Previous research on the subject of violence and women’s health has been confi ned to women who have actively approached the health and medical services. The study reveals that abused women show both psychological and physical symptoms, and the pattern of injury thus brought to light indicates serious consequences of violence. Moreover, the results of the study reveal a picture of women’s use of psychopharmacological drugs. This being so, further research into the topic of abused women’s health would be of great interest.

• Discrepancies in the women’s responses There are great discrepancies in the women’s responses between general and specifi c questions and between reported violent experiences from present and former husbands/cohabitant partners respectively. Current relationships appear considerably more tranquil than relationships which have been terminated. These discrepancies ought to be studied in more detail.

• Violence and culture The prevalence study brings to the fore the need to study the links between gender, violence and culture in various majority- and minority-cultural situations. The infl uence of the Swedish gender equality discourse on the interpretations of violence committed by men of diverse cultural backgrounds, the view of the “immigrant male” as specially violent being one of these, appears to be an important subject for study, as also is its impact on the interpretations of violence committed by Swedish men.

• Comparisons between the Swedish and the Finnish study The results of the Swedish and Finnish prevalence studies show both similarities and differences between women’s reports of their experiences of violence. These studies ought to be compared in greater detail and analysed from a (gender-) cultural perspective in which similarities as well as differences in the reporting are analysed.

89 1 See ”Design of the questionnaire” and ”Methodological foundations” on the tendency to reinterpret, which intensifi es pari passu with the closeness of the relationship and the normalisation of the violence. 2 Jeffner 1997. 3 Mellberg, see Bibliography. 4 Ibid. 5 Discourse in this context signifi es the underlying meaning in public dialogue which may also be crystallised as defi ned conceptions and more or less defi ned social practices. Lundgren 2001 p 42. 6 There are differences, such as those pertaining to the breakdown into different relationships. In the Finnish questionnaire, known and unknown men are in the same category and boyfriends are not in a separate category. In addition there are differences as to how sexual violence is defi ned, the Swedish questionnaire being more concretely worded in this respect and offering more response options than the Finnish questionnaire. Our defi nition of sexual harassment is somewhat narrower than the Finnish as well. Moreover, the Finnish study is based on a sample of women aged 18-74 while the Swedish sample consisted of women aged 18-64.

90 Appendix APPENDIX 1

Dear Madam

The Government has decided that an enquiry into the safety of adult women is to be carried out in Sweden. We, the body charged with conducting the enquiry, are a research team based at Uppsala University and we have commissioned Statistics Sweden (Statistiska Centralbyrån, SCB) to distribute and collect a questionnaire pertaining to the issues involved. This will be the fi rst major study to make an analysis of women’s experiences. SCB has taken a random sample of 10 000 women aged 18-64 from the central population register, and your name is one of those selected.

You are requested kindly to complete the questionnaire and return it to SCB in the envelope supplied as soon as possible. No stamp is needed. Responding to the questionnaire is voluntary, but it is important that persons selected do reply if the results of the study are to be reliable. For statistical reasons we are unable to substitute anyone else in place of a person selected for the study. Do not feel intimidated by the length of the questionnaire. It is much shorter than it seems, as many of the questions do not apply to everyone. Some questions may be diffi cult or painful to answer, but it is only by obtaining the responses of women themselves that we can gain knowledge of women’s situation. Please do respond, even if you feel that many of the questions are not relevant to your life. Before fi lling in the questionnaire please read the instructions on the next page, where you will also fi nd information about what will be done with your answers. A separate information sheet is enclosed with details of organisations concerned with women’s safety issues. If you have any queries or comments to make about the questionnaire, please telephone 0200-22 00 33. Your call will be free of charge. Any questions you may have regarding the way this enquiry is conducted will be answered by SCB, telephone 019 – 17 60 00. Ask for Inga-Britt Svalstedt or Marie Löfl ing. We thank you in advance for taking part.

Eva Lundgren Gun Heimer Professor of Sociology, especially women’s research. Associate Professor and Chief Physician. Department of Sociology, Uppsala University Head of Swedish National Center for Battered and Raped Women, (Rikskvinnocentrum) Department of Women’s and Children’s Health (Kvinnokliniken) Uppsala University Hospital

92 APPENDIX 1 What will be done with your answers? Receipt of your completed questionnaire will be noted by SCB, after which your name, address and other identity details will be destroyed. Everyone working on the study is bound by professional secrecy. SCB will assemble the answers in a computer fi le and hand it to us. The fi le will contain no identity details; thus you as a respondent will be entirely anonymous. The completed questionnaires, with no identifi cation other than a serial number, will be handed to us for processing of open answers. If you are willing to take part in a follow-up interview you may indicate this on page 32 of the questionnaire. If you do this, your response will be de-identifi ed when the interview is completed. SCB will notify your response to the research team (ourselves) along with your name and address to enable us to contact you. Your answers will always be treated as confi dential. The results will be published in a research report in such a form as to render it impossible to recognise individual persons. The report will be compiled by the research team at Uppsala University and will be published about halfway through the year 2000. How to complete the questionnaire Read the instructions for each question before entering your answers. It is a good idea to look through the entire questionnaire before fi lling it in. Your answers will be recorded mechanically. It is therefore important to keep the following in mind when answering questions. Use a pencil or ballpoint pen. Indicate your answer by means of a cross in the box adjacent to the alternative which you consider correct. Examples: x Yes  No If you mark the wrong box and wish to change to another alternative, fi ll up the incorrect box completely and indicate the correct one. Examples: xYes No Sometimes you are asked to indicate fi gures. Write the fi gures as clearly as possible inside the frame. Examples: 19

If you want to write more text than there is room for along the dotted lines provided, you may do so, but do not write too close to the boxes.

93 APPENDIX 1

1. How many persons are there in your household? Household means people who live and eat together and/or use their incomes jointly. Include yourself.

persons

2. Who else belongs to your household besides yourself? You may select more than one alternative:  My husband or cohabitant partner  My children by my partner  My own children  My partner’s own children  My own or my partner’s parents  Other persons  No one else; I live alone

3. How many children are there in your household?  Number of children aged 07  Number of children aged 7-14  Number of children aged 15-18

4. What is the highest stage of education which you have completed?  I have not completed compulsory schooling  Compulsory schooling (elementary school, comprehensive school, nine- year school)  Secondary schooling (junior secondary school, girls’ school, upper secondary school, folk high school)  University/College without a degree  University/College with a degree

5. What is your occupation?

6. What is your monthly income after tax? Income includes salary, sickness benefi t, pension, student grant and unemployment benefi t State the approximate amount  Not more than 5 000 SEK  5 001 – 10 000 SEK  10 001 – 15 000 SEK  15 001-20 000 SEK  More than 20 000 SEK

94 APPENDIX 1

7. What is your present employment status?  Full-time employee (35 hours a week or more)  Part-time employee (less than 35 hours a week)  Self-employed farmer  Other self-employment  On parental leave  Unemployed  Retired  On long-term sick leave (more than 3 months)  On temporary disability pension  Student  Looking after the home  Other; please specify

8. In which year were you born? 19

9. Where were you born?  Sweden  Another Nordic country  Another European country  Africa  Asia  North America  Latin America  Australia  Don’t know

10. Where were your parents born? Your mother Your father  Sweden  Sweden  Another Nordic country  Another Nordic country  Another European country  Another European country  Africa  Africa  Asia Asia  North America  North America  Latin America  Latin America  Australia  Australia  Don’t know  Don’t know

95 APPENDIX 1

11. How would you describe your state of health? Would you say that it is…  excellent  very good  good  fairly good  poor  very poor

12. Are there things you cannot do at home, at work or at school because of functional disorder/disability or long-term health problems?  Yes  No → Go to question 14

13. What is the functional disorder/disability or long-term health problem which restricts your activities?

14. In the last month, have you suffered much, little or not at all from the following? Much Little Not at all - Headaches    - Recurrent pain in other parts of the body    - Stomach trouble    - Numbness or weakness of arms or legs    - Palpitation of the heart or irregular heartbeat    - Nausea or vomiting    - Dizziness    - Shakiness of the hands    - Heavy perspiration without having exerted the body   

15. In the last month, have you had the following symptoms? Much Little Not at all - Over-exertion    - Impaired memory or impaired concentration    - Weakness or tiredness    - Sleeplessness    - Nervousness or tension    - Irritability    - Depression    - A feeling of everything becoming too much for you   

96 APPENDIX 1

16. How often do you engage in the following recreational activities?

Every 1-3 times Occatio- week a month nally Never - Visiting friends, relatives or acquaintances     - Charitable or other voluntary work     - Cultural activities or entertainments     (cinema, concert, theatre etc.) - Dancing or going out with friends     - Studying (e.g. through an educational association) or any other hobbies (e.g. music)     - Physical exercise or sport    

17. In the last month, how many times have you used alcohol and/or drugs? Alcohol (except low-alcohol and medium-strength beer); Drugs  Every day  Every day  2-3 times a week  2-3 times a week  1-2 times a week  1-2 times a week  Once a fortnight  Once a fortnight  Once  Once  Never  Never  Don’t know/Don’t remember  Don’t know/Don’t remember

18. In the last month, have you taken medication in order to sleep, calm your nerves or relieve depression? Select one alternative or more  Yes, in order to sleep  Yes, in order to calm my nerves  Yes, to relieve depression  No, I do not use medication in order to sleep, calm my nerves or relieve depression → Go to question 20

19. Name the medication used

20. When it is dark and you are walking home alone, how do you feel?  Very worried  A little worried  Not worried at all  I never walk home alone when it is dark because I am afraid of violence  I never walk home alone when it is dark  Don’t know

97 APPENDIX 1

21. How worried are you in case a family member/relative may employ violence towards you?  Very worried  A little worried  Not worried at all  I have no family  Don’t know

22. How worried are you in case you may be raped by an unknown man?  Very worried  A little worried  Not worried at all  Don’t know

23. Have you prepared yourself for possible violent situations by…

Yes No - carrying an object on your person capable of being used in self-defence or to call for help   - thinking about how to act in a violent situation   - attending a course in self-defence  

Below are some questions about your experiences of harassment by men with whom you do not have and have not had a sexual relationship (for example friends, relatives, colleagues and unknown men).

