EU FP6 Coordination Action on Human Rights Violations

Sweden National Reports on Men’s Practices

- Reports on Research, Statistical information, Law and Policy

Addressing Men’s Practices

Dag Balkmar and Keith Pringle

Sweden National Reports on Men’s Practices - Reports on Research, Statistical information, Law and Policy Addressing Men’s Practices

Published by: Centre for , University, Sweden

ISBN 91-87792-39-7 Copyright: the authors Order from: Centre for Gender Studies Stockholm University Phone: + 46 (0)8 16 22 22 Fax: + 46 (0)8 674 73 00 www.kvinfo.su.se

Contact the authors at: [email protected] [email protected]

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Introduction...... 5 Sweden National Report on Research on Men’s Practices ...... 6 1. Key Points ...... 6 2. National Gender Background and Context ...... 7 3. Home and Work...... 9 4. Social Exclusion ...... 12 5. Violences...... 15 6. Health ...... 19 7. Discussion ...... 21 8. Bibliography...... 23 Sweden National Report on Statistical information on Men’s Practices...... 39 1. Key Points ...... 39 2. National Background...... 39 3. Home and Work...... 40 4. Social Exclusion ...... 42 5. Violences...... 45 6. Health ...... 50 7. Discussion ...... 52 8. Bibliography...... 54 Sweden National Report on Law and Policy Addressing Men’s Practices...... 61 1. Key Points ...... 61 2. National Legal, Policy and Political Background and context ...... 61 3. Home and Work...... 66 4. Social Exclusion ...... 68 5. Violences...... 71 6. Health ...... 75 7. Discussion ...... 76 8. Bibliography...... 77

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4 Introduction

This is a compilation of three reports that Keith Pringle co-ordinated this subnetwork survey – and re-interpret from feminist between 2004 and 1 April 2006. The perspectives - existing material on men’s Swedish reports are therefore an integral practices in terms of academic outputs, output from the work of the Co-ordination statistics and legal/governmental policies Action and from the sub-network within in Sweden. The period focused upon was it1. That sub-network specifically focuses primarily the last five to ten years. upon exploring the roots of violence and Although the main focus of the reports was consists of 11 European countries. It builds men’s violence, they also survey the on the previous work of the Framework 5- material on other areas of men’s lives such funded Thematic Network on men’s as home and work, social exclusion and practices in Europe which contained 10 health – and the connections between these European countries, ran from 2000 to 2003 areas and the field of men’s violence. and was also co-ordinated by Keith Pringle. Among the countries included in It is important to stress that the analysis that earlier network was Norway and underlying the reports was inspired not – but not Sweden or Denmark. The only by feminist approaches but also, more earlier network had created national reports specifically, by a gender relational on its partners which were very similar to perspective. Current debates about so- the reports now produced on Sweden as called “intersectionality” also informed the well as Denmark. analysis in the reports – therefore much emphasis was placed on considering the way that gender impacted upon, and was All the reports from both the Framework 5 impacted upon by, other social divisions and Framework 6 networks are now placed associated with, for instance, age, on an open web-based European ethnicity, disability and sexuality. Documentation Centre which can be found at www.cromenet.org. This database The work was carried out in Sweden by allows all manner of exciting and Dag Balkmar at the Centre for Gender important explorations around the issue of Studies at Stockholm University; men’s practices in Europe – not least in the supervised by Keith Pringle who is based Nordic countries. We hope these Swedish in FoSo at Aalborg University Denmark. reports will themselves contribute in a very These Swedish reports need to be seen significant way to this process of within the context of a much broader exploration. project. For they were funded by the European Commission as part of the output Keith Pringle and Dag Balkmar from a sub-network within a large Mars 2006 Framework 6-funded Co-ordinated Action on Human Rights Violations (2004 – 2007): Project PL 506348 (see the Co-ordination Action web-site at 1 However, the Swedish reports published here of www.cahrv.uni-osnabrueck.de). course represent the views of the authors alone and are their sole responsibility.

5 EU FP6 Coordination Action on Human Rights Violations Sweden National Report on Research on Men’s Practices2

1. Key Points a. Since the late 1990s studies on men in Most literature on , Sweden have expanded broadly. Research children and sexualised violence are being on men from a critical perspective is produced within an either feminist, mainly connected to the women’s research or gender theoretical project. The field is grounded in a feminist context. Literature and research focusing research tradition. Men are mostly on children’s experiences and treatment of highlighted and looked upon as a problem crises where children have been exposed to and obstacle for gender equality. Areas of violence against the has become focus are fatherhood or men as family more focused in the late 1990’s and in the members, men in working life and beginning of the 2000. During the last homosocial behaviour, men & manliness, years so called “honour” related violence gay men. has gained some interest, mainly focusing on the victims and the meaning of culture. b. Research on social exclusion explores the labour market and marginalisation, d. Gender differences in health are to some residential segregation and diversity within extent highlighted but men are still the working life. Research where gender and norm in research on health. Connections ethnicity is an integrated perspective is between how men live their lives, lacking in Sweden; men are in focus in dominant constructions of masculinity and research on social exclusion but little is health are not given much attention. done on ethnicity and masculinity from a e. There is a need for critical research on gender perspective. Research around gay men’s practices in relation to health, age, men has been transformed from questions ethnicity, sexuality and disability. Critical around body and psyche to society, identity research needs to focus on the “normal” and descriptions of living conditions. In man and his everyday practices in relation recent years the marginalisation of lesbian to cultural concepts of manliness and and gay persons has been subjected to violence. some research. Research around homelessness and disability does often lack a gender and ethnicity perspective. c. Discussions of men and power in relation to women are made explicit in later research on men’s violence to women.

2 The work on this report was funded by the Framework 6- funded Co-Ordinated Action on Human Rights Violations (CAHVR - Project PL 506348) (Workpackage 8)

2. National Gender Background and Context a) Sweden has in 2004 reached a 1990s was dominated by economic and population of 9 million people, with about political problems which resulted in a 85% living in the southern part of the weakening of the public sector and social country. Since the 1940s, immigration has security net (Holter 2003, SOU 2001:79). accounted for over 40% of the population After the 1990s the unemployment rates growth. World War II is described as the rose together with cut downs in official turning point transforming Sweden from a spending, resulting in increased welfare country of emigration into one of gaps in Sweden. Since then the situation immigration (Bernhardt et al. 2005). has improved, but the legacy from the Sweden, which is militarily a non-aligned 1990s can be seen in a delimitation of the country, joined the European Union in distribution of welfare, lack of 1995 and 85% of the population belongs to employment, decrease in mental well the Lutheran church of Sweden. In 2002 being, entrenchment of low income, the percentage of women in parliament stressful working conditions and increase was 45% (SCB 2004). in stress-related ill health (SOU 2001:79, p. 81-91). Industrialisation came late and Sweden moved in less than one hundred years from Men and masculinities have been and still poverty to prosperity. The Social are intimately interlinked with working life Democratic party has held power alone or (Hirdman 2001). In 2003 79% of Swedish in coalitions for the most part of the 20th women and 84% of Swedish men were in century. After World-War II, which did not the labour force, consisting of 4 million involve Sweden, the building and people in total. However, the Swedish expansion of “Welfare State” was the labour market is one of the most gender- major project of successive Social segregated in Europe. Men work mostly in Democrat governments. The welfare state the private sector. Women work both in the was created through democratic and private and in the public sector. As a economic developments that lasted from category, women earn 82% of a man’s the beginning of the 20th century until the salary (SCB 2004). Gender equality has end of the century. This process was based been politically advocated since 1970s; on cooperation between the State and since then efforts have been strengthened, trade/industry. The environment in which particularly in the field of sexual the Welfare State took hold was a male- harassment and gendered analyses of dominated industrial society where the salaries. Organisations with more than ten welfare-model was linked to a male employees have to make gender analyses breadwinner ideal. Health care, education, of salaries and a gender-equality plan. The care for the young and the aged, and social government has taken a political decision welfare are seen as primary responsibilities that men shall take an active part in gender for the State (SCB 2004). The relatively equality efforts and has investigated generous provision of these services has removing the obstacles for men to engage been made possible by Sweden having in gender equality questions (SCB 2004, higher taxes than many comparable Nordberg forthcoming). countries. The main target of official policy has been The period from 1950 to 1980 can be to make the labour-market less gender- described as the “Golden Years” of the segregated, but also to make men take welfare project. The late 1980s and early more domestic responsibility and take

7 parental leave. When a child is born the Women’s studies, later to evolve into parents are entitled to a total of 480 days’ Studies on Gender and . Critical leave, 60 of these are reserved for each research on men in Sweden has been and parent and are forfeited if not used. Men’s still is, tightly linked to Women’s studies. share of the parental leave days in 2003 Almost 60% of the work done until 2000 accounted for 17 % of the total (SCB was carried out by women researchers 2004). This means that men do not take (Folkesson 2000). The field focusing on much more parental leave than they must men as gendered beings is often referred to take or lose it. as “Men’s studies”. Critical Studies on Men (CSM) can be categorized as one Gender equality policy objectives set in the direction in that field. CSM in Sweden can Programme of the present Government be described as focusing on the body and include the implementation of gender sexuality as prime sites for patriarchal mainstreaming in all central government relations; on the problems that men create bodies. This means that a ministry or other rather than those they experience; and with governmental body is required to introduce a focus on gender relations. The origin of a gender perspective into that activity. “Men’s Studies” dates from the 1980s, and Focus areas for the current electoral period has connections to Critical Studies on Men are representation; equal access to and Masculinities in the UK, Australia and positions of power and influence, equal US. pay for work of equal value, violence committed by men against women, In the 1980s two books were published by prostitution and trafficking in women. But the Swedish government, building on also Men and gender equality are focused theoretical models from the Anglophone as well as the sexualization of the public countries: Lars Jalmert’s Den svenske sphere (National Action Plan for Gender mannen (1984) (The Swedish Man), and Equality). Margot Bengtsson and Jonas Frykman`s Om maskulinitet. Mannen som forsknings- A law against sexual harassment and laws objekt (1987), (On Masculinity. Men as an to protect women from violence have been object of research). The psychologist Lars enacted during the 1980s and 1990s and in Jalmert writes about modern Swedish 1999 a law that criminalised sex buying men’s ambivalence toward gender was introduced. The law puts attention on equality. The Swedish man is described as men as sex buyers instead of victimising positive to gender equality “in principle” the prostitute. The law is thereby not, as but not in practice. Margot Bengtsson and for example in Canada, principally a moral Jonas Frykman criticise the male-role law (Månsson 2001). Since 1995 lesbian theory and suggests studies on and gay persons can register as couples. In masculinities, men’s practices and 2002 the possibility for lesbian and gay constructions of forms of hegemony couples to adopt children was publicly instead (Johansson & Kousmanen 2003, debated. After heated controversy, lesbian Folkesson 2000). Another key text to be and gay couples were given the legal right mentioned is the anthology Manlighetens to adopt. In 2005 a new law will be passed många ansikten [The many faces of allowing women in same-sex couples to manliness] where a variety of Swedish inseminate donated sperms at public (critical) studies on men from a gender hospitals. perspective are presented through themes like politics, working life, family life and b) Key texts. The gradual growth of intimacy (Johansson & Kousmanen 2003, studies on men in Sweden can be seen as for other key texts see for example an indirect effect of the growth of