ALL QUESTIONS REFER TO EVENTS OCCURRING AFTER YOUR FIFTEENTH BIRTHDAY

98 APPENDIX 1

24. Many women receive unwanted attentions from men. Has it ever happened that a man with whom you do not have and have not had a sexual relationship has … Place a cross in one box for “In the last twelve months” and one for “Earlier”, i.e. two boxes completed for each response In the last twelvemonths Earlier Yes No Yes No - made indecent or obscene telephone calls to you?     - exposed himself indecently to you?     - made you feel uneasy by commenting on your body or private life, or by making sexual allusions?     - made you feel uneasy by asking you out several times and not taking no for an answer?     - leaned over you, come too close or forced you into a corner in a way that made you feel uncomfortable?     - acted in a way that you felt to be sexually threatening?     - followed you in a way that frightened you?     - given you to understand that it might be bad for you in your job or your studies if you did not agree to have sex with him?    

25. If you have experienced any of the above, who was/were the man/men in question? You may select more than one alternative

 Superior at work/supervisor/teacher  Work colleague/fellow-student/fellow-pupil  Client/customer/patient  Doctor/psychologist/clergyman  Father or stepfather  Brother or stepbrother  Son/stepson  Grandfather  Other relative  Friend  Acquaintance/neighbour  Someone unknown  Someone else; state who….

99 APPENDIX 1

Below are some questions about various kinds of threats, physical violence and sexual abuse. The questions still refer only to men with whom you do not have and have not had a sexual relationship ALL QUESTIONS REFER TO EVENTS OCCURRING AFTER YOUR FIFTEENTH BIRTHDAY

26. Has any man with whom you do not have and have not had a sexual relationship ever… Place a cross in one box for “In the last twelve months” and one for “Earlier”, i.e. two boxes completed for each response In the last twelvemonths Earlier Yes No Yes No - forced you into any form of sexual activity by threatening you, holding you or hurting you in any way?     - tried to force you into any form of sexual activity by threatening you, holding you or hurting you in any way?     - forced you or tried to force you into any form of sexual activity when you were unable to defend yourself, e.g. because you were asleep or under the infl uence of drugs?     - touched you in a sexual way against your will, e.g. by grabbing, holding, kissing or hugging you?     - subjected you to physical violence (physical violence means e.g. being struck on the face or body, being pushed, forced against a wall, kicked, held in order to be struck, bitten, cut with a knife or shot)?     - threatened face to face to harm you physically?     - threatened by telephone or letter to harm you physically?

If you have never experienced any of the situations specified in question 26, please proceed to question 33.

27. How many times have you experienced the situations specifi ed in question 26? In the last twelve months Earlier  Once Once  2-10 times  2-10 times  11-50 times  11-50 times  More than 50 times  More than 50 times  Don’t know/Don’t remember Don’t know/Don’t remember  Never  Never

100 APPENDIX 1

28. Which of the alternatives specifi ed in question 26 happened most recently?  Don’t know 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 /Don’t remember

29. When did this happen?  Less than a year ago  1-5 years ago  6-10 years ago  More than 10 years ago

30. Where were you the last time it happened?  At my home  At someone else’s home  In the courtyard or stairway of a block of fl ats  At school or at work  At a restaurant or dance hall  In a car  On public transport, e.g. a bus  In some other indoor location  In a street, square or other public place  In a park or wood  In some other outdoor location  Don’t know/Don’t remember

31. Who was/were the man/men who harassed you on the last occasion?  Superior at work/supervisor/teacher  Work colleague/fellow-student/fellow-pupil  Client/customer/patient  Doctor/psychologist/clergyman  Father or stepfather  Brother or stepbrother  Son/stepson  Grandfather  Other relative  Friend  Acquaintance/neighbour  Someone unknown  Someone else; state who….

101 APPENDIX 1

32. Where were you when it last happened?  In Sweden, in my then home district  In Sweden, in a place other than my home district  Abroad

The following questions (33-39) refer to threats, physical violence etc on the part of boyfriends and other men with whom you have or have had a sexual relationship but have not been married to or lived with.

If you have never had such a relationship, please proceed to question 40.

REMEMBER THAT ALL QUESTIONS REFER TO EVENTS OCCURRING AFTER YOUR FIFTEENTH BIRTHDAY

33. Has a man with whom you have or have had a sexual relationship, but have not been married to or lived with ever… Place a cross in one box for “In the last twelve months” and one for “Earlier”, i.e. two boxes completed for each response In the last twelvemonths Earlier - used pornography in a way that you felt was Yes No Yes No unpleasant or offensive    

34. Has any man with whom you have or have had a sexual relationship but have not been married to or lived with ever… Place a cross in one box for “In the last twelve months” and one for “Earlier”, i.e. two boxes completed for each response In the last twelvemonths Earlier - forced you into any form of sexual activity by Yes No Yes No threatening you, holding you or hurting you in any way?     - tried to force you into any form of sexual activity by threatening you, holding you or hurting you in any way?     - forced you or tried to force you into any form of sexual activity when you were unable to defend yourself, e.g. because you were asleep or under the  infl uence of drugs?     - touched you in a sexual way against your will,  e.g.  by grabbing, holding, kissing or hugging you?     - subjected  you to physical violence?     - threatened  face to face to harm you physically?     - threatened  by telephone or letter to harm you physically?    

102 APPENDIX 1

If you have never experienced any of the situations specifi ed in question 34, please proceed to the instructions at question 40.

35. How many times have you experienced the situations specifi ed in question 34?

In the last twelve months Earlier  Once  Once  2-10 times  2-10 times  11-50 times  11-50 times  More than 50 times  More than 50 times  Don’t know/Don’t remember  Don’t know/Don’t remember  Never  Never

36. Which of the alternatives specifi ed in question 34 happened most recently?

        Don’t know 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 /Don’t remember

37. When did it happen?  Less than a year ago  1-5 years ago  6-10 years ago  More than 10 years ago

38. Where did it happen?  At my own home  At someone else’s home  In the courtyard or stairway of a block of fl ats  At school or at work  At a restaurant or dance hall  In a car  On public transport, e.g. a bus  In some other indoor location  In a street, square or other public place  In a park or wood  In some other outdoor location  Don’t know/Don’t remember

103 APPENDIX 1

39. Where were you when it happened?

 In Sweden, in my then home district  In Sweden, at a location other than my home district  Abroad

The following questions (40-79) refer to marriage or cohabitation with a man.

40. What is your present civil status?

 Unmarried and not cohabiting with a man  Married, living with my husband  Cohabiting with a man  Married but living apart from my husband  Divorced/separated from a former male partner  Non-cohabitant partner  Widow

41. How many men have you been married to or cohabited with?

Include your present husband/cohabitant partner

men

The questions which follow refer to your present marriage or cohabitant relationship. If you are not currently married or cohabiting but used to be, please proceed to question 62. If you have never been married to or cohabiting with a man, please proceed to the instructions at question 80.

42. How long has your present marriage/cohabitant relationship lasted?

Please state number of years and months If more than two years, please state number of years only

years and months

43. In what year was your present husband/cohabitant partner born?

19

104 APPENDIX 1

44. How would you describe the relationship between you and your present husband/ cohabitant partner?  Very good  Good  Satisfactory  Not so good  Bad  Very bad

45. What is your present husband’s/cohabitant partner’s present employment status?  Full-time employee (35 hours a week or more)  Part-time employee (less than 35 hours a week)  Self-employed farmer  Other self-employed  On parental leave  Unemployed  Retired  On long-term sick leave (more than 3 months)  Student  Looking after the home  Other; please specify

46. What is your present husband’s/cohabitant partner’s occupation?

47. What is the highest stage of education that your present husband/ cohabitant partner has completed?

 He has not completed compulsory schooling  Compulsory schooling (elementary school, comprehensive school, nine- year school)  Secondary schooling (junior secondary school, upper secondary school, folk high school)  University/College without a degree  University/College with a degree  Other. Please specify…......

105 APPENDIX 1

48. Where was your present husband/cohabitant partner born?  Sweden  Another Nordic country  Another European country  Africa  Asia  North America  Latin America  Australia  Don’t know

49. Where were your present husband’s/cohabitant partner’s parents born? His mother His father  Sweden Sweden Another Nordic country  Another Nordic country Another European country Another European country Africa  Africa Asia  Asia  North America North America  Latin America  Latin America  Australia Australia Don’t know  Don’t know

50. How often does your present husband/cohabitant partner drink alcohol and/or use drugs? Alcohol (except for low-alcohol and medium-strength beer) Drugs

 Every day  Every day  2-3 times a week  2-3 times a week  1-2 times a week 1-2 times a week  Once a month or so  Once a month or so  Every other month Every other month  Once a year or so Once a year or so  Never during the past year Never during the past year  Never  Never  Don’t know Don’t know

106 APPENDIX 1

51. Place a cross in the box(es) for any one or more of the following descriptions applying to your present husband/cohabitant partner. Yes No He is jealous and wants to know whom you have met and what you have been doing   He calls you disparaging names   He makes you feel inferior and useless   He often provokes a quarrel when you are going to see relatives or friends   He forbids you to see relatives or friends   He does not let you make decisions about money or buy things you want   He forbids you to work outside the home   He threatens to harm your children   He deliberately damages your belongings or things you like   He threatens to harm himself if you leave him  

52. Has your present husband/cohabitant partner ever… Place a cross in one box for “In the last twelve months” and one for “Earlier”, i.e. two boxes completed for each response In the last twelvemonths Earlier - used pornography in a way that you Yes No Yes No felt was unpleasant or offensive    

53. Has your present husband/cohabitant partner ever… Place a cross in one box for “In the last twelve months” and one for “Earlier”, i.e. two boxes completed for each response In the last twelveEarliermonths - forced you into any form of sexual activity by threatening you, Yes No Yes No holding you or hurting you in any way?     - tried to force you into any form of sexual activity by threatening you, holding  you or hurting you in any way?     - forced you or tried to force you into any form of sexual activity when you were unable to defend yourself, e.g. because you were asleep or under the infl uence of drugs?     - touched you in a sexual way against your will, e.g. by grabbing, holding, kissing or hugging you?    