8 Ekenstam et al. 1998, Holter & Aarseth have mainly focused on men’s violences 1994, Berggren 1999). against women and children, but also on men in power positions, homosocial Since the late 1990s studies on men in behaviour and ordinary men's lives. Sweden have expanded broadly. The field is not clearly defined and can still be The main foci in Swedish men’s studies described as weakly established insti- during the 1990’s: tutionally and academically. The main *research on fatherhood/ men as family theory is grounded in social constructivism members, and research receiving the most attention is *men in working life, carried out by historians or sociologists. *gay men, The main focus of recent research has been *men and manliness. on a critical review of dominant forms of manliness, and the exploration of c) Timescale. The focus of this report is on alternative constructions (Johansson & studies in the 1990s, ranging mainly from Kousmanen 2003, p.7, Johansson 2000, p. 1995-2004, with some earlier background 22). The field is often described as references. This report concentrates on grounded in feminist research, but this is four main themes: home and work, social sometimes contested and debated in terms exclusion, violences and health. of how gender orders within the studies of men work to exclude women researchers and whether a feminist perspective is 3. Home and Work actually neglected (Folkesson 2000:55, Fatherhood. Research on men’s life Smirthwaite 2002, Nordberg 2000, 2001 conditions have increased during the last b). decades. One area of great interest in Swedish research on men and masculinities What is known about men in Sweden both is men as fathers, parents and family in statistics and research is mainly members. What fatherhood means to men connected to the gender equality project. is central as well as constructions of From that point of view men are mostly fatherhood and fathers interactions with the highlighted and looked upon as a problem surrounding world. Foci have also been and obstacle for gender equality. If the directed to men and their ability, or lack of male bread-winner ideal was linked to the ability, to change in a more gender equal welfare state at first, this ideal has been and caring direction. challenged since due to the women’s movement and the gender equality-project. The researcher Lars Plantin sees three The government has taken a political main interests in Swedish research directed decisions to work for that men shall take to men’s parenting: cultural ideals and active part in gender equality strives and expectations, everyday life relations and has investigated in removing obstacles for practices and the effects working life men to engage in gender equality conditions have on men (Plantin 2003, p. questions. The main target has been to 150). Research on fatherhood has moved in reduce a gender-segregated labour-market, two directions, where one is directed but also to make men take more domestic towards men as a problem and the other on responsibility and take parental leave men’s lives and experiences. (Nordberg (Nordberg 2003, p. 76-80, Nordberg forthcoming) The sociologist Lisbeth forthcoming). Researchers in Sweden, who Bekkengen (2002) can be categorised as seem to be drawing at least partly on working in the first direction. In her perspectives from a Critical Studies on research she discusses whether men’s Men approach or something similar to it, emotional interest in their children,

9 manifests itself in more equal practises. Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and the United Instead she points to men’s opportunity to States. Mona Franséhn (2004) studies choose to take parental leave compared to another aspect of family life, namely lone women: Men can choose to be everyday with sons. Franséhn addresses parents whereas women have no option different aspects of the family life that lone once a child is born. This is so because mothers with sons develop in relation to child care is still connected with women absent fathers and the support from social and womanhood. services. Based on nine case studies, she discusses discourses of motherhood and Research on men’s lives and experiences fatherhood as well as modern family life. focuses on problems and obstacles for Though the fathers are absent in principle, gender equal lives, for example Lars she describes them as extremely present as Plantins (2001) study on men’s psychological father figures in these experiences of fatherhood, and Charlotte families. From the social service point of Hagström’s (1999) study on men’s identity view the absence of a father is assumed to processes in becoming a father. Plantin imply a need for limits and authority, shows the complexity of modern transformed into a male role model for the fatherhood, how traditional and gender son to identify with. Jesper Fundberg stereotype practices and discourses can be (2003) describes activities of a boys’ upheld as well as more equality oriented football teams as a context for male practices (Plantin 2003). (see also: Bäck- socialisation. The study is based on several Wiklund and Bergsten, 1997, Johansson years of fieldwork among boys, 1998, Klinth, 2002, Plantin, 2001, Åström teamleaders and parents at a sports club in 1990). Roger Klinth concludes that the Sweden. Fundberg describes what is the extensive Swedish research around ascribed value in their activities. Football families and equality can be described as is seen as a context for bringing up boys either taking an optimistic perspective on providing a “good” context for the welfare-state in relation to equality or a companionship between boys and adult pessimistic stand around parental leave and men. equality implications. Researchers who take a pessimistic standpoint around According to Darvishpour (2004) there is Swedish equality mean that fundamental limited research around equality, and sustainable change is hard to achieve distributions of power and conflicts in through current policy, which favours families with immigrant background and “equality on men’s conditions”. the consequences this has for families and Researchers who take a more optimistic for separations. Studies show that take on Swedish equality politics point to among immigrant groups is more common the tradition of consensus and the role that than among , Chileans and Iranians “state-feminism” and a weakly established showing the highest rates. High levels of “men as provider” model (Klinth 2003, 18- divorce are not only due to cultural or 23). socioeconomical difficulties, but also as a result of shifts in power relations between The authors in the anthology Making men husband and wife. into fathers (Hobson 2002) examines how men are “made” fathers in various Work. Research on gender and countries. Scholars involved in critical organisations has mainly focused on the studies on men and feminist researchers on following topics; men’s constructions of welfare states discuss social politics of homosocial behaviour and fellowship, fatherhood across time and space from six homosociality and leadership, emotional case studies: England, Germany, the work and gender, how gender intersects

10 with other social categories, and male organisation has also been studied from a power hierarchies. The term “homo- gender perspective by Granér (2004), sociality” (men preferring the company of Åberg (2001) and Åse (2000). men) is highlighted in Swedish gender- research in organisations as means for men Other researchers include material to exclude women from positions, symbols as aspects of how bonds between resources and power in organisations. The men are created. Ove Sernhede (1998) work of Charlotte Holgersson and Pia writes about the biker culture where male Höök (1997) emphasises that managers are identity is created in relation to women and mainly recruited from homosocial gay men. Criminality is here a central networks, where notions of what aspect of doing masculinity. Ulf Mellström constitutes the “right” competence play a (1995, 1999, 2003a, 2003b, 2004) studies vital role. Höök (2001) concludes that men how masculinity and technology are create a greater space to be mutually related in different societies and contexts. different in a group and still together Technology and machines are on the one constitute a whole. The space for men to be hand interpreted as sources of power, and mutually different in a group is greater on the other as sources of intimacy, than it is for women. Charlotte Holgersson passion, homosocial fellowship and (2003) interviewed managers around what constructions of identity. Johansson’s makes recruitment “feel good”, and discuss research on body-builders points to the their remarks around notions of importance of the symmetry, form and size homosociality between men. Lindgren as well as dress-codes and attributes (1996) concludes that not all men at a (Johansson 1998b, p.250, see also place of work are included in men’s Johansson 1998c). Nehls (2003) points to homosocial relations; to be included in the the importance of the truck for male truck group there has to be some kind of status drivers, as a symbol of masculinity. Maja associated with the man in question. Jacobsson (1998) analyses how young men Gunnarsson (2003) shows in her research use clothes, perfume and tattoos as means around companies in Information and for creating identity expressing age, Technology how homosocial desire, gender, occupation in relation to a mutual practices and interests on or of collective. working hours, is more sought after when recruiting someone new to the group, than Studies on constructions of masculinity are is gender. mainly absent in the very few research contributions that has focused on the Eva Blomberg (1995) has studied the only Swedish military. Susanne Wollinger surviving revolutionary syndicalist (2000) deals with young men who in their organisation in the world, which started mid 1990s made their military service at an 1920 and is still active. She explores the artillery company in southern Sweden. The role of male identity used inside and focus is on social and cultural aspects of outside the organisation in order to create everyday military service, mainly around tight bonds between men. Susanne what happens in the encounter between Andersson (2003) examines how men born in the 1970s and the hierarchal, constructions of gender, mainly routinized, male-dominated and mythical masculinities, become intertwined with institution as the army. Since 1980 there organisational practises in two Community are no restrictions for women to serve as Police Organisations. Ordering practices officers in the . are analysed around aspects such as status, Anders Berggren (2002) examines what age and constructions of a homosocial has been achieved so far in terms of “we” (Andersson 2003). The police integration of women, what the situation of

11 women officers is like and their impact on and exclusion from education, healthcare, the military organisation and culture. (See associations, and other collective actions as also Berggren 2000, Ivarsson & Berggren well as limitations of citizenship 2001, 2002, Weibull, 2001, Ivarsson (Johansson 2002:47-54). According to 2002). Schierup, poverty and social exclusion are becoming ethnified in Sweden (Schierup If the military is traditionally male 2003b, 238-239). dominated, Marie Nordberg (2003) focuses on men in non-traditional occupations. She Unemployment, ethnicity and age. Social asks if it is the men in childcare or the (to a and economic inequality as well as lesser extent debated) men that work as increased segregation and exclusion have hairdressers that are to be interpreted as the made integration an area that is given “spearhead” of equality. There is a priority in Sweden. Paulina de los Reyes difference in how men in non-traditional (2001) describes how the term diversity occupations talk and describe their work (mångfald) has evolved into a vision and and their practices. The same man can goal in working life even though diversity confirm but also challenge gender has been and still is unusual in Swedish categories without experiencing this as a workplaces. Her focus is on gender and contradiction (Nordberg 2003, 90, for ethnicity and to a certain extent age and research around non-traditional disability, not explicitly on masculinity. occupations see also: Eriksson, 2002: Havung, 2000, Robertsson 2003). Research on ethnicity has been mostly focused on relations between “immigrant” Research is lacking around intersecting (“invandrare”) and “native” populations, power relations, distributions of power and where the Swedish born population seldom conflicts in families with immigrant are problematised from a perspective of background and until recently also the ethnicity (de los Reyes 2001:10-23, 57, child perspective. Promising research areas 58). An increasing minority of “Swedish focused by Critical Studies on Men are born” Swedes have 1 or 2 parents who are men’s practices in power positions and from within minority ethnic groups. The men as violent fathers. fact that such “Swedish born” Swedes are still often publically (and sometimes also semi-officially) refered to as “second 4. Social Exclusion generation immigrants” is very telling In the past years the topics discussed in (though in all fairness this is a common terms of social exclusion are mainly expression in many other countries). around the labour market and marginalisation, residential segregation Even though ethnic minorities have a long and diversity within working life. The history in Sweden, groups such as the main focus has been on the “deviant” in Romani, Tone Valley Finns, Jews and the relation to the “normal” in a Swedish Sami are rarely featured in the discussion context, often discussed around gender, of ethnicity. From a theoretical point of ethnicity, disabilities and age groups in a view the relations between minorities and post-industrial society. (Darin 2003:2). The majority population are now being term social exclusion was brought into the problematised in terms of subordination Swedish social science context in the and dominance in relation to the beginning of the 1990s as a term to use ideological power exercised by the instead of marginalisation, poverty and Swedish state (de los Reyes 2001:57-58, segregation. The focus has been broadened see also Anft 1998). Eva Franzén (2003) from lack of resources to lack of power investigated social assistance receipt

12 among the immigrant population of racialization through ideological discourses Sweden; however gender was not and housing policies as well as on explicitly analysed. She compares symbolic mechanisms in everyday immigrants and ethnic Swede’s in relation discourses drawing boundaries between Us to social assistance receipts, possibilities to and Them. (See also Eriksson 2002) be self-supporting and welfare. Due to the fact that the social insurance systems of Homophobia, sexuality and gay men. welfare-states to a great extent are built on Perspectives of sexuality such as Gay access to the labour market, immigrants Studies and Queer Theory have not until who are excluded from work face serious recently been integrated into Swedish obstacles in respect of general social research on men and masculinities. insurance. Immigrants from what in a Recently however, both gender and Swedish context are to be considered as sexuality orders have been integrated in “typical” refugee countries are facing the some research projects (Nordberg 2004, biggest obstacles to become self- for research contributions see for example supporting (de los Reyes 2001, see also: Nilsson 1999, Nilsson 1998, Lindholm and Aronsson&Kilbom 1996). Nilsson, 2002).

Katarina Mattsson (2001) examines Research around gay men has been representations and discourses of the transformed from questions around body Others in the field of immigration and and psyche to society, identity and labour market studies, showing racialized descriptions of living conditions. In recent assumptions about culture, nation and years the marginalisation of lesbian skills. women, gay men, bi- and transsexual persons (LGBT) has been the object of Ethnicity and segregation. Sweden studies (Forsberg et. al. 2003). Under an possesses one of the most ethnically assignment from The Swedish Council on segregated housing sectors in Western Health, Eva Tiby (1996) carried out the Europe (Pred 2000). Studies around first Swedish pilot study on prevalence, housing have mostly focused on patterns and consequences from threats and economical, social aspects as well as violence against lesbian women and gay political aspects of housing policies. Focus men in Stockholm. Eva Tiby’s doctoral has been on costs, productivity, lack of thesis is based on a study of 850 housing and standard. Even though victimization narratives from gay men and categories such as class have often been lesbian women, which describe if, where, included, aspects such as race/ethnicity and by whom and why lesbians and gay men gender have often been left out (Molina are victimised because of their sexual 1997:36). Research around segregation has orientation. The study shows that 25 per become more extensive during the last cent had experienced what they interpret as decade. One example of this is the hate crimes. The men of the study express anthology I stadens utkant (Arnstberg & higher levels of fear of being victimized Ramberg 1997) [In the outskirts of the than the women. (Tiby 1999) A recent City, Perspecives on Suburbs] (see also study, carried out in 2004, indicates that Johansson 2002). Ove Sernhede (2002) hate crimes have doubled since 1996. The writes about young men and hip hop in study also shows that women are as multi cultural suburbs. In her exposed to hate crimes as are men. (Tiby doctoral thesis Irene Molina (1997) 2004) What is known about violences approaches ethnic residential segregation against LGBT-people is often about men’s in Sweden. She focus on the role of the exposure to violence. Much less is known Swedish state in processes of urban about the experiences of lesbian women.

13 Thomas Haansbaek has interviewed around immigrant men and homelessness immigrant gay men and lesbian women (Erlandsson & Remaeus 1997). Research around their experiencis around around use of alcohol is insufficient apart discrimination based on their sexual from studies of consumption. Most studies preferenses for the National Institute for on abuse have been based on male Public Health in Sweden (Haansbaek populations without a gender perspective; 2002). The circumstances under which gay studies of men’s patterns of consumption men with an immigrant background live and abuse from a gender perspective are are not covered in Swedish research. rare. Leissner (2002) interviews six men from a small municipality about their Ethnicity, sexuality and racism. Research alcohol consumption. They describe on lesbian, gay and bi-sexual persons in drinking from different angles and in Sweden is still in its infancy. Very few sometimes paradoxical ways, talking about studies anywhere have a perspective which consumption patterns, family contacts, includes love, sexuality, ethnicity and men; problems, control, helplessness and care, only two have been conducted in Sweden. manliness and loneliness (Leissner & Sven-Axel Månsson (1984) writes about Hedin 2002, see also for example Norell & immigrant men and their life in a Swedish Törnquist 1995). Kuosmanen (2001) cultural context of sex and . discusses immigrant Finnish men and how Kuosmanen (2001) discusses Finnish they do manliness and culture in Sweden men’s lives and social careers in Sweden, around drinking. including problems concerning their love life (Kuosmanen & Johansson 2003, see Disabled men. Gender has been a also Hammarén 2003 about immigrant neglected area in research in disability. It young men and sexuality). The researcher has been assumed that the experiences of Anna Bredström writes about how disabled men are representative of the masculinity is turned into struggles of disabled population. Karin Barron (1997) national arenas and reflects about how deals with the transition from adolescence Swedish media have portrayed young men to adulthood for physically disabled young with immigrant background. These men women and men. She concludes that young are constructed as symbols of that which men, more often than young women, Swedish men are not: rapists, primitive, identify with non disabled men around not modern, uneducated and against social interests. These men do not identify equality between men and women themselves as disabled (understood as (Bredström 2003). feminine), instead they identify themselves in a way that traditionally is interpreted as Homelessness, drug abuse and alcohol manly (Barron 1997, 2004). consumption. Research around home- lessness does often lack a gender Research is lacking around perspective; the main research objective is institutionalised forms of racisms and on most often men. A few studies focus on the Swedish born population from a women from a gender perspective (Beijer perspective of ethnicity: especially the 2000, Thörn 2000). Early research on relations between “immigrant” and homelessness focused on individuals and “native” populations where the Swedish their social problems as well as physical born population need to be problematised and psychological ill health, but ignored from a perspective of ethnicity. There is a systemic aspects (Halldin 2000, Beijer et al general need for an “intersectional” focus 2001). Runquist and Swärd (2000) give an on social exclusion. Areas that need to be overview of Swedish research on focused upon from a gender perspective homelessness. There is not much done are men and age, disabled men, drug

14 abuse, homelessness and (immigrant) men, Swedish context. She explores what Swedish men’s practices in relation to understandings are expressed in different prostitution and trafficking in Sweden and texts concerning men’s violence against other countries. women, based on approximately 150 texts, produced by academics as well as those who meet with the problem in their 5. Violences different professions. Studies and research on violence against women have appeared from the 1980’s and Professor in sociology Eva Lundgren’s the 1990’s; attention to violence especially research is often described as central to the increased during the 1990’s. Doctoral knowledge of violences in Sweden. She, theses, reports, essays have been produced among others, points to that men’s in various disciplines such as psychology, violence against women must be psychiatry, medicine, sociology, interpreted in a cultural and social context criminology, law and social work (Steen that ranks men higher than women. This 2003). However, at the same time violence is interpreted as an expression of academic interest in violence against a gender power hierarchy and a means of women is described as low, also within the upholding it. Different forms of violence, field of women’s studies. Male researchers violence exercised in different types of have until now paid little attention to the arenas and relationships are understood as area (Folkesson 2000). The sociologically interconnected (Lundgren 2004, SOU oriented perspective has had a strong 2004:121). Eva Lundgren et al conducted influence on the understanding of men’s the first major national enquiry to be violence against women alongside the carried out in Sweden with the object of individual psychological point of view studying the extent of men’s violence (Eliasson, 1997: 91, 92). Eva Lundgren against women. The study Slagen dam, et.al (2001) concludes that the absence of (Captured queen) is based on a postal research-based knowledge concerning survey sent to 10 000 women between 18- violence against women should be 64 years of whom about 70 % responded. interpreted to mean that such violence is It provides statistical information, such as treated as a marginal phenomenon. There prevalence of violence and threats in is a long established view of the sexual relationships, violence outside perpetrator of violence as a deviant, sexual relationships, most recent violent exceptional man, and violence as a incident, sexual harassment and women’s phenomenon occurring in special, socially perceptions of the effect of violence and deprived milieu (Lundgren et. al 2001:11- shows how widespread men’s violence is 15). in Sweden. The results show that 46 % of the respondents have been subjected to Mona Eliasson (1997) has written one of violence by a man since their fifteenth the first overviews on men’s violence birthday. Over half of the women have against women. Her book gives a picture been sexually harassed; out of these of what the violence looks like, its causes women 31 % have been subjected to sexual and consequences drawing on international or physical violence prior to their fifteenth research. Another comprehensive report on birthday (Lundgren et. al 2001). research, statistics, prevalence and what is done to prevent and stop violence against Lena Widding Hedin (1999) has women in Sweden has been put together by investigated the prevalence of physical and Amnesty International (2004). Anne-Lie sexual abuse by an intimate partner before Steen (2003) writes about the production and during pregnancy in Sweden. The of knowledge about women abuse in a study was carried out between 1996-1997