107 APPENDIX 1

54. Has your present husband/cohabitant partner ever been violent towards you in any of the following ways? Place a cross in one box for “In the last twelve months” and one for “Earlier”, i.e. two boxes completed for each response In the last twelveEarliermonths Yes No Yes No - Thrown something at you which could have injured you     - Pushed you, held you or dragged you     - Punched  you, struck you with a hard object or kicked you     - Throttled  you or tried to suffocate you     - Banged  your head against something     - Threatened  you with or used a knife, fi rearm or any other weapon     - Been  violent in any other way; please specify…    

If you have never experienced any of the situations specifi ed in questions 53 and 54, please proceed to the instructions at question 62.

55. How many times has your present husband/cohabitant partner subjected you to any of the experiences specifi ed in questions 53 and 54?

In the last twelve months Earlier

 Once  Once  2-10 times  2-10 times  11-50 times  11-50 times  More than 50 times  More than 50 times  Don’t know/Don’t remember  Don’t know/Don’t remember  Never  Never

56. When was the fi rst time your present husband/cohabitant partner subjected you to some form of violence (threats, physical violence or sexual abuse)?

 Less than a year ago  More than a year ago  2 years ago  3-4 years ago  5-6 years ago  7-10 years ago  More than 10 years ago  Don’t know/Don’t remember

108 APPENDIX 1

57. When was the last time your husband/cohabitant partner did this?

 During the last month  2-3 months ago  4-6 months ago  7-11 months ago  One year ago  2 years ago  3-4 years ago  5-10 years ago  More than 10 years ago  Don’t know/Don’t remember

58. Were you threatened or subjected to physical violence or sexual abuse by your present husband/cohabitant partner before you got married or moved in together?  Yes  No  Don’t know/Don’t remember

59. If you have been pregnant by your present husband/cohabitant partner, did he subject you to any form of threats while you were pregnant?

 Yes, but the threats began before the pregnancy  Yes, the threats began during the pregnancy  No, but the threats began before the child was one year old  No  Don’t know/Don’t remember  I have never been pregnant by my present husband/cohabitant partner

60. If you have been pregnant by your present husband/cohabitant partner, did he subject you to any form of physical violence or sexual abuse while you were pregnant?

 Yes, but the violence began before the pregnancy  Yes, the violence began during the pregnancy  No, but the violence began before the child was one year old  No  Don’t know/Don’t remember  I have never been pregnant by my present husband/cohabitant partner

109 APPENDIX 1

61. If you have children, (whether by your present husband/cohabitant partner or not), have any of them ... Don’t know Yes No /Don’t remember - seen or heard your husband/cohabitant partner behave violently towards you?    - been subjected to violence by your husband/cohabitant partner?    - been subjected to any form of sexual abuse by your husband/cohabitant partner?   

If your present relationship is the fi rst time you have been married or cohabiting, please proceed to the instructions at question 80.

Questions 62-79 refer to former husbands/cohabitant partners.

62. Place a cross in the box(es) for any one or more of the following descriptions applying to a former husband/cohabitant partner of yours Yes No - He was jealous and wanted to know whom you had met and what you had been doing   - He called you disparaging names   - He made you feel inferior and useless   - He often provoked a quarrel when you were going to see relatives or friends   - He forbade you to see your relatives or friends   - He did not let you make decisions about money or buy things you wanted   - He forbade you to work outside the home   - He threatened to harm your children   - He deliberately damaged your belongings or things you liked   - He threatened to harm himself if you left him  

63. Has a former husband/cohabitant partner ever… Place a cross in one box for “In the last twelve months” and one for “Earlier”, i.e. two boxes completed for each response In the last twelveEarliermonths - used pornography in a way which you Yes No Yes No felt to be unpleasant or offensive?    

110 APPENDIX 1

64. Has a former husband/cohabitant partner ever…

Place a cross in one box for “In the last twelve months” and one for “Earlier”, i.e. two boxes completed for each response In the last twelveEarliermonths Yes No Yes No - forced you into any form of sexual activity by threatening you, holding you or hurting you in any way?     - tried to force you into any form of sexual activity by threatening you, holding you or hurting you in any way?     - forced you or tried to force you into any form of sexual activity when you were unable to defend yourself, e.g. because you were asleep or under the infl uence of drugs?     - touched you in a sexual way against your will, e.g. by grabbing, holding, kissing or hugging you?    

65. Has a former husband/cohabitant partner ever behaved violently towards you in any of the following ways?

Place a cross in one box for “In the last twelve months” and one for “Earlier”, i.e. two boxes completed for each response In the last twelveEarliermonths Yes No Yes No - Threatened to injure you physically     - Thrown something object at you which could have injured you     - Pushed you, held you or dragged you     - Punched you, struck you with a hard object or kicked you     - Throttled you or tried to suffocate you     - Banged your head against something     - Threatened you with or used a knife, fi rearm or other weapon     - Behaved violently in some other way; please specify…......

If you have never been subjected by a former husband/cohabitant partner to the kind of physical/sexual violence or threats described in questions 64 and 65, please proceed to the instructions at question 80.

The following questions concern your most recent past relationship (marriage or cohabitation) in which you were subjected to threats, violence or sexual abuse. Thus, do not include your present relationship, even if in this relationship you are being subjected to violence and threats.

111 APPENDIX 1

66. How many times have you been subjected by your former husband/cohabitant partner to the abuses specifi ed in questions 64 and 65?

In the last twelve months Earlier  Once  Once  2-10 times  2-10 times  11-50 times 11-50 times  More than 50 times  More than 50 times  Don’t know/Don’t remember Don’t know/Don’t remember  Never  Never

67. Did your former husband/cohabitant partner subject you to any form of threats, physical violence or sexual abuse before you got married or moved in together?  Yes  No  Don’t know/Don’t remember

68. If you have been pregnant by your former husband/cohabitant partner, did he subject you to any form of threats during your pregnancy?

 Yes, but the threats began before the pregnancy  Yes, the threats began during the pregnancy  No, but the threats began before the child was one year old  No  Don’t know/Don’t remember  I have never been pregnant by my former husband/cohabitant partner

69. If you have been pregnant by your former husband/cohabitant partner, did he subject you to any form of physical violence or sexual abuse during the pregnancy?

 Yes, but the violence began before the pregnancy  Yes, the violence began during the pregnancy  No, but the violence began before the child was one year old  No  Don’t know/Don’t remember  I have never been pregnant by my former husband/cohabitant partner

112 APPENDIX 1

70. Since you and your former husband/cohabitant partner divorced or separated, has he… Yes No Don’t know/ Don’t remember - threatened you face to face or over the telephone?    - come to your home against your will?    - waited for, waylaid or followed you?    - subjected you to physical or sexual violence?   

71. Has your former husband/cohabitant partner ever subjected you to threats, violence or harassment of the kinds specifi ed in question 70 in connection with access to or contact with your children by that husband/cohabitant partner, or on occasions when you/he have been collecting or handing over the children?

 I have no children by my former husband/cohabitant partner → Please proceed to question 73

 No

 Yes. Please place a cross in the appropriate box/boxes to specify which of the alternatives in question 70 you have experienced     1 2 3 4  Don’t know/Don’t remember

72. If you have children, have any of your children… Yes No Don’t know/ Don’t remember - seen or heard your former husband/cohabitant partner behave violently towards you?    - been subjected to violence by your former husband/cohabitant partner?    - been subjected to any form of sexual abuse by your former husband/cohabitant partner?   

73. What is the highest stage of education that your former husband/cohabitant partner has completed?

 He has not completed compulsory schooling  Compulsory schooling (elementary school, comprehensive school, nine-year school)  Secondary schooling (junior secondary school, upper secondary school, folk highschool)  University/College without a degree  University/College with a degree  Other. Please specify…......

113 APPENDIX 1

74. What was your former husband’s/cohabitant partner’s occupation while you were married/cohabiting?

75. Where was your former husband/cohabitant partner born?

 Sweden  Another Nordic country  Another European country  Africa  Asia  North America  Latin America  Australia  Don’t know

76. Where were your former husband’s/cohabitant partner’s parents born?

His mother His father  Sweden  Sweden Another Nordic country  Another Nordic country Another European country  Another European country  Africa  Africa  Asia  Asia  North America  North America  Latin America  Latin America  Australia  Australia Don’t know Don’t know

77. During the last month you were living together, how often did your former husband/cohabitant partner drink alcohol and/or use drugs? Alcohol (except low-alcohol and medium-strength beer) Drugs  Every day  Every day  2-3 times a week  2-3 times a week  1-2 times a week 1-2 times a week  Every fortnight  Every fortnight  Once Once  Never  Never  Don’t know/Don’t remember  Don’t know/Don’t remember

114 APPENDIX 1

78. When did you separate for good?

19

79. How long had your relationship lasted? Please state number of years and months If it lasted more than two years, please state number of years only

years and months

THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS REFER TO EVERY INCIDENT OF VIOLENCE AND/OR THREATS TO WHICH YOU HAVE BEEN SUBJECTED BY ANY MAN AFTER YOUR FIFTEENTH BIRTHDAY. If you have no experiences of a man subjecting you to threats, violence or sexual abuse, please proceed to the instructions at question 102.

80. Have you ever been physically injured as a result of physical violence or sexual abuse? One or more alternatives may be selected  No physical injuries → Please proceed to question 86  Bruises, grazes  Wounds  Pulled muscle, rupture or dislocation of joint(s)  Fracture  Broken tooth  Miscarriage  Internal injuries  Concussion  Bodily ache/pain  Other injury; please specify…......