15 with Swedish born women married or writes from a political science perspective cohabiting with Swedish born men. on the connections between military, Questionnaires as well as interviews were peace-war and men’s violence against used, 207 women were interviewed. The women (Eduards 2004:262). Eduards also results show that a considerable number of analyses a major Swedish campaign and pregnant women are exposed to threats and training program on preventing men’s actual acts of violence: 27,5 % of the violence to women and the following women reported abuse some time by a debate, this addressing of societal power intimate partner and 24,5 % during the last relations caused (Eduards 2002). Anna T. year. (See also Prevalence of gender Höglund (2001) aims in her doctoral thesis violence, carried out by Katarina to develop a critical feminist analysis of Swahnberg ) ethical theories of war and peace. She analyses ethical arguments for and against Sociologist Carin Holmberg (1993) the use of military violence and the approaches women’s subordination and construction of gender in these theories. men’s power among equal young couples Basically she makes links between from a social psychological perspective. In patriarchy, militarism and ethical theories her research men’s power and violence is that justify the usage of military violence. in focus, as well as women’s lack of power. In her recent work, she elaborates Violence against children. During the why women in violent relations don’t leave later part of the 1990s children’s situation their partner (Holmberg & Enander 2004). in families where the mother was exposed In her work with Christine Bender (1997, to violence by the father/stepfather has 2001, 2003) the agendas of the Swedish become more noticed. The organisation men’s and women’s shelters are analysed, Save the Children’s work has been as well as how municipality politicians important for this attention (i.e. Arnell & interpret and deal with issues of men’s Ekbom 2000). However, Swedish research violences. Holmberg (2004) has written the on children’s situation has not been much first investigation in Sweden to focus developed. Sociologist Maria Eriksson’s men’s violences directed to animals in doctoral thesis concerns the handling of violent relations. By exposing pets to father’s violence in the context of violence or threatening to hurt or kill the separation and divorce in Sweden. family pet men uses violence directed Eriksson relates age, gender and kinship to against animals to control or/and hurt their each other with the help of three partner. In an ongoing project Holmberg interlinked studies of what constructions of and Stjernqvist conduct the first Swedish age, gender and kinship mean for the survey on violence in same-sex couples handling of fathers violence against (Holmberg & Stjernqvist 2004). mothers and children. Violent fathers neither exist as a concept nor as a policy Democracy and militarism. In her thesis problem in the professional handling of Maria Wendt Höjer (2002) argues that father’s violence. Barbro Metell (Metell et men’s violence, and women’s fear of al. 2001) and Birgitta Lyckner focus on violence, constitutes a central problem for children who are witnessing violence in democracy. She investigates how men’s their parents’ partnership and their needs violence to women has been dealt with and as abused indirectly by this violence. depoliticised in Swedish politics from the Studies most often focus on grown ups 1930s to the 1990s. She concludes that interpretations and statements about the political discourse to a large extent rejects children witnessing violence (Hällberg the definition of violence in terms of 2004, see also Arnell & Ekbom 2000, gender power. Maud Eduards (2004) Ungmark 1996). In one of a very few

16 reports of it’s kind, Katarina Weinehall lets Nea Mellberg (2002) deals with the teenagers between 13-19 years speak about situation of mothers, when they got to their experience of a violent home know or suspected that their children had environment and their self-images. been sexually abused by fathers, biological Hällberg (2004) carries out interviews with or social, with whom they had an intimate children of different ages (7-17) about their relation. She has conducted interviews experiences from witnessing violence in with 13 ethnic Swedish mothers around their family. Nea Mellberg (2004) provides their process of interpreting this experience an overview over official Swedish texts, in relation to the husband or ex-husband. literature and research focusing on men’s (for presentation on research on child violence against women and sexual sexual abuse see also Edgardh 2001; maltreatment of children from the 1970s Martens 1989; Svedin & Banck 2002) and onwards. There is little research made around sexual Maltreatment against children has been harassment in schools. This is most often discussed actively since the 1950s but very not described in terms of gendered few studies have been performed. It is not violence even though are most possible to tell the prevalence and how frequently exposed to this kind of outspread maltreatment against children is violences. There are numerous researches in Sweden today. (SOU 2001:18) In a on bullying (“mobbning”), but seldom qualitative study by Keith Pringle (2002), from a gender perspective or from the age, ethnicity and gender is analyzed in perspectives of ethnicity or sexuality. relation to the Swedish child welfare Eliasson & Menckel (2003) study gendered system. Pringle (2005) interviewed a range practices around verbal aggression and of “actors” in the Swedish child welfare physical violence, the student’s reactions system including welfare managers, and experience of safety. They conclude welfare practitioners, local and central that mainly boys expose girls and other government politicians from a range of boys to verbal aggression and physical parties, governmental and non- violence. governmental policy-makers and some key academics. He found a considerable “Honour” related violence. From being number of these respondents seemed to use practically non-existent in Swedish relatively weak research evidence to vocabularies of science, politics and media support arguments which diverted attention the concept of “honour killing” has away from the problematic aspects of become a common concept in Sweden men’s practices in relation to children and during the late 1990´s (Eldén 2003). Åsa women; especially the practices of some Eldén (2003) focus on discussing honour men from the white Swedish majority related violence beyond the paradigm of ethnic group. At the same time, some culture and avoids constructing culture as respondents would ignore relatively strong different frames through which men’s research evidence which highlighted those violence against women can be interpreted. problematic aspects. Astrid Schlytter (2004) takes another point of departure. She focuses on young Sexual abuse of children is focused in girls/women coming from cultures with a Kerstin Rathsmans (2000) thesis about so called honour related patriarchal cultural experiences of incest in childhood. From a background and studies their life space and symbolic interactionist perspective she ability to choose their own identity and interprets interview statements from 15 way of life in Sweden. Her starting point is women who have been subjected to incest situations where families and relatives, by their biological fathers or stepfathers. mainly men, force young girls to obedience

17 through threats and maltreatment. Schlytter suggests that where men’s violences occurs discuss threats and violence conducted by within minority ethnic groups in Sweden, the family and relatives as being neglected one should not assume that such violence and looked upon as an aspect of the is simply an “import” to Sweden from an cultural norms in the family’s former outside culture. Instead, researchers should home-countries. (See also Aylin Akpinar, investigate how far such violence 1998) NGOs from Sweden, Finland and reproduces the “meeting” between the Netherlands have put together a patriarchal relations in the “home” culture Resource Book from European projects (i.e the minority ethnic group culture) and regarding honour related violence patriarchal relations in the “host” culture (Kvinnoforum 2003). Honour related (i.e. mainstream white Swedish society) violence is in the report described mainly as an indicator of social exclusion and Prostitution. In most of the studies on poverty, not explicitly in terms of culture. men as sex buyers, men are discussed from various point of views, but only a few Not only girls and young women are discuss men from a gender perspective discussed in terms of HRV, also boys and (Kuosmanen & Johansson 2003). Research men are highlighted as suffering from around prostitution has mainly been done honour related violence and needed to be from a psychological, sociological and involved when addressing these problems. historical point of view; however, not Paulina de los Reyes (2003) focuses on much has been done at all and rarely from what patriarchal values mean at an a gendered perspective on men. Yvonne individual level when they are Svansström (2004), writes from a gender- strengthened by institutional practices and perspective about how men as sexbuyers structural conditions in a gender segregated has been described and looked upon from and ethnically differentiated society. 1800 to 2000. It wasn’t until the 1990’s Families with immigrant background are that men became visible as buyers of sex in looked upon as patriarchal, and their debates alongside women as prostitutes. daughters as victims, which can mean a Göran Sandell et. al (1996) interviewed hindrance to understand and prevent men that buy sex in order to be able to specific forms of oppressions. de los Reyes analyse their life situation and to concludes that research on gender and understand why they do it and how to ethnicity as an integrated perspective is prevent it. The authors conclude that lacking in Sweden; knowledge on how prostitution is a problem for society with different forms of men’s power relations to many aspects to it, for example: lack of control women intersect has not gained equality, sex roles, access to power and much interest among Swedish researchers. family-relations (Sandell et al 1996, p.270, Pringle (2005) has tried to provide a more See also ex Hydén 1990, Andersson- nuanced and complex picture of the place Collins 1990) of “culture” (defined as beliefs and practices) in the context of men’s violence. More than 800 000 Swede’s, mostly men, On the one hand, he does not dismiss the consume sex on the internet, according to a idea that “culture” may sometimes mediate study made by Sven-Axel Månsson (2004) the precise forms which men’s violence and Peder Söderlind. The study focus on takes. On the other hand, he also contacts, meeting places and chat rooms as emphasises that men’s violence and indeed well as what the relations between the patriarchal relations more generally providers, distributors and consumers characterise both the majority ethnic group looks like. in Sweden as well as minority ethnic groups. Following Maria Eriksson, he also

18 The study of criminologist Tove Pettersson average life expectancy of men in Sweden (Pettersson 2002), comprises three aspects has rapidly approached that of women over on criminal networks focusing on the past twenty years. Lower levels of hooligans, ethnicity and gender. The alcohol and tobacco consumption as well material on ethnicity and gender consists as decreased levels of suicide have of violent offences reported in the contributed to level out gender differences. Stockholm police district over the course of 1995; the hooligan study comprises Örjan Hemström (1998) has studied gender information from the police on violent differences in mortality using literature and male supporters of Stockholm. The data from official statistics in Sweden objective of the gender study was to 1945-1992. en’s behaviour, such as examine the significance of violent crimes smoking, heavy alcohol drinking and risk- for girls and boys in terms of enacting taking, contribute to excess male mortality. gender. Boys employ violence as a means He also analyses what impact economical of constructing gender considerably more growth, marital break up and working often than girls. However, the study shows conditions have on mortality among men that the structure of the registered violent and women. Hemström concludes by crime committed by boys and girls pointing at behavioural factors which best respectively is quite similar. (See also explain excess male mortality, sometimes Lander et al. 2003 were the criminological in interaction with biological factors. field is described from a gender Survey data from Sweden indicate that perspective) men’s habits are on average unhealthier than women’s with regard to vitamin Lacking research: men’s violence and its intake, dietary fat, use of vegetables in the connections to dominant forms of diet and physical activity (Manderbacka et construction of masculinity need to be al., 1998). The book Gender Inequalities in researched more. There is a lack of good Health. A Swedish Perspective (Östlin et recent prevalence surveys of the extent of al. 2001) examines how current health child sexual abuse in Sweden and its patterns in Sweden has developed and offenders. Also lacking is research on changed in relation to gender, class and institutional/ised violence, violence to age groups. In one of the chapters the disabled, gender and ethnicity as an frequently hidden health problem of integrated perspective, the impact of men’s violence against women is described, violence on children, sexual harassments in underlying factors is highlighted as for schools, Swedish men’s practices as sex example society’s view and treatment of buyers in Sweden and elsewhere. violence against women. Although gender violence is a significant cause of female morbidity and mortality, it is seldom seen 6. Health as a public health issue. The book Gender Gender and health. There are relatively and Social inequalities in Health (Wamala extensive data on the health of the & Lynch 2002) focuses on a gender population from registers and surveys. perspective in the frame of health Maria Danielsson (2002) has studied the inequalities. Focus is on gender and its role average life expectancy for men in Sweden in producing health inequalities as well as from a gender and social-medicine difficulties in integrating research on perspective. This text gives a relevant gender and social inequalities in health. perspective on the position on men “from the cradle to the grave”, concerning death Body appearance. Carita Bengs (2000) risks during childhood, youth and has studied how social and cultural norms adulthood. She points to the fact that the regarding body and appearance are

19 perceived and interpreted by young people. committing suicide - a method often Based on a questionnaire to 167 young referred to as commonly used by women – girls and boys aged 13, 15 and 17 years of however; women commit more suicide old she focuses on the body as attempts than men do using drugs problematic, controlled, co-modified and (Danielsson 1996, p. 13, 14). social. Boys expressed a greater satisfaction with their bodies than girls did. Men in traffic. If the risk for men and Friends, together with mass media, mainly women of being killed or badly injured is visual media and magazines, are regarded compared, the statistics show that men face as the strongest source of influence of how a 1.8 times higher risk of being killed the respondents perceive their bodies. compared to women, allowing for how Nathalie Koivula (1999) has studied how much time men and women are out in beliefs of gender-appropriateness results in traffic. However, the risk of being badly categorizations of sports as feminine and injured is the same for both men and masculine, she also investigate the media women. Among drivers of a private car the sports coverage from a gender perspective. risk of being killed is 1.7 times higher for men compared to women (Statistiska Suicide. Susanne Ringskog (2001) Centralbyrån 2004d, p. 40). It is very provides an overview of the empirical unusual to discuss the above average male research and theory on the field. One death rate from a gender perspective or in explanation as to why twice as many men relation to, for example, risk behaviour. commit suicide compared to women in Instead the problem is highlighted from a Sweden is lack of diagnosis and treatment socio-economic perspective; explanations to men’s depressions (Ringskog 2001). are found in various risk-groups related to Among men suicide is more common in positions on the labour market or in the country-side compared to women. The relation to social exclusion. The numbers number of young men (age 15-24 years of of deaths caused by accidents are old) subjected to hospital treatment due to decreasing, which among other factors attempted suicide has increased somewhat contributes to level out the gender during the last years (Socialstyrelsen differences in average length of life 2003). Statistics show that completed between men and women (Danielsson suicide has long been considered more 2002: 34, 35). prevalent in all of the Nordic countries than in the rest of Europe but this Sexuality and age. There is an extensive difference is no longer as great as in earlier research on young people and sexuality times. There is a high mortality rate among mainly from a sexologist and youth culture boys in Sweden; more than twice as many point of view. A critical discussion on boys in the age of 15-24 years of old die young men and sexuality is often missing, compared to girls in the same age group. early research in young people focused This is explained by higher rates of mostly on young women’s sexuality. But completed suicides and accidents (motor- in the beginning of 2000, there has been an accidents mostly) leading to death increased interest to problematise how (Danielsson 2002: 24, 35). young men “do gender” and sexuality (Kuosmanen & Johansson 2003:214, see The most commonly used method to for example: Hammarén & Johansson commit suicide is through hanging and 2002, Johansson & Lalander 2003). poisoning. The next most common method is to shoot oneself or use car exhaust Gay men and health. Men who engage in fumes, methods almost exclusively used by sex with other men consist of 40 % of all men. Men do also use drugs as a way of HIV positive in Sweden. Some enquiries

20 have been done with the aim of preventing research silence on this topic, therefore, the spreading of HIV. Enquiries around does not arise from insignificance of the lifestyles and sex has been done, for problem. The problem is certainly there in example Ronny Tikkanden & Sven-Axel Sweden but it gets researched relatively Månsson’s questionnaire Förhandlad little, especially by men scholars. In the säkerhet och kalkylerade risker (1999), case of research on child sexual abuse, it is (Negotiated safety and calculated risks) not even possible to say whether the same and Mats Hilte’s Drogrus och sexlust applies. For the relative absence of (Drug rush and sexual desire). In his research on child sexual abuse in Sweden doctoral thesis Risk Factor Love, Benny is very marked and especially problematic; Henriksson (1995) examines two contexts indeed in this specific field even Denmark for risk behaviour: casual sexual contacts has more to offer than Sweden in terms of gay- and bisexual men have in erotic some forms of research such as prevalence “oases”, such as public toilets, parks, video surveys. clubs etc; and on the other hand the sexual experiences the men have in their relations. How can this lack of research on men’s violence in Sweden be explained? No Research is lacking on men’s violence as doubt the explanations are multiple and a public health issue for women, children complex. Nevertheless, we pick out one and other men. Men’s health problems in particular partial explanation for emphasis. relation to hegemonic ideologies of Pringle (2005) has recently suggested that masculinity need to be studied more, as the cultural dynamics which make Sweden well as young men subjected to crime. stand out in terms of a societal and welfare Heterosexual men’s sex life is not covered commitment to the eradication of poverty much from a gender perspective. More and class difference may also be research is needed with a international responsible for a resistance to perspective. acknowledging and challenging some social divisions based on gender and/or ethnicity and/or age: social divisions which 7. Discussion he characterizes (following Maud Eduards) As the report has noted, there has been a as being associated with “bodily integrity” large amount of research on aspects of rather than labour in the home or the gender - including specifically on men’s market place. practices - carried out in Sweden compared to many other European countries. Within One aspect of a gendered social division the Nordic countries, the intensity of associated with “bodily integrity” is men’s Swedish research´on men is also relatively violence to women and children. The state high, perhaps being slightly less than in welfare project in Sweden - since at least Norway but being more than in Finland the 1930s - has been directed at poverty and markedly higher than the relatively alleviation and the narrowing of class low output in Denmark. However, this differences based on the social principles productivity does not refer to gendered of consensus and collectivism. And those studies of men’s violence. And the absence principles still heavily mark many of the of men scholars’ involvement in the field key social institutions of the state. It is of studying men’s violence in Sweden is suggested that consensus and state especially striking. Yet, from the research collectivism have both promoted the which has been carried out (mainly by historical commitment in Sweden to the women scholars), it is clear that men’s idea of “welfare” (in the form of poverty violence against women is a very alleviation) AND at the same time have significant problem in Sweden. The inhibited a recognition of other social

21 divisions based on different aspects of Gunilla Bjerén, Aulikki Cederholm, Maria disadvantages such as gender, ethnicity, Danielsson, Ann Ellburg Frisell, Carin age, disability and sexuality. Holmberg, Lars Jalmert, Pia Laskar, Karin Leander, Birgitta Ney, Katarina Mattsson, Acknowledgements: Annika Olsson, Katarina Rosengren Falk, The following persons have been of Tiina Rosenberg, Jens Rydström, Ulrica helpful in the process of writing this report: Stjernqvist, Caroline Tovatt; Thank you! Susanne Andersson, Fanny Ambjörnsson,

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33 Ringskog, Suanne (2001) Könsparadoxen: varför tar dubbelt så många män än kvinnor sina liv, samtidigt som det är flest kvinnor som är deprimerade? [The Gender paradox: why is it that twice as many men compared to women commit suicide when it is mostly women that are depressed?] Stockholm: Nationellt centrum för suicidforskning och prevention av psykisk ohälsa

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34

SOU (1998:6) Remissammanställning - Ty makten är din- : betänkande från Utredningen om fördelningen av ekonomisk makt och ekonomiska resurser mellan kvinnor och män, [Because the power belongs to you: investigation on the distribution of economical power and resources between men and women] Stockholm: Fritzes offentliga publikationer.

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36

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38

EU FP6 Coordination Action on Human Rights Violations

Sweden National Report on Statistical information on Men’s Practices3

1. Key Points a. There is a very large amount of committed indoors or outdoors. Gender is statistical information available in Sweden, differentiated in statistics on violence. As much of it produced by Statistics Sweden important, however, there are few and other government authorities. Gender statistical measures in the area of children statistics are part of the official statistics. subjected to violence. b. There are lots of statistics divided by e. There are statistics disaggregated by gender on the Swedish population gender and age on the both perceived and regarding gender segregation in for registered prevalence of illness and poor instance labour market, salaries and health in Sweden. But the gendered aspect income, health, education, time use, child- of these data needs to be focused more. care, care of the elderly, influence and power. c. Gender divided statistics on social 2. National Background exclusion are available, measuring living Rich statistical information on numerous conditions as indicated by education, aspects of population is available in income, work, age, country of birth, social Sweden, much of it produced by Statistics contacts, victimisation, political resources, Sweden (Statistiska Centralbyrån, SCB). leisure time and health. These statistics are There is a lot of statistical information also published in special reports. available on the Statistics Sweden website d. The official statistics in Sweden concern database, annual yearbooks and CD- reported violence to the police; Statistics ROMs. In their annual yearbook, Statistics Sweden also provides data from interviews Sweden summarises information on much with victims of violence. There is in some of the statistics produced in Sweden. The aspects a quite large amount of statistics on majority of the texts are translated into violence. This together with prevalence English and available on the website. studies and criminal statistics gives a (www.scb.se) The Statistics Sweden picture on the character and prevalence of organisation is divided into 4 departments: violence in Sweden. In statistics Labour and Education, Population and concerning violence the perpetrators are Welfare, Economic Statistics, Environment characterised as known or unknown to the and Regional Statistics. The section victim and whether the crime was dealing with statistics around gender equality is located in the department of Population and Welfare. In 1984 the first edition of “Women and Men in Sweden” 3 The work on this report was funded by the was released, updated every other year. In Framework 6- funded Co-Ordinated Action on Human Rights Violations (CAHVR - Project PL this booklet, statistics showing the 506348) (Workpackage 8)