81. Did you consult a doctor about your injuries?  No, since they were only minor → Please proceed to question 86  No, but I should have → Please proceed to question 86  Yes, I saw a doctor or nurse but was not admitted to hospital  Yes, I was admitted to hospital

115 APPENDIX 1

82. Did you tell the person treating you that the cause of your injuries was violence by a man?

 Yes  No

83. Were you satisfi ed with the treatment you received?

 Very satisfi ed  Fairly satisfi ed  Not so satisfi ed  Dissatisfi ed

84. Did you experience any of the following problems in your contacts with the medical service?

Yes No - The staff made light of your case or seemed uninterested   - You received little information as to other possibilities of obtaining support and help   - The staff broke their professional secrecy obligation   - Any other problem, please specify…......

85. Has an affi davit regarding your injuries ever been issued during your contacts with the medical service?

 Yes  No  Don’t know/Don’t remember

86. How have your experiences affected you? Do you think that they have resulted in any of the following?

Yes No - Fear   - Feelings of shame   - Feelings of guilt   - Anger or hatred   - Depression   - Tiredness and listlessness   - Poor self-esteem   - Sleeplessness or nightmares   - Diffi culties in concentrating - Diffi culties in relationships with men   - Diffi culties during gynaecological examinations   - Diffi culties at work or with studies   - Other problems; please specify…......

116 APPENDIX 1

To be able to estimate the prevalence of violence against women, it is important to fi nd out whether women report violent incidents to the police. The questions which follow refer to your most recent experience of violence and whether you reported it to the police.

87. What was the most recent type of violence/abuse to which you were subjected?

 A man exposed himself indecently to me  An unknown man touched me in a sexual way against my will  Attempted rape by an unknown man  Rape by an unknown man  Attempted rape by a man with whom I have or have had a sexual relationship  Rape by a man with whom I have or have had a sexual relationship  Some other type of sexual abuse by a man with whom I have or have had a sexual relationship  Attempted rape by another man whom I know  Rape by another man whom I know  Some other type of sexual abuse by another man whom I know  Physical violence by an unknown man  Physical violence by a man with whom I have or have had a sexual relationship  Physical violence by another man whom I know  Threats by an unknown man  Threats by a man with whom I have or have had a sexual relationship  Threats by another man whom I know  Other; please specify…

88a. Where were you when this happened?

 At my own home  At someone else’s home  In the courtyard or stairway of a block of fl ats  At school or at work  At a restaurant or dance hall  In a car  On public transport, e.g. a bus  In some other indoor location  In a street, a square or other public place  In a park or wood  In some other outdoor location  Don’t know/Don’t remember

117 APPENDIX 1

88b. In which country did it happen?

 In Sweden  Abroad

89. When did it happen?

 Less than a year ago  1-5 years ago  6-10 years ago  More than ten years ago

90. Did you report the incident to the police?  Yes → Please proceed to question 92  No, but the police found out about the incident in some other way  No

91. If you did not report the incident to the police, what was the main reason for not doing so?

Select one alternative only  I did not think the police would believe me  I did not think the police would be able to do anything  I thought the incident was too trivial  I was ashamed or had feelings of guilt  I was afraid the perpetrator might take revenge  I did not want the police to get involved  I did not want the perpetrator to go to prison  Other reason, please specify…  Don’t know/Don’t remember

If you have never been in contact with the Swedish police as a result of having been subjected to violence, threats or sexual abuse, please proceed to the instructions at question 95 The following questions refer to your experience of contact with the Swedish police.

92. When was the last time you were in contact with the police as a result of having been subjected to violence, threats or sexual abuse?  Less than a year ago  1-5 years ago  6-10 years ago  More than ten years ago

118 APPENDIX 1

93. How satisfi ed were you with the way the police handled your case?

 Very satisfi ed  Satisfi ed  Not so satisfi ed  Dissatisfi ed

94. Did you experience any of the following problems in your contacts with the police?

Yes No - The police did not make suffi cient effort to solve the crime   - The police made light of your case or seemed uninterested   - You received little information as to other possibilities of obtaining support and help   - The police blamed you for what had happened   - Any other problem, please specify…......

Questions 95-101 refer to your most recent marriage/cohabitant relationship in which threats, physical violence or sexual abuse occurred. (This includes your present marriage/cohabitant relationship, if applicable.) If you have never been subjected to threats, violence or sexual abuse by a husband/cohabitant partner, please proceed to question 102.

95. Have you ever sought assistance from any of the following services? If so, were you satisfi ed with the help you received?

Yes and satisfi ed Yes but dissatisfi ed No with the help received with the help received - Women’s refuge      - Victim support      - Social emergency service      - Social welfare secretary      - Lawyer      - Family counselling      - Psychiatrist      - Other medical service      - Other service, please specify…......

119 APPENDIX 1

96. If you have never sought assistance from any of the services mentioned in question 95, what was your main reason for not doing so?

Select one alternative only

 I did not know where to apply for help  There were no such services available  The waiting lists were too long  I thought the incident was too trivial  I felt ashamed  I was afraid I would be treated as if it were my own fault  No one would have believed me  My husband/cohabitant partner prevented me  I was afraid of losing the children  I did not want to end the relationship  I did not want or did not need help  Other reason; please specify…  Don’t know/Don’t remember

97. Have you ever left your husband/cohabitant partner or been separated from him because of his threats, physical violence or sexual abuse?

 No → Please proceed to question 102  Yes, I moved out  Yes, he moved out → Please proceed to question 99

98. If you moved out, where did you stay?

One or more alternatives may be selected

 With friends/relatives  In a new home  At a women’s refuge  At a social services hostel  At a hotel or the like  Other place; please specify…

99. Did you resume cohabitation?

 Yes  No → Please proceed to question 101

120 APPENDIX 1

100. If you resumed cohabitation, what was the main reason?

Select one alternative only  My husband/cohabitant partner promised to change  Financial reasons  I had nowhere to go  For the sake of the children  I was ashamed to divorce/separate  I wanted to give it another try  I still loved him  Other reason, please specify…......

101. If you did not resume cohabitation, what was the main reason?

Select one alternative only

 My husband’s/cohabitant partner’s violence towards me or the children  I wanted to lead my own life  My husband/partner wanted a divorce/separation  I found a new partner  I wanted the children to have a better life  My husband/cohabitant partner died  I did not love him anymore  Other reason; please specify…......

The following questions apply to EVERYONE

102. Was your father/stepfather ever violent towards your mother/stepmother?

 Yes  No  I had no father/stepfather  I had no mother/stepmother  Don’t know/Don’t remember

103. Was your present husband’s/cohabitant partner’s father/stepfather ever violent towards his partner or any other member of the family?

 Yes  No  My husband/cohabitant partner had no father/stepfather  I have no husband/cohabitant partner  Don’t know/Don’t remember

121 APPENDIX 1

104. Did anyone subject you to physical violence before you turned fi fteen years of age? Yes No Don’t know /Don’t remember - Father/stepfather    - Mother/stepmother    - Brother    - Sister    - Other family member, please specify…......    - Friend or acquaintance    - Someone unknown   

105. Before you turned fi fteen, did any man ever… Yes No Don’t know /Don’t remember - Act in a way which you felt to be sexually threatening?    - Force you into any form of sexual activity?    - Try to force you into any form of sexual activity?   

106. After you turned fi fteen, did any man ever get you to take part in some form of sexual activity although you did not really want to?

 Yes  No → Please proceed to question 109  Don’t know/Don’t remember

107. Who was it who got you to do this? Select all those applicable

 Boyfriend  Husband/cohabitant partner  Chance acquaintance  Other, please specify......

122 APPENDIX 1

108. How many times has this happened?

In the last twelve months Earlier  Once  Once  2-10 times  2-10 times  11-50 times 11-50 times  More than 50 times  More than 50 times  Don’t know/Don’t remember  Don’t know/Don’t remember  It has never happened  It has never happened

109. Have any of your children been subjected to violence by a partner of yours?

 Yes, by a former husband/cohabitant partner  Yes, by my present husband/cohabitant partner  Yes, by a boyfriend/chance acquaintance  No  Don’t know/Don’t remember  I do not have any children

110. Have any of your children been subjected to sexual abuse by a partner of yours?

 Yes, by a former husband/cohabitant partner  Yes, by my present husband/cohabitant partner  Yes, by a boyfriend/chance acquaintance  No  Don’t know/Don’t remember  I do not have any children

111. If you have been subjected to rape, attempted rape or sexual abuse, were there ever two or more perpetrators?

 Yes  No  Don’t know/Don’t remember  I have not been subjected to rape, attempted rape or sexual abuse

112. Have you ever… Yes No - attempted suicide?   - contemplated suicide?  

123 APPENDIX 1

113. Have you ever… Yes No - taken part in sexual activity for money?   - posed for pornography for money, for example   by being photographed or videotaped?   - worked at a so-called porno club?  

We would also like to ask you if you would consider taking part in a follow-up to this questionnaire. This is irrespective of whether or not you have experienced violence or other abuse. Your anonymity is of course still guaranteed, but the research team making this study may contact you. You may at any point change your mind and terminate your participation.

114. Would you consider taking part in a follow-up to this questionnaire?

 Yes, I would consider taking part  No, it is too painful  No, I do not have time  No, I am not interested  No; other reason; please specify…......  No

115. Finally we would like to ask you what advice you would give to a woman who is being subjected to violence

124 APPENDIX 1 Thank you for taking part.

We of the research team greatly appreciate your having taken the time and trouble to assist in this survey.

If you have any questions, if the questions in the survey bring something to mind which you would like to discuss, or if you wish to contact us for any other reason, please telephone 0200-22 00 33. Your call will be free of charge.

The enclosed folder gives information on a number of organisations and authorities which provide support to vulnerable women. Feel free to keep the folder when you return the completed questionnaire.