39 development of gender equality in Sweden way around three areas: family, working are presented. life/labour market and the welfare state during the last decades of the twentieth In 1994 the Swedish Parliament decided on century. (see for example: SOU 1998:3, a new national action plan to implement SOU 1998:6, SOU 1998:4, SOU 1997:83) equality policy, including that all statistics on individuals should be divided by Work: Den könsuppdelade arbets- gender. Swedish official statistics are marknaden [The gender divided labour divided into 22 subject areas, and there are market] is a research based investigation 25 government authorities responsible for commissioned by the government to producing these statistics. There is a present new knowledge on the gender distinction in Sweden between official divided labour market. It provides statistics statistics and other public statistics. In on the various dimensions of gender 2001 gender statistics were made part of segregation, horizontal, vertical as well as the official statistics. The official statistics internally. There are statistics on the period are produced according to the statistical act between 1990 and 2002 relating to forms and ordinance, published as required by of employment, wages, occupation and official regulations. The Swedish Official gender, regional gender segregations. Statistics Act states that official statistics Besides describing what is done to counter are statistics for public information, the gender segregated labour market, it planning and research purposes in provides facts and figures on compulsory specified areas produced by appointed schooling and Universities. The report also public authorities in accordance with the presents a survey of what young people provisions issued by the Government want to work with when they grow up. The (http://www.svenskstatistik.net/eng/index.h investigation shows that the gender tm). segregation on the labour market to some extent decreased during the 1990s. Women Time Scale. The focus is on statistics have widened their choice of career which concerning home and work, social has led to a decreased segregation; men on exclusion, violences and health, collected the other hand have not to the same extent from the late 1990’s until 2005. Some of widened their choices of careers (SOU the studies include earlier time series. 2004:43). But segregation is still relatively great, both horizontally as well as vertically. In the research-based 3. Home and Work governmental report Mansdominans i In 1994 the government decided to set up a förändring (2003) [Male dominance in commission of inquiry on mapping out and change] Wahl et al. present statistics analysing the distribution of economic showing that men continue to dominate power and resources between men and leading positions in large organisations in women. The commission was called public as well as in the private sector, but Kvinnomaktutredningen [Investigation on the organisations are engaged in efforts to the distribution of economic power and bring about change to create a more even resources between women and men] and representation of the sexes (SOU 2003:16). delivered 13 volumes between 1997 and 1998. The investigation was research Work, labour force participation and based, with the aim to give a collected employment sectors: The booklet Women picture on the distribution of economic and Men in Sweden, facts and figures is a power and resources between women and compilation of data on gender equality and men. In these anthologies gender divided demographic analysis. It is a very handy statistics are presented in a comprehensive booklet and comes in an English version.

40 Its content includes figures and statistics and for men born in other countries outside divided by gender over the Swedish Europe it is 71 (SCB 2004, p. 43, 45, 47, population regarding health, education, 48, 51). The labour market is gendered by time use, child care, care of the elderly, branch and by public or private sector. gainful employment, salaries and income. Only three occupations out of the thirty In 2003 the population in age-group 20-64 largest have an equal sex distribution: contained of 2, 60 million women and 2, teachers in secondary education, cooks, 68 million men, out of these 79 % of and accountants. The labour market is both women and 84 % of men were in the hierarchally and horizontally gender labour force. Men are to a higher extent segregated. Men dominate in technical and employed than women although the commercial sales branches as for example difference is small; 80 % of men and 76 % as system designers, lorry drivers, of women were employed in 2003. 91 % of carpenters, stock clerks, storekeepers, all men aged 20-64 were employed full- machine-tool operators, building time and 9 % part-time. The caretakers, mainly in the private sector. corresponding figures for women were 67 Women work in the public sector as much % full-time and 33 % part-time. as in the private, for example as assistant nurses, home-based personal care, office A greater proportion of women were clerks, administrative personnel and outside the labour market compared to primary school teachers. Women have to men, 21 % of women and 16 % of men4. greater extent temporary employment The rate of men’s gainful employment has contracts compared to men. Managers are remained at the same level between 1979 to great extent men in the private sector; in and 1990 but is subsequently decreasing. the private sector 81 % of managers are In 2003 men in the age group 20 – 64 had men and in the public sector 44 %, in total an economic activity rate of 84 % and an 76 % of managers in Sweden are men unemployment rate of 4 per cent. Men’s (SCB 2004, p. 56, 94). labour force participation at age 25-54 have dropped since the 90’s, the same Time use: Tid för vardagsliv [Time for the applies for men aged 16-19 years for which everyday life] is a study that Statistics the economic activity rate has fallen. Sweden made to relate how women’s and Among Swedish born men in the age 25-44 men’s time use has changed between the economic activity rate is 91 out of 100, 1990/91 and year 2000/01. Apart from a for men born in the Nordic countries 84, gender perspective, a family cycle for men born in Europe except the Nordic perspective is discussed. The statistics countries 85, and for men born in other show that women and men are closing in countries outside Europe the activity rate is on one other when it comes to work; 77. In the age group 45-64 the economic today’s women do unpaid home-work 40 activity rate is lower; the economic activity minutes less per day and men do paid work rate is 84 out of 100 for men born in outside the home 20 minutes less per day. Sweden, men born in the Nordic countries Due to women working less in the home has a rate of 71, the rate for men born in this has led to a more equal distributed Europe except the Nordic countries is 69, workload in the home, all together this means that the “productive time” (working for pay) has decreased somewhat. Even

4 though men’s and women’s time use has The main activities for women and men outside become more alike, men’s work is to a the labour market were housework; 2 % of women and 0 % of men; studies 5 % for both women and larger extent paid work outside the home, men; pension 2 % of women and 1 % of men; other women’s work is more equally distributed 12 % of women and 10 % of men (SCB 2004, p. 43).

41 between paid work outside the home and households, called; Undersökningar av unpaid work in the home (SCB 2003b). levnadsförhållanden [Study of living conditions]. A large package of social Wage gap: Men generally earn more than indicators is used as measures of living women do; in total women earn 83 % of conditions: education, income, work, what men do (year 2002). This figure has transports, social contacts, victimisation, remained more or less the same since the political resources, leisure time and health. 1990s. If one accounts for differences The statistics are divided by gender, social between men and women in age, economic class, generation, type of family, education, full-time/part-time, sector and country of birth, region and occupation. occupational group women earn 92 % of men’s salaries (year 2002) (SCB 2004, p. After the 1990s the unemployment rates 72). rose simultaneous with cut downs in official spending, resulting in increased Parental leave, temporary allowance welfare gaps in Sweden. Some of the and parental allowance: In 1974 parental tendencies in this development are covered allowance was introduced. Since 1998 the in the report Välfärd och ofärd på 90-talet benefits comprise 80 % of the wage for [Good times and hard times in Sweden 480 days including 30 sickness benefit during the 90s]. The report gives an days. Since 1995 there is a “mummy/daddy overview of Sweden as a welfare state, month” - 30 days must be used by the regarding income, living conditions, mother and 30 by the father. Since 2002 distribution of welfare, developments in the amount of days reserved for each health, victims of violence, the welfare of parent are 60 days. If the father (or the elderly and democracy. One example of mother for that part) does not utilize his how the welfare state in relation to aspects reserved days they are lost to the family. of democracy is that political participation The remainder can be used by either has declined during the 80s and 90s. There parent. Fathers have since 1980 the right to are great differences in participation 10 days leave immediately after the birth between different groups: Men, middle of a new child. The amount of days for aged, with high income, working as which parental leave have been utilized by officials, being native Swedes and men have slowly increased since the politically interested are more likely to introduction in 1974; in year 2003 men’s participate in politics than any other group. share was 17 % of the total. This means Younger generations experienced a that men do not take much more parental worsened economic situation since the leave than their reserved days. In 2003 1990’s, but the situation for elderly persons men utilized 36 % of the total of temporary has on the other hand improved (SCB allowance days (days to care for sick 2003). children). Statistics on insured persons claiming parental allowance show that The report Perspektiv på välfärden 2004 men’s part has increased. The percentage [Perspectives on welfare 2004] shed light of allowance days claimed by men has on actualities in welfare reporting on increased from 23 % in 1985 to 43 % economy, employment, income, living 2003. (SCB 2004, p. 38, 39). conditions and health. There are descriptions of the labour market during the resent decades in terms of 4. Social Exclusion employment for men and women divided Living conditions and welfare: Statistics by age (SCB 2004c, 106, 133). The Sweden provides statistics on living Swedish government and the Department conditions among individuals and for Social Issues assigned in 1999 a