Once again, thank you for your help.

125

APPENDIX 2

Preliminaries to the study

Pilot studies Three pilot studies were made of the University and Professor Sven-Olof questionnaire. One of the pilot groups Isacsson of Lund University. The grounds consisted of women of multicultural for appointment of the reference group’s background. The aim was to test the members were their expertise in the relevance of the questions and the language use of statistical methods and/or their and readability of the questionnaire. The familiarity with the research field of second pilot group comprised women of violence against women. different ages and diverse professional and At the group’s fi rst meeting the preli- geographic/demographic background. minary draft of the questionnaire was With this group the aim was to test the discussed in general terms. At the second relevance of the questions, the length meeting the questionnaire was presented of the questionnaire and the degree of in a fi nished version which had been tested diffi culty of the instructions. Finally, a on two of the pilot groups. The purpose of pilot test was made on a group possessing this meeting was for the research team to professional qualifications in violence obtain the reference group’s views on the and/or gender theory. The aim was to questionnaire. The members representing obtain their opinions on the sequencing BRÅ were critical of the structure and and positioning of the questions, the length of the questionnaire. The essence of wording of the instructions, the length their criticism was that the questionnaire and level of diffi culty of the questionnaire, did not provide any scope for analysing and whether any of the questions could be the number of occurrences of each type considered to violate personal integrity. of abuse separately, since the question about how many times the respondent Reference group had been subjected to violence referred to A reference group was involved in the several different kinds of act; see questions project. It met twice, in October 1998 27, 35, 55 and 66. and May 1999. Its members were Eckart BRÅ also criticised the length of the Külhorn, of the National Council for questionnaire. It was felt that this would Crime Prevention (Brottsförebyggande have a drastic effect on the percentage Rådet, BRÅ), Britta Bjelle, Director- of responses. For the rest, the reference General of the Crime Victim Compensa- group’s overall opinion of the questionnaire tion and Support Authority ( Brottsof- was favourable. The opinions expressed fermyndigheten), Associate Professor Bo by the reference group resulted in valuable Lewin of Uppsala University, Professor linguistic alterations and changes to the Maud Eduards of Stockholm University, response options. Professor Gunnel Gustafsson of Umeå

127 APPENDIX 2 The Finnish prevalence study number to SCB which respondents could The research team paid a visit to Statistics call with questions about the way the Finland (Statistikcentralen) in Helsinki survey was being conducted. A total of and also to Minna Piispa and Markku 120 telephone calls were received via the Heiskanen, who had worked together on 0200 number between 1 October 1999 the Finnish study entitled Faith, Hope and 15 January 2000. and Battering. The discussions focused Of these, 59 were to the effect that mainly on practical issues with regard the women concerned did not wish to to the design of the questionnaire and respond to the questionnaire. Eleven of the Finnish team’s experience of the the calls were made by men on behalf of compilation procedure. Parts of our the women concerned. The remaining questionnaire are based on the Finnish callers enquired about anonymity and the one, and the contacts we have had with the way in which the target population was Finnish research team during the course sampled. In some instances the purpose of our work have been most valuable, of the call was to state that the person to particularly because their experiences whom the questionnaire was addressed enabled us to improve our questionnaire at was living abroad temporarily, and in a number of crucial points. One example a few others it was to advise that the of a specifi c change was the decision to woman in question had a severe mental reduce the age-range of the respondent disability making it impossible for her group from women aged 18-80 to women to participate. There were other cases aged 18-64, which was taken because in involving women whose impaired vision the Finnish study the dropout of women made it impossible for them to read the aged 65-plus was very large.1 Another questionnaire. Only three calls concerned example was the addition of a question interpretation of the questions. asking respondents whether they would Those calling to state their unwil- consider taking part in a follow-up lingness to take part in the study gave to the study. The discussions at the varying reasons: one woman felt that meeting also confi rmed the importance the questionnaire did not reflect her of making the questionnaire relatively experiences since only one question was easy to understand. about sexual abuse in childhood; 16 women thought the questions were private Contact with respondents and concerned matters which ought not Information about the study was provided to be enquired into; 21 women stated on the cover of the questionnaire, along lack of time to be the reason. Five of the with a freephone 0200 number which male callers stated that the woman did respondents could call with questions not speak Swedish and therefore could about the questionnaire. not answer, four men called to say that Collection of the data was undertaken the woman did not wish to participate, in cooperation with Statistics Sweden and two men said that the woman “did (Statistiska Centralbyrån, SCB). The not have those problems” and therefore continuation sheet gave a telephone did not intend to respond.

128 APPENDIX 2

Practical implementation Distribution of questionnaires to the persons selected began on 15 October, The Population and Welfare Unit (Con- and a thank-you and reminder card was sumption, Opinion and Civic Infl uence sent on 27 October. A fi rst reminder and Programme) of Statistics Sweden (Statis- new questionnaire were despatched on 10 tiska Centralbyrån, SCB) conducted the November followed by a second reminder sampling procedure for the questionnaire and new questionnaire on 1 December. (10 000 randomly selected women The cutoff date for collection of the data aged 18-64 living in Sweden) and also was 27 January 2000. By that time 6 distributed, reminded, collected and 926 responses had been received (117 scanned the responses. women had died or emigrated, making SCB assisted in designing the ques- an effective sample of 9 883 women). tionnaire form (SCB being responsible The total dropout was thus 2 957, cor- for the layout), sampling the target responding to a response rate of 70.1 population, collecting the data, recording per cent. the responses and compiling a fi le of the results. The target population of this 4500 study was persons aged 18-64 resident in 4000 3834 Sweden. At the time of sampling there 3500 were 2 642 563 women of the relevant age group. 3000 SCB’s register of total population (RTB) 2500 2000 was used as the sampling frame. Ten 1794 thousand persons born during the period 1500 1935-1980 were selected with the same 1000 828 selection probability. Not only the variables 500 344 elicited via the questionnaire but also the 0 991021- 991101- 991116- 991201- year of birth, marital status, county and 991029 991115 991130 991229 municipality codes from SCB’s population Fig. Number of responses to the questionnaire register were entered into the register received during October, November and December of responses. 1999. (Frequency)

129 APPENDIX 3

Ethical scrutiny

In matters of violence towards women, sundry other organisations offering advice methodological and ethical questions and/or support to people in crisis. We cannot be separated. Accordingly it was also gave a 0200 number which women important that women participating in could call if they wished to enquire about the study should be given full and correct or comment on the questionnaire. Two information on such matters as the manner women called to talk over memories which in which their responses to questions would had been aroused by the questionnaire. be handled and the fact that taking part Despite violence to women being a in the survey was voluntary. diffi cult subject, this does not mean that a One vital ethical problem when postal woman questioned about her experiences questionnaires are sent to women’s homes necessarily fi nds herself negatively affected. is that the questionnaire will be received Filling in the questionnaire may also func- by some women who are still cohabiting tion as an opportunity for the respondent with abusing men. We considered that the to put a name to her experiences and questionnaire might be “neutralised” by systematise them. The results of the pilot giving it certain external attributes, such studies confirmed that these reactions as despatching the questionnaire in SCB’s occurred. envelopes, using the University logo on The study was scrutinised from the the questionnaire and discussing the ethical standpoint by the ethical committee safety of women on the fi rst page of the of the Swedish Council for Research questionnaire while abstaining from the in the Humanities and Social Sciences word “violence”. (Humanistisk- Samhällsvetenskapliga Another ethical problem concerns the Forskningsrådets etikkommitté). The whole difficult and painful memories which of the material was placed at the disposal the questionnaire may reawaken among of the committee: description of the women. In spite of the complete information organisation of the study, background given to the respondent, it may be diffi cult material, complete questionnaire, letter of for a woman to foresee the emotional introduction and the Finnish questionnaire. reactions to which participation in the After requesting certain supplementary study can give rise. In other words, it is background information, the ethical an ethical problem in itself that the actual committee approved the study in May fi lling in of the questionnaire may be a 1999. very painful process. We considered that this problem might be mitigated by enclosing with the questionnaire a list of telephone numbers to all women’s refuges in Sweden and

130 APPENDIX 4

Method

Data collection One important aim of the study was to response frequency must be considered describe Swedish women’s experiences of high. The identity number had been torn male violence. We therefore decided to off the incoming replies in 56 instances. base the survey on a very large sample Although these respondents could not (N=10 000), enabling us to obtain a be identified in the sample file, they suffi ciency of data on female subgroups are included in the fi nal response fi le. in Swedish society as well. This was The reasons for dropout are specifi ed also one of the reasons for selecting a in Table 1. postal questionnaire as the method for Number % collecting the data. Sampel 10 000 100,0 A survey study of violence to women Excess coverage (dead, emigrated) 117 1,0 was carried out in Finland in 1997.2 Effective sample 9 883 100,0 Responses recieved 6 926 70,1 We studied the design of the Finnish Dropout 2 957 29,9 questionnaire and adapted that of Reason for dropout: the Swedish one so as to facilitate No response/Returned to sender 2 677 27,1 Refusal 218 2,2 comparisons between the two countries. Impediment/illness 34 0,3 The questionnaire consists of 115 questions Language diffi culties 16 0,2 grouped in sections according to the Secret/protected address 12 0,1 type of relationship existing or formerly existing between the woman and man Table 1. Sample and reasons for dropout concerned. Collection of the data was carried out External and internal dropout in cooperation with Statistics Sweden Because SCB supplied background (Statistiska Centralbyrån, SCB). The information (age, marital status, county, responses received were codified and citizenship and country of birth) for recorded by SCB by means of a scanner. both respondents and non-respondents, it It was not possible to process open-ended was possible to make a dropout analysis responses in the present report. When comparing the two groups. Two X2 tests scanning the data, mechanical checks were carried out to discover whether and of the variables were made and errors how dropout had infl uenced the effective corrected. By the time collection of the sample. The fi rst one is the goodness-of-fi t data was complete, 6 926 replies had test to estimate how representative the been received, signifying a response rate respondents are of the sample as a whole of 70.1 per cent. Bearing in mind the (see the left-hand column of Table 3). length of the questionnaire form and The signifi cance level was set at .001 and the sensitive nature of the questions, the the test shows that the only signifi cant

131 APPENDIX 4 differences to be found between the Weighting respondents and the original sample are The fi nal sample was weighted in order in respect of the citizenship and country to correct the bias in response rates found of birth variables. in the citizenship and country of birth 2 A second test, the X test of independence, variables. However, the weighting had to was carried out in order to assess whether the be based on the country of birth variable, various categories of background variables since this was the only variable included show independence in their propensity to in the questionnaire itself. The weighting respond (right-hand column of Table 2). coeffi cients were calculated on the basis of Here too the signifi cance level was set at the distribution in the total sample, with .001, and again, the test shows that the only the result that women born in Sweden signifi cant differences of response rate to be were weighted down while women born found between the categories of variables in the Nordic countries, Europe and other relate to the citizenship and country of birth countries were weighted up. variables. As may be seen from Table 2, Table 2 (p.133) shows the result of women born in Sweden had the highest the goodness-of-fit test for the other response rate, followed in diminishing order background variables after weighting by women born in the Nordic countries, based on the country of birth variable. As Europe and other countries. the table shows, there are no signifi cant Regarding the internal dropout, that is, differences between the original sample non-response to individual questions in and the effective sample. the questionnaire, we decided to include this in the percentage figures for all Quality control 3 questions. Part of the reason for this is Since the questionnaire consists of a that we feel that information would be number of different sections specifying lost if these answers were excluded from different types of relationship between the reporting. Because this is the fi rst women and men, the respondent replies comprehensive study of men’s violence to the questions in each section only to women in Sweden and the aim is to if special conditions applying to that produce a description of the situation section are met. For example, questions that is as correct as possible, we feel that 42-61 apply only to women who were in even a refusal to answer is productive of a matrimonial or cohabitant relationship information, for example concerning the at the time of data collection. delicacy of certain questions. Moreover, In order to ascertain how well the we have no good reason to believe that had respondents had understood the instruc- the non-respondents in fact responded, tions relating to these questions and their answers would have corresponded sections, a quality-control check was with the distribution of the respondents’ made consisting of linking and matching answers. Thus we consider that to exclude such conditional variables (e.g. marital the non-responses would be a dubious status) with questions from the various proceeding. sections. This check showed that in almost

132 APPENDIX 4

Table 2 Goodness-of-fit after weighting for country all sections with specifi ed conditions, of birth there was a small number of women who Sample Respondents responded despite their not satisfying (N=10 000) (N=6 8701) the conditions. Age 1 χ2 = 1.102 df = 4 p = .894 To correct these errors, all questions 18-24 1355 932 in the various sections were recoded so 25-34 2251 1528 that women who had responded without 35-44 2226 1514 45-54 2290 1607 satisfying the conditions were coded as 55-64 1878 1288 “inappropriate response”, and these, along Marital status χ2 = 6,940 df = 3 p = .074 with other women who did not satisfy the Married 4572 3249 conditions, were then defi ned as dropout Unmarried 3975 2660 Divorced 1258 832 in the various sections. We can only Widowed 195 129 speculate as to the reason for these errors in Region2 χ2 =0,234 df = 2 p = .889 the response fi le. They may possibly have Götaland 4680 3215 been caused by linguistic diffi culties on Svealand 4042 2768 the part of the respondents or insuffi cient Norrland 1270 886 3 χ2 clarity or visibility in the instructions. Region+Storstad = 1,302 df = 5 p = .935 Stockholm 2219 1502 Malmö+Skåne 1176 789 Association and signifi cance Gtbg+V. Götal 1683 1161 Since the main aim of the survey is to Götaland 1821 1265 Svealand 1823 1266 describe women in Sweden and their Norrland 1270 886 experiences of male violence, we have chosen in principle not to present any 1 Because of rounding errors, the variables sometimes coeffi cients of association in the report. do not add up to exactly 6 870. 2 In eight cases, county was not specifi ed, so that N= A sample of this size (N=6 926) means 9 992 for this variable. A broad breakdown by counties has been made here to facilitate comparisons. that even minimal differences in the 3 The counties with metropolises have been segregated distributions of the variables are signifi cant, here from the broad breakdown by counties. so that practically all associations between the variables in the data become signifi cant. Only signifi cant associations are presented in the report.

133 APPENDIX 4

Table 3. Dropout analysis of background variables

Sample Respondents Response No response (N=10 000) (N=6 8701 ) % %

Age 1 χ2 = 1.601 df = 4 p = .809 χ2 = 5.116 df = 4 p = .276 18-24 1355 929 68.6 31.4 25-34 2251 1526 67.8 32.2 35-44 2226 1503 67.5 32.5 45-54 2290 1606 70.1 29.9 55-64 1878 1306 69.5 30.5 Age 2 χ2 = 2,018 df = 4 p = .732 χ2 = 6.448 df = 4 p = .168 18-29 2468 1690 68.5 31.5 30-39 2260 1514 67.0 33.0 40-49 2189 1503 68.7 31.3 50-59 2255 1588 70.4 29.6 60-64 828 575 69.4 30.6 Marital status χ2 = 5,063 df = 3 p = .167 χ2 = 16.177 df = 3 p = .001 Married 4572 3224 70.5 29.5 Unmarried 3975 2697 67.8 32.2 Divorced 1258 820 65.2 34.8 Widowed 195 129 66.2 33.8 Region2 χ2 =1.857 df = 2 p = .395 χ2 =5.942 df = 2 p = .051 Götaland 4680 3219 68.8 31.2 Svealand 4042 2743 67.9 .1 32 Norrland 1270 908 71.5 28.5 Region + Storstad3 χ2 = 5,278 df = 5 p = .383 χ2 = 16.892 df = 5 p = .005 Stockholm 2219 1467 66.1 33.9 Malmö+Skåne 1176 785 66.8 33.2 Gtbg+V. Götal 1683 1156 68.7 31.3 Götaland 1821 1278 70.2 29.8 Svealand 1823 1276 70.0 30.0 Norrland 1270 908 71.5 28.5 Medborgarskap χ2 = 42,682 df = 3 p = .000 χ2 = 136.364 df = 3 p = .000 Swedish 9332 6533 70.0 30.0 Nordic 225 134 59.6 40.4 European 207 112 54.1 45.9 Other 236 91 38.6 61.4 Country of birth χ2 = 71.082 df = 3 p = .000 χ2 = 227.098 df = 3 p = .000 Sweden 8592 6131 71.4 28.6 Nordic country 429 260 60.6 39.4 Europe 435 233 53.6 46.4 Other 544 246 45.2 54.8

1 Since 56 of the respondents could not be linked to the sample fi les, the number of respondents is slightly underrepresented in the dropout analysis (N=6 870 instead of 6 926). 2 In eight cases, county was not specifi ed, so that N=9 992 for this variable. A broad breakdown by counties has been made here to facilitate comparisons. 3 The counties with metropolises have been segregated here from the broad breakdown by counties.

134 Tables APPENDIX 5

Table 1. Women subjected to violence at least once since fi fteenth birthday, by women’s background variables as applicable. Calculated for all women (N= 6 926).

Total subjected to violence Yes No/ No response Number Total%

Age 18-24 51.5 48.5 934 100.0 25-34 48.2 51.8 1536 100.0 35-44 51.5 48.5 1530 100.0 45-54 44.0 56.0 1620 100.0 55-64 36.0 64.0 1304 100.0 No response 66.7 33.3 3 100.0 Education No compulsory schooling 43.3 56.7 65 100.0 Compulsory schooling 39.9 60.1 1354 100.0 Secondary schooling 46.3 53.7 3197 100.0 University, no degree 53.3 46.7 506 100.0 University, with degree 49.1 50.9 1757 100.0 No response 30.0 70.0 47 100.0 Occupation Wage- or salary-earner 43.8 56.2 4005 100.0 Self-employed 51.3 48.7 195 100.0 Parental leave 45.7 54.3 267 100.0 Unemployed 53.9 46.1 378 100.0 Retired 34.6 65.4 328 100.0 Sick-leave/disability pension 49.5 50.5 218 100.0 Student 54.3 45.7 819 100.0 Looking after home 36.3 63.7 67 100.0 Other 46.5 53.5 152 100.0 No response 50.4 49.6 496 100.0 Income < 5000 48.2 51.8 730 100.0 5001-10000 45.5 54.5 2984 100.0 10001-15000 45.0 55.0 1941 100.0 15001-20000 48.2 51.8 673 100.0 > 20000 49.6 50.4 316 100.0 No response 45.0 55.0 283 100.0 Country of birth Sweden 46.0 54.0 5902 100.0 Other Nordic country 52.6 47.4 295 100.0 Europe 41.9 58.1 299 100.0 Africa 69.2 30.8 42 100.0 Asia 41.1 58.9 238 100.0 North America 63.6 36.4 8 1 100.0 Latin America 47.8 52.2 75 100.0 No response 45.6 54.4 57 100.0 Marital status Unmarried 43.9 56.1 1374 100.0 Married 42.5 57.5 3245 100.0 Cohabiting 49.8 50.2 1581 100.0 Divorced 67.1 32.9 459 100.0 Widowed 41.1 58.9 117 100.0 No response 44.2 55.8 150 100.0 Family situation Lone with children < 7 years 42.6 57.4 253 100.0 Lone with children > 7 years 49.7 50.3 415 100.0 Lone without children 46.7 53.3 150 100.0 Married with children < 7 years 46.4 53.6 690 100.0 Married with children > 7 years 46.6 53.4 1053 100.0 Married without children 41.7 58.3 322 100.0 Cohab. with children < 7 years 48.4 51.6 330 100.0 Cohab. with children > 7 years 51.3 48.7 497 100.0 Cohab. without children 53.1 46.9 168 100.0

136 APPENDIX 5

Table 2. Women subjected to violence by former husband or cohabitant partner at least once, by women’s background variables as applicable. Calculated for women who have been married or cohabiting (N=2 755).