42 commission to investigate and summarize Differences in unemployment rates were the development of the welfare system high between ethnic Swedish men and during the 1990s. Groups that are exposed immigrant men regarding the period of to generally low levels of welfare, and that 1993-2000. While 4, 1 % of the ethnic have gone through a particularly non- Swedish men were unemployed, 9, 8 % of favourable development during the 1990s, all men born abroad were unemployed. are young people, single mothers, disabled, Men from south Europe and former elderly and people born outside of Sweden republic of Yugoslavia (10, 10, 5 %), and and children to some extent (SOU 2001:79 the Middle East (14, 9 %) showed the p. 55-59). highest rates of unemployment. Differences in health conditions follow the The situation of immigrants: two levels of stratification between Approximately 20 % of the Swedish immigrants from the richer countries and population has a background in “others”. Men from the Nordic and west immigration5; 1, 9 million are either born EU countries show little differences in abroad or have one or both parents born health compared to ethnic Swedes, the abroad. Most immigrants to Sweden come well-being of immigrants from war zones from the Nordic countries and Europe, and outside EU are considerable worse where persons from former republic of (SCB 2002, p. 98, 153). Yugoslavia and Asia constitute a considerable share. There are two levels of People born outside of Sweden are more stratification among immigrants. exposed to fluctuations in the labour Immigrants from the richer world (Nordic market in Sweden. This is primarily true countries, western Europe and North for immigrants who have stayed in Sweden America) reach the same living conditions for a shorter period of time. The situation as its “twin-group” of Swedes after a short for men born in the Nordic countries, time in Sweden. Immigrants from the EU/EES, Latin America or Asia is that Balkans, Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa and they have between 5-10 percentage units’ South America form a group who has lower employment rates than ethnic born essentially poorer living conditions lasting Swedish men. The lowest level of over many years. The profile of welfare employment is among men born in a for these groups is on all points worse country in Asia who have been in Sweden compared to native ethnic6 Swedes and 0-4 years. In this group 24 % had a job in immigrants from richer countries (SCB 2001, being over 50 percentage units lower 2003, p.11). than ethnic Swedish men. Swedish born young people with parents born outside of Europe have lower rates of employment 5 This comment should be seen in the light of the and higher rates of unemployment fact that "Swedish born" Swedes who have 1 or compared to Swedish born young people both parents born outside Sweden are often referred with Swedish born parents; even though to in public discourse as "invandrare" (immigrant) they have the same level of education, the or "second-generation immigrant". Until 2002, same average grades and grades in the Statistics Sweden (SCB) also formally used the terminology of "second generation immigrant". It is Swedish language. A conclusion drawn in only after 2002 that SCB has abandoned that term. the report (Integrationsverket 2004, p. 135) The new term is "born in Sweden with both parents is discrimination is one important born abroad". A person born in Sweden with one of explanation to differences in the the parents born in Sweden is no longer considered employment rates between Swedish born as having "foreign background" (http://www.scb.se/Grupp/Metod/_Dokument/X11 persons and persons born outside of OP0203.pdf). Sweden. However, knowledge is lacking about how common the prevalence of 6 Swedish born person by Swedish born parents.

43 discrimination is (Integrationsverket 2004, and immigrants from southern Europe or p. 86-88, 108-109, 135, Integrationsverket the Middle East that have been living in 2002, p. 18-21). Sweden for less than 20 years (Socialstyrelsen 2003b). The level of relative earning income is lower for immigrants born outside of The sick leave periods of long7 duration Europe compared to ethnic Swedes. have increased from 3, 2 per cent by the Between 1978 and 1999 the relative end of the 1980th to 4, 5 per cent for men in income trends for immigrant men born 2002. The corresponding figures for outside of Europe or in the south/eastern women are higher; 4, 6 per cent by the end parts of the world are decreasing (SOU of the 1980th to 8, 4 per cent in 2002. The 2004:21, p. 32-36). Levels of social knowledgebase around these phenomena assistance are somewhat higher for are described as poor. Sick leave for children of immigrants, but levels of periods over 1 year have increased the income and disposable income are more or most; from 55 000 cases in year 1990 to less in accordance with Swedes with one or over 126 000 cases year 2002 two Swedish parents (SCB 2002 p. 46-48). (Socialstyrelsen 2003b).

Early retirements are more common Long-period epidemiological data on among women with immigrant background children’s and young people’s mental than among immigrant men and among health are not available in Sweden. The ethnic Swedish men and women. National Board of Health and welfare have Knowledge about the causes is lacking; made pilot studies in 21 municipalities more research is needed on gender and with over 10 000 school pupils. The results ethnicity perspectives on sick-leave show that boys in 8th grade (14-15 years of (Akhavan & Bildt 2004, p. 74). old) with parents born outside of Sweden suffer from psychosomatic problems twice Living conditions and health: During the as often as the boys with Swedish born beginning of 1990’s measures were taken parents (Socialstyrelsen 2005, p. 9, to control the crisis in the economy, which Asplund et al. 2005). affected the health insurance policy. Lower benefits and a day of qualifying before Homelessness: An estimate is that there benefit could be claimed were introduced. are 8 400 homeless persons in Sweden (4 Nevertheless, since 1997 the public out of 5 are men). 3 out of 4 homeless men spending on sick leave has increased are born in Sweden; among those born dramatically. Men are found to be less outside of Sweden Finnish men are over- frequently on sick leave than women (SCB represented. The proportion of people 2004c, 106, 133). Folkhälsa och sociala living in crowded housing has increased förhållanden [Public Health and Social from 2 % in 1998/1999 to 2, 7 % in 2001. Conditions] is a report from the National (http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/02/42/04/8 Board of Health and Welfare concerning 1d24d2b.pdf) living conditions and health. Descriptions on social and economic conditions based Social assistance: The National Board of on statistics on households are not divided Health and Welfare report Ekonomiskt by gender, but most data are; for example bistånd årsstatistik, 2003, [Yearly statistics comments on labour market and the on Economic assistance 2003] present’s welfare system. Groups in the population statistics on the number of individuals and who are more likely to have a weak households receiving social assistance. economic situation are single parents, young people between 18-22 years of age, 7 More than 30 days sick-leave

44 Recipients are categorized by gender, age, (Socialstyrelsen 2004:6, p. 4). In 2002, country of birth, employment status and family law services held co-operation talks the length of assistance period. The report with parents about custody and contact shows that 6 % of all households received arrangements concerning more than 20,000 social assistance, that is nearly 229 000 children. This led to more than 4,000 households. If compared with year 2002 legally binding agreements on custody, the number of recipient households accommodation and parental access increased by 8000, or 3 %. The largest (Socialstyrelsen 2004c). group (22 %) consists of single mothers with children. Single men without children Disabled: The report Persons with Certain comprised the second largest category (9 Functional Impairments – measures %) of households receiving social specified by LSS 2003 provides a review of assistance (Socialstyrelsen 2003). statistical data on disabled who have received services specified by the Act Children, young people and family: concerning Support and Service for Official statistics on children and young Persons with certain Function people towards whom social service’s Impairments. Tables are presented on the measures were directed 2003 is presented number of individuals in Sweden who in the statistical report Barn och unga – received support services from insatser år 2003. It contains information municipalities in 2003, and the statistics on institutional and non-institutional care are divided by gender and age. The total of children and young people. Measures number of individuals who received are taken by age and gender depending on service during 2003 is estimated at statistics; other measurements are person somewhere between 53 000 and 55 000 with custody and parent’s country of birth. persons, 0, 6 % of the population The number of children who were subjects (Socialstyrelsen 2004:2, p. 28, 60). to measures the November 1 2003 were Disabled men more often get service from 15 000 children; 10 400 with support from society in terms of work and allowances the social service act (SoL) and 4300 due than women do, mostly due to the to The Special Provisions Act. The number construction of the Swedish social welfare of children and young people taken into system and its relation to achievements on custody for a 24 hour period some time the labour market (SOU 1998:138 p.17). during 2003 amounted to 20 000 (Socialstyrelsen 2004:9). 5. Violences Familjerätt år 2003 [Family Law 2003] is Official statistics in Sweden only reflect a report on Social services work related to reported violence towards women and family law. In recent decades “the best men. Since 1981 gender is distinguished in interests of the child” have been statistics on violence; however, children implemented in Children and Parents Code under the age of 14 years of old are not as a guideline. In practice, this means that characterised by gender (Brotts- the child’s “need” to engage in a close förebyggande rådet 2004a). In statistics on relation to both parents is codified. violence, the perpetrators are characterised According to the report the number of as known or unknown to the victim and mediation talks in 2003 were 20 477, an whether the crime was committed indoors increase of 2 % compared to 2002. The or outdoors (Steen 2003). Deadly violence, number of children involved in meaning homicide, attempted homicide investigations on custody, living conditions and maltreatment accidentally leading to and relations to parents were 6 484; a death are separated out in the statistics decrease of 2 % since 2002 (Nilsson 2001).

45 The report Dödligt våld mot kvinnor i nära Violence and welfare: An estimated relationer (The National Council for Crime number of threats and acts of violence are Prevention) gives an overview on deadly 1, 3 million per year in Sweden. According violence directed to women in Sweden. It to the report Välfärd och ofärd på 90-talet is mainly based on police reports and [Welfare and lack of welfare in the 90’s] registers, verdicts and examinations only one fourth out of these crimes were conducted by a forensic psychiatrist. The reported to the police. There is a high risk report includes gender separated statistics for young people to be affected by on prevalence, where and by whom and violence; 20 per cent of men and 14 per under what circumstances the felony is cent of women (16-24 years of old) were committed. Since 1990 an average of 16 affected by violence or threats of violence women per year are killed by a man known between 2000-2001 (SCB 2003). to the victim. However, deadly violence against women has decreased by 30 % Crime wave in Sweden 2001-2003: The during the 1990’s compared to the 1970’s National Council for Crime Prevention statistics. This is explained by greater describes and analyses the development of awareness, juridical changes and more various types of crimes in Sweden. This effective medical care preventing death as series of reports has been available since consequence of the violence. It is common 1976. Crimes accounted for in the reports that the perpetrator suffers from mental are either large scale or often highlighted illness or disturbance; 80 per cent are crimes. In this report (Brottsförebyggande mentally ill or mentally disturbed Rådet 2004a), different forms of violence according to the report. In 25 per cent of are reported, namely violence directed the cases the perpetrator commits suicide against persons, such as lethal violence, in relation to the crime; these men are said assault or sexual crimes. The analyses are to be suffering from mental illness twice as mostly based on official statistics, police often as other perpetrators. Alcohol is less data, statistics on legal proceedings, victim evident in playing a role in deadly violence studies based on interviews, self reporting against women in close relations than in studies focusing crimes from the deadly violence in general. In the report it perpetrators point of view, and statistics on is stated that there is a lack of information causes of death. The majority of all crimes in official statistics and research on deadly of a violent character reported in Sweden violence against women in close relations. are crimes of maltreatment (misshandel). This makes it close to impossible to extract In year 2003 there were 65 177 crimes the exact development on violence against reported to the police; 34 % were women in close relations over a longer registered as directed against women, 54 % perspective (Brottsförebyggande rådet against men and 12 % against children up 2001b). to 14 years of old. According to the statistics a little more than 22 000 cases of Crime surveys violence against women were reported; in To make visible the numbers of violent 3 out of 4 cases the perpetrator was known acts committed, victim surveys or to the victim. Crimes of a violent character prevalence surveys, give a more accurate seem to have increased rapidly during the overview picture. Prevalence studies are last 10 years, the escalation of reported described as difficult to perform. Statistics crimes are explained by more ability to Sweden points out that extensive report rather than an increase of the level subjection to violence is, for various of actual violence (Brottsförebyggande reasons, not mentioned by respondents to Rådet 2004a, p. 65). the police or to the interviewee. As an example Statistics Sweden points to sexual