Subjected to violence by former husband/cohabitant partner Yes No No response Number Total%

Age 18-24 32.7 65.0 2.3 374 100.0 25-3425-34 35.7 62.6 1.7 608 100.0 35-4435-44 36.7 61.8 1.4 613 100.0 45-5445-54 36.2 60.8 2.9 639 100.0 55-6455-64 33.5 64.1 2.4 519 100.0 EjNo svar response 100.0 2 100.0

UtbildningEducation EjNo oblig compulsory skolgång schooling 44.0 52.6 3.4 29 100.0 ObligCompulsory skolgång schooling 35.0 62.4 2.6 549 100.0 PåbyggnadsutbSecondary schooling 36.2 61.6 2.2 1252 100.0 UnivUniversity, utan examen no degree 32.2 66.7 1.1 197 100.0 UnivUniversity, med examen with degree 34.6 63.4 2.0 714 100.0 EjNo svar response 13.1 86.9 15 100.0

SysselsättningOccupation LöntagareWage- or salary-earner 35.8 62.1 2.0 1628 100.0 FöretagareSelf-employed 30.5 64.8 4.6 83 100.0 FöräldraledigParental leave 28.1 68.9 3.1 108 100.0 ArbetslösUnemployed 39.3 59.4 1.3 151 100.0 PensioneradRetired 31.1 67.1 1.8 115 100.0 Sjukskr/sjukbidrSick-leave/disability pension 37.5 62.5 85 100.0 StuderandeStudent 36.7 60.7 2.6 335 100.0 Sköter Looking hemmet after home 50.3 49.7 21 100.0 AnnatOther 34.7 63.3 1.9 49 100.0 EjNo svar response 29.7 67.6 2.7 179 100.0

InkomstIncome << 50005000 33.0 64.2 2.7 291 100.0 5001-100005001-10000 35.9 62.2 1.9 1155 100.0 10001-1500010001-15000 35.2 62.6 2.2 787 100.0 15001-2000015001-20000 34.7 62.5 2.8 257 100.0 >> 2000020000 34.9 62.9 2.1 141 100.0 EjNo svar response 35.8 63.4 .8 123 100.0

FödelselandCountry of birth SverigeSweden 35.5 62.4 2.1 2333 100.0 NordenOther Nordic country 35.8 60.0 4.2 133 100.0 EuropaEurope 29.0 69.2 1.9 130 100.0 AfrikaAfrica 36.4 63.6 18 100.0 AsienAsia 44.2 55.8 85 100.0 Nordamerika North America 33.3 66.7 5 100.0 Latinamerika Latin America 17.6 76.5 5.9 28 100.0 EjNo svar response 25.0 75.0 24 100.0

CivilståndMarital status OgiftUnmarried 42.8 53.5 3.7 558 100.0 GiftMarried 27.6 70.8 1.6 859 100.0 SamboCohabiting 32.0 66.3 1.6 770 100.0 SkildDivorced 49.7 48.0 2.3 425 100.0 ÄnkaWidowed 16.0 82.8 1.2 82 100.0 EjNo svar response 38.9 59.5 1.6 60 100.0

FamiljesituationFamily situation EnsamstLone with med children barn ö 77 years 46.6 49.6 3.8 178 100.0 EnsamstLone without utan childrenbarn 54.1 44.3 1.6 61 100.0 GiftMarried med with barn children u 7 < 7 years 34.4 63.9 1.7 184 100.0 GiftMarried med with barn children ö 7 > 7 years 35.9 62.6 1.5 270 100.0 GiftMarried utan withoutbarn children 20.3 78.6 1.1 85 100.0 SamboCohab. medwith childrenbarn u 7 < 7 years 26.9 72.5 .6 153 100.0 SamboCohab. medwith childrenbarn ö 7 > 7 years 28.3 70.0 1.7 240 100.0 SamboCohab. utanwithout barn children 37.5 59.4 3.1 92 100.0

137 APPENDIX 5

Table 3. Women subjected to violence by present husband or cohabitant partner at least once, by women’s background variables as applicable. Calculated for women who have been married or cohabiting (N= 4 771).

Subjected to violence by former husband/cohabitant partner Yes No No response Number Total%

ÅlderAge 18-2418-24 12.5 83.4 4.2 604 100.0 25-3425-34 8.8 87.7 3.4 1086 100.0 35-4435-44 10.4 85.7 3.9 1100 100.0 45-5445-54 10.9 84.7 4.4 1084 100.0 55-6455-64 10.6 82.4 7.0 895 100.0 NoEj svarresponse 50.0 50.0 2 100.0

UtbildningEducation NoEj oblig compulsory skolgång schooling 12.9 81.1 6.0 43 100.0 CompulsoryOblig skolgång schooling 12.6 82.5 4.8 917 100.0 SecondaryPåbyggnadsutb schooling 10.0 85.7 4.3 2189 100.0 University,Univ utan examenno degree 7.7 88.1 4.1 350 100.0 University,Univ med examenwith degree 10.1 84.9 4.9 1237 100.0 NoEj svarresponse 16.8 77.6 5.6 34 100.0

SysselsättningOccupation Wage-Löntagare or salary-earner 10.7 84.7 4.6 2768 100.0 Self-employedFöretagare 10.3 87.5 2.2 131 100.0 ParentalFöräldraledig leave 12.1 83.3 4.6 187 100.0 UnemployedArbetslös 13.1 80.9 5.9 256 100.0 RetiredPensionerad 7.7 86.0 6.2 215 100.0 Sick-leave/disabilitySjukskr/sjukbidr pension 8.7 86.5 4.8 155 100.0 StudentStuderande 10.2 85.9 3.9 560 100.0 SköterLooking hemmet after home 14.3 83.6 2.1 45 100.0 OtherAnnat 12.8 83.4 3.8 100 100.0 NoEj svarresponse 7.9 87.8 4.3 353 100.0

InkomstIncome << 5000 5000 10.0 86.8 3.1 484 100.0 5001-100005001-10000 11.0 84.2 4.8 2055 100.0 10001-1500010001-15000 9.6 86.0 4.4 1368 100.0 15001-2000015001-20000 11.4 84.6 4.0 463 100.0 >> 20000 20000 10.0 82.0 8.0 218 100.0 NoEj svarresponse 10.1 85.3 4.6 183 100.0

FödelselandCountry of birth SwedenSverige 10.5 85.0 4.5 4065 100.0 OtherNorden Nordic country 11.6 85.5 2.9 192 100.0 EuropeEuropa 9.2 85.1 5.7 211 100.0 AfricaAfrika 31.3 62.5 6.3 26 100.0 AsiaAsien 7.8 88.2 3.9 166 100.0 NordamerikaNorth America 14.3 85.7 11 100.0 LatinamerikaLatin America 8.8 85.3 5.9 55 100.0 NoEj svarresponse 9.3 83.7 7.0 43 100.0

FamiljesituationFamily situation MarriedGift med with barn children u 7 < 7 years 8.8 86.8 4.4 674 100.0 MarriedGift med with barn children ö 7 > 7 years 10.1 85.5 4.4 1029 100.0 MarriedGift utan without barn children 9.5 86.7 3.8 315 100.0 Cohab.Sambo withmed children barn u 7 < 7 years 13.2 82.1 4.7 330 100.0 Cohab.Sambo withmed children barn ö 7 > 7 years 13.9 83.1 3.0 497 100.0 Cohab.Sambo withoututan barn children 9.8 83.9 6.3 168 100.0

138 APPENDIX 5

Table 4. Women subjected to violence by boyfriend, by women’s background variables as applicable. Calculated for women who have or have had a boyfriend (N=5 261).

Subjected to violence by boyfriend Yes No No response Number Total %

ÅlderAge 18-24 19.5 77.6 3.0 751 100.0 25-34 18.0 78.8 3.1 1256 100.0 35-44 16.5 77.7 5.8 1213 100.0 45-54 11.8 79.7 8.6 1187 100.0 55-64 7.7 82.6 9.8 853 100.0 EjNo svar response 100.0 1 100.0

UtbildningEducation EjNo oblig compulsory skolgång schooling 19.2 59.8 20.9 38 100.0 ObligCompulsory skolgång schooling 12.4 76.0 11.6 927 100.0 PåbyggnadsutbSecondary schooling 15.5 79.5 5.0 2425 100.0 UnivUniversity, utan examen no degree 20.2 75.4 4.3 413 100.0 UnivUniversity, med examen with degree 13.3 82.4 4.3 1426 100.0 EjNo svar response 15.0 72.9 12.1 32 100.0

SysselsättningOccupation LöntagareWage- or salary-earner 12.3 81.9 5.8 3058 100.0 FöretagareSelf-employed 13.5 79.1 7.3 157 100.0 FöräldraledigParental leave 16.8 80.3 3.0 217 100.0 ArbetslösUnemployed 23.8 68.7 7.5 280 100.0 PensioneradRetired 11.1 75.1 13.8 197 100.0 Sjukskr/sjukbidrSick-leave/disability pension 22.4 68.1 9.5 151 100.0 StuderandeStudent 19.5 77.5 3.0 677 100.0 Sköter Looking hemmet after home 5.6 76.1 18.3 41 100.0 AnnatOther 17.7 73.8 8.5 123 100.0 EjNo svar response 18.5 75.8 5.8 361 100.0

InkomstIncome < 5000 16.5 75.3 8.2 548 100.0 5001-10000 16.6 77.4 6.0 2183 100.0 10001-15000 13.0 81.5 5.5 1520 100.0 15001-20000 14.0 82.3 3.7 548 100.0 > 20000 10.3 84.3 5.4 268 100.0 EjNo svar response 11.7 75.6 12.7 195 100.0