46 assault and men’s violence against women 2000-2001. This means 520 000 persons, in close relations (Amnesty 2004). It is but the exposure varies depending upon worth noting that children are not included gender, age and region. Out of men in the prevalence studies on maltreatment between 16-24 years of old 14, 3 % have of children in Sweden; they have to be been exposed to some sort of violence, 10 over 16 years of old to participate % have been subject to violence leading to (Brottsförebyggande rådet 2004a, p. 43, visible injuries. Out of the women in the 67). same category 7, 9 % have been subject to some sort of violence and 5, 8 % to Victim-surveys: The most quoted Swedish violence resulting in visible injuries. The crime victim survey, included in data shows how young women’s exposure Undersökningar av levnadsförhållanden to violence increased 3, 4 % since 1992- (ULF) [Investigation in living conditions], 93. A comparison between men and has been carried out by SCB since 1978. In women subject to violence leading to some total, 165 000 persons have been sort of injury shows that the violence has interviewed during this period. In the increased8. The figures about subjection to survey questions about exposure to any kind of violence show that violence violence are asked, as well as questions against women increases more than about anxiety and health consequences. violence against men. This trend is evident Other questions concern criminality, in the 2002 measurement. In the age class exposure to theft, unemployment, and 16-74, nearly 8 % of the men, but almost economic situation. It provides statistics 10 % of the women, have reported threats about the number of violent acts reported or violence directed against him/her during in the interviews: according to gender and the last year. Data on single parents, age, family conditions, regional divisions, mostly women, show that 24 % of these nationality (immigrants), where the women have been subject to some form of violence takes place and when. Three risk violence or threats between 2000-2001. In groups are pointed out; young men 16-35 this group 8 % (5000 single women and years of age active in night life; single parents of small children) were subject to mothers exposed to violence in their own repeated incidents of violence leading to home; and people working within certain injuries. According to SCB this is the professions. The last category concerns the highest figure of any of the groups that are police, local traffic personnel and mapped out in the report. In relation to personnel in the social and health care young men, 16-24 years of old, nearly 4 % system. have been subjected to repeated forms of violence. Single mothers are often exposed Statistics Sweden provides a charting of to violence in their homes by a perpetrator victims of violence and crimes against closely related to them (implicitly this property between1978-2002 (SCB 2004b) point to men, an implication which in some based on statistics and interviews on living descriptions is made explicit). Men are to a conditions. Questions about increased higher extent exposed to violence in public criminality, consequences of violence, spaces, often by an unknown perpetrator. what groups are subjected more than others There are small differences between and the relation to the perpetrator are “native” and “immigrant” Swedes, with an covered. Situations experienced as worrying and threatening are also included. Around 7, 5 % of the population between 8 Since the beginning of the 1990s 3.4 % of the men 16 and 84 stated in the interviews that they are subject to severe violence which means + 0, 4 had been subjected to some sort of %. Since the beginning of the 1990s 2, 1 % of the violence or threats of violence during women are subject to severe violence which is an escalation of + 0, 7 %.

47 overrepresentation of men with foreign of the women said they had been subject to born parents; 12 % have reported some sort physical violence by their boy- of violence or threats in public spaces friend/former boyfriend. None of them had (SCB 2004b, 33-79). reported the crime (Brottsförebyggande rådet, 2002). Slagen dam. Mäns våld mot kvinnor i jämställda Sverige [Captured Queen, Violence among young people: The Men’s violence to women in equal report Theft, drugs and violence among Sweden] is a prevalence study carried out ninth grade boys and girls, describes the as a result of the Act 1997/98:55 on prevalence of delinquency among ninth violence against women. The study was grade pupils. Three surveys were conducted as a commission from the distributed in 1995, 1997 and 1999, to a Government to the Crime Victim total of 16 884 pupils. The response rate Compensation and Support Authority and was between 85 and 90 per cent. The external researchers. The survey was based majority of the pupils were 15 years of age. on answers from 7000 (out of initially Three in twenty boys have engaged in an 10 000) randomly chosen women of the act involving violence against a person, as population between the ages of 18 to 64 compared with one in twenty girls. Almost years of old. The study was conducted half of the acts of violence to which young between October 1999 and January 2000. people in the ninth grade fall victim take The women were asked about their place on school premises (Brotts- experiences of physical violence, sexual förebyggande rådet 2000). violence, exposure to threats and controlling behaviour and sexual Men’s violence of a racist or xenophobic harassment. Of the respondents, a total of character: Crimes of a racist or 46 per cent of all women have experienced xenophobic nature, is according to the violence by a man since turning fifteen. report Hets mot folkgrupp [Threats Twelve per cent of women have been Towards Ethnic Groups], very much subject to violence in the last year. The dominated by young men (The National results show that one woman in four, i.e. Council for Crime Prevention). Fully 98 25 per cent, has experienced physical per cent of those convicted of agitation violence on the part of a man since turning against a national or ethnic group are fifteen. 18 per cent has experience of being males. Looking at the age of those who are threatened by a man since her fifteenth convicted, the offence is very much a birthday and 4 per cent have been youth crime; almost half of those convicted threatened in the last year. Over half of the during the 1990s were under 20 years of women have been sexually harassed, i.e. age. Among those convicted of agitation 56 per cent. The violence starts early; against a national or ethnic group, there is according to the survey 30 % of the a large group with a history of serious women have experience of violence prior criminal conduct according to the report to their fifteenth birthday (Lundgren et al. (Brottsförebyggande rådet 2001). Statistics 2002, p 8). shows that reported crimes with a racist, xenophobic, anti-Semitic ground, has Våld mot kvinnor i nära relationer. En increased rapidly. In 1999 the amount of kartläggning [A Mapping of the Violence reported crimes was 2363 compared with to Women in Close Relations]. This study 1752 in 1997. In 1999 a total of 207 crimes builds on surveys sent to women working of homophobic character were reported. at randomly chosen workplaces in four (Brottsförebyggande rådet 2004b) counties in Sweden. It was answered anonymously by 3 300 women. 0.9 percent

48 The report Intolerans, antisemitiska, municipality’s alternative education, 26 per homofobiska, islamafobiska och cent of the girls and 4 per cent of the boys invandrarfientliga tendenser bland unga responded that they had been the victim of [Intolerance. Anti-semitic, homo-phobic, sexual abuse (excluding flashing). 25 per Islama-phobic and xenophobic tendencies cent of the cases were cases of an intra- among young people] aim at providing a familial abuse (Edgardh 1992, see also picture of young peoples attitudes Edgardh 2001). towards minority groups (Brotts- förebyggande rådet 2004b). The study A study conducted by Jansson (2001) builds on a survey handed out to young showed that out of 200 respondents 8 % of people between the ages of 14 and 19 in the women and 2 % of men had been compulsory schooling as well as young subject to sexual abuse in childhood. people attending upper secondary school. Sexual abuse of children, Definitions and The response rate is 76, 2 per cent (10 600 prevalence, published by the National students answered the survey). In the study Board of Health and Welfare, gives an patterns show that boys are less tolerant overview over the statistics on child sexual than girls; a little more than 60 per cent of abuse in Sweden. Sexual crimes against the boys and 82 per cent of the girls are children have been reported separately in sympathetic to minority ethnic groups and the statistics since 1965. The occurrence of homosexuality. 10 per cent of the boys and child sexual abuse is divided into figures of 2 per cent of the girls are characterized as incidence and prevalence. Around 1-2 per bearing a high level of intolerance. 1,000 children under the age of 15 are annually reported to the police because Violence against children: Statistics on they are suspected to be the victims of intentionally inflicted violence against child sexual abuse. The proportion of these children are discussed in the report cases resulting in prosecution and guilty Statistik över avsiktligt våld mot barn verdict is very small. Figures on the [Statistics on intentionally inflicted number of suspected crimes against violence against children]. During the children aged 0-15 reported to the police period 1997-2001 3030 children 0-17 years between 1975-1997 shows that the of age died. According to the report 36 out quantitatively largest increase concerns of these died following assault by another sexual coercion. This means in practice person. Another 21 children died due to cases where the suspect was a man and the unclear causes. The statistics are divided child a . The annual incidence defined by gender, age and region. Girls are more as suspected sexual crimes against children subject to sexual violence than boys under the age of 15 reported to the police is according to the report; one third of the in this report estimated to 2400 reports per violence directed to girls is of a sexual year, based on figures for 1992 and 1996. character (Socialstyrelsen 2004b). Since 1987 suspected crimes of the type sexual coercion of children have been Child sexual abuse: There have been a separated in the statistics according to the few victim surveys carried out in Sweden, type of relationship between the suspect however rather a long time ago (1983 and and the victim. The proportion with a close 1985). In 1992 Karin Edgardh carried out a relationship varies between 51 % and 67 study of 2000 Swedish 17 year olds; 12 per %. The changes are largely attributable to cent of the girls and 4 per cent of the boys the group with a close relationship between responded that they had been the victims of the suspect and the victim, i. e. abuse sexual abuse/molestation/flashing. Among within the family. The Swedish prevalence young people not attending upper figures are described as relatively low in secondary school, attending the international terms (referring to Rönström

49 (1985); 7-8 % for women and 1-3 % of knowledge when it comes to young men) However, there are no studies from perpetrators of sexual abuse, abuse which Sweden regarding the willingness to report takes place in institutions and abuse of the these crimes. There is only the number of disabled (Svedin 2001, p. 30-31). Worth police reports to rely on (Svedin 2001, p. noting is that children are not included in 20, 21, 23, 30). the prevalence studies on maltreatment of children in Sweden built on reports by According to criminal statistics the victims; they have to be over 16 years of numbers of reported child pornography old to participate (Brottsförebyggande offences have increased. Escalating from rådet 2004a, p. 43, 67). Statistics on how 239 reported crimes in year 2000, 274 many children are living in families where crimes were reported in 2001 and 396 in the mother is subject to violence by the 2002. The year 2000 is the first year when father or stepfather are lacking. child pornography, as an offence, was