FödelselandCountry of birth SverigeSweden 14.6 79.9 5.4 4526 100.0 NordenOther Nordic country 15.8 75.4 8.9 225 100.0 EuropaEurope 11.9 80.1 8.0 214 100.0 AfrikaAfrica 27.8 55.6 16.7 29 100.0 AsienAsia 11.9 76.2 11.9 165 100.0 Nordamerika North America 44.4 55.6 15 100.0 Latinamerika Latin America 28.1 53.1 18.7 52 100.0 EjNo svar response 13.9 83.3 2.8 36 100.0

CivilståndMarital status OgiftUnmarried 15.8 78.0 6.1 1044 100.0 GiftMarried 14.8 79.1 6.2 2463 100.0 SamboCohabiting 14.1 79.6 6.3 1197 100.0 SkildDivorced 13.6 82.6 3.8 358 100.0 ÄnkaWidowed 12.3 81.9 5.9 91 100.0 EjNo svar response 18.8 74.9 6.3 109 100.0

FamiljesituationFamily situation EnsamstLone with med children barn ö 77 years 16.1 77.9 5.9 328 100.0 EnsamstLone without utan children barn 17.3 79.5 3.3 118 100.0 GiftMarried med with barn children u 7 < 7 years 17.0 78.4 4.6 557 100.0 GiftMarried med with barn children ö 7 > 7 years 15.4 77.2 7.4 834 100.0 GiftMarried utan without barn children 15.5 82.2 2.3 251 100.0 SamboCohab. medwith childrenbarn u 7 < 7 years 15.8 81.9 2.3 256 100.0 SamboCohab. medwith childrenbarn ö 7 > 7 years 14.4 79.9 5.8 379 100.0 SamboCohab. utanwithout barn children 9.3 85.7 5.0 136 100.0

139 APPENDIX 5

Table 5. Women subjected to violence by men with whom they have not had a sexual relationship, by women’s background variables as applicable. Calculated for all women (N=6 926). Subjected to violence by former husband/cohabitant partner Yes No No response Number Total%

ÅlderAge 18-24 18-24 34.4 62.8 2.8 934 100.0 25-34 25-34 31.6 64.5 3.9 1536 100.0 35-44 35-44 34.8 60.1 5.1 1530 100.0 45-54 45-54 27.7 66.3 6.0 1620 100.0 55-64 55-64 19.4 69.8 10.7 1304 100.0 No response Ej svar 66.7 33.3 3 100.0

UtbildningEducation No Ejcompulsory oblig skolgång schooling 21.9 50.0 28.1 65 100.0 Compulsory Oblig skolgång schooling 22.6 66.9 10.4 1354 100.0 Secondary Påbyggnadsutb schooling 29.2 66.4 4.4 3197 100.0 University, Univ utan no examendegree 41.3 54.9 3.8 506 100.0 University, Univ med with examen degree 32.5 63.4 4.1 1757 100.0 No response Ej svar 16.6 60.2 23.2 47 100.0

SysselsättningOccupation Wage- Löntagare or salary-earner 26.8 68.2 5.0 4005 100.0 Self-employed Företagare 36.4 59.7 3.9 195 100.0 Parental Föräldraledig leave 28.6 66.0 5.4 267 100.0 Unemployed Arbetslös 31.9 58.2 9.9 378 100.0 Retired Pensionerad 21.6 65.7 12.7 328 100.0 Sick-leave/disability Sjukskr/sjukbidr pension 35.7 56.3 8.0 218 100.0 Student Studerande 38.3 58.8 2.9 819 100.0 Looking Sköter after hemmet home 12.6 73.9 13.5 67 100.0 Other Annat 32.2 62.2 5.6 152 100.0 No response Ej svar 37.1 54.8 8.1 496 100.0

InkomstIncome < 5000 < 5000 32.6 61.9 5.6 730 100.0 5001-10000 5001-10000 28.0 66.0 6.1 2984 100.0 10001-15000 10001-15000 28.6 66.5 4.9 1941 100.0 15001-20000 15001-20000 35.0 61.1 3.9 673 100.0 > 20000 > 20000 33.3 61.3 5.5 316 100.0 No response Ej svar 27.1 57.7 15.2 283 100.0

FödelselandCountry of birth Sweden Sverige 29.5 65.7 4.8 5902 100.0 Other Norden Nordic country 36.1 55.3 8.6 295 100.0 Europe Europa 24.8 64.6 10.6 299 100.0 Africa Afrika 42.3 34.6 23.1 42 100.0 Asia Asien 22.6 63.7 13.7 238 100.0 North Nordamerika America 54.5 45.5 18 100.0 Latin Latinamerika America 32.6 52.2 15.2 75 100.0 No response Ej svar 31.6 57.9 10.5 57 100.0

CivilståndMarital status Unmarried Ogift 28.2 65.3 6.6 1374 100.0 Married Gift 29.2 65.2 5.7 3245 100.0 Cohabiting Sambo 29.5 64.8 5.7 1581 100.0 Divorced Skild 34.1 60.4 5.5 459 100.0 Widowed Änka 33.6 60.9 5.5 117 100.0 No response Ej svar 31.7 64.1 4.2 150 100.0

FamiljesituationFamily situation Lone Ensamst with children med barn < 7 yearsu 7 28.7 66.3 5.0 253 100.0 Lone Ensamst with children med barn > 7 yearsö 7 29.1 66.4 4.4 415 100.0 Lone Ensamst without utan children barn 32.4 63.0 4.6 150 100.0 Married Gift med with barnchildren u 7 < 7 years 32.7 63.7 3.6 690 100.0 Married Gift med with barnchildren ö 7 > 7 years 31.1 64.6 4.4 1053 100.0 Married Gift utan without barn children 28.3 69.0 2.7 322 100.0 Cohab. Sambo with med children barn ö 7 years 30.6 64.6 4.8 497 100.0 Cohab. Sambo without utan childrenbarn 31.6 64.2 4.2 168 100.0

140 APPENDIX 5

Table 6. Women subjected to sexual harassment at least once, by women’s background variables as applicable. Calculated for all women (N=6 926).

Subjected to sexual harassment Yes No No response Number Total % ÅlderAge 18-24 63.6 33.5 2.8 934 100.0 25-34 64.1 33.6 2.3 1536 100.0 35-44 60.9 35.0 4.1 1530 100.0 45-54 51.0 43.5 5.5 1620 100.0 55-64 40.2 50.2 9.5 1304 100.0 EjNo svar response 66.7 33.3 3 100.0

UtbildningEducation EjNo oblig compulsory skolgång schooling 33.3 42.6 24.1 65 100.0 ObligCompulsory skolgång schooling 40.0 49.7 10.3 1354 100.0 PåbyggnadsutbSecondary schooling 55.5 40.9 3.6 3197 100.0 UnivUniversity, utan examen no degree 70.8 26.4 2.8 506 100.0 UnivUniversity, med examen with degree 65.4 32.1 2.5 1757 100.0 EjNo svar response 32.6 40.4 27.0 47 100.0

SysselsättningOccupation LöntagareWage- or salary-earner 55.3 40.7 4.0 4005 100.0 FöretagareSelf-employed 58.4 40.1 1.5 195 100.0 FöräldraledigParental leave 59.0 37.7 3.4 267 100.0 ArbetslösUnemployed 53.9 36.9 9.1 378 100.0 PensioneradRetired 39.6 47.6 12.8 328 100.0 Sjukskr/sjukbidrSick-leave/disability pension 51.9 37.9 10.2 218 100.0 StuderandeStudent 64.5 32.6 2.9 819 100.0 Sköter Looking hemmet after home 34.6 55.2 10.2 67 100.0 AnnatOther 62.0 34.4 3.6 152 100.0 EjNo svar response 57.2 36.1 6.6 496 100.0

InkomstIncome < 5000 52.8 40.5 6.6 730 100.0 5001-10000 53.9 41.1 5.0 2984 100.0 10001-15000 57.4 38.9 3.7 1941 100.0 15001-20000 61.0 35.4 3.6 673 100.0 > 20000 69.0 27.8 3.1 316 100.0 EjNo svar response 44.4 42.9 12.7 283 100.0

FödelselandCountry of birth SverigeSweden 56.5 39.6 3.9 5902 100.0 NordenOther Nordic country 59.8 34.2 6.0 295 100.0 EuropaEurope 46.3 41.1 12.6 299 100.0 AfrikaAfrica 57.7 23.1 19.2 42 100.0 AsienAsia 43.2 46.6 10.3 238 100.0 Nordamerika North America 90.9 9.1 18 100.0 Latinamerika Latin America 50.0 30.4 19.6 75 100.0 EjNo svar response 54.4 35.1 10.5 57 100.0

CivilståndMarital status OgiftUnmarried 55.7 38.8 5.5 1374 100.0 GiftMarried 55.3 39.8 4.9 3245 100.0 SamboCohabiting 56.1 39.3 4.6 1581 100.0 SkildDivorced 58.0 37.9 4.1 459 100.0 ÄnkaWidowed 57.8 36.7 5.5 117 100.0 EjNo svar response 53.7 41.2 5.1 150 100.0

FamiljesituationFamily situation EnsamstLone with med children barn ö 77 years 55.8 39.9 4.3 415 100.0 EnsamstLone without utan children barn 65.6 31.7 2.7 150 100.0 GiftMarried med with barn children u 7 < 7 years 62.5 33.8 3.7 690 100.0 GiftMarried med with barn children ö 7 > 7 years 56.0 39.5 4.5 1053 100.0 GiftMarried utan without barn children 60.9 37.9 1.2 322 100.0 SamboCohab. medwith childrenbarn u 7 < 7 years 59.0 38.0 3.0 330 100.0 SamboCohab. medwith childrenbarn ö 7 > 7 years 58.8 37.1 4.1 497 100.0 SamboCohab. utanwithout barn children 63.9 35.0 1.1 168 100.0

141 References

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Government Bills Prop. 1983/84:105 Prop. 1997/98:55 Prop. 1997/98:130 Prop. 1987/88:137

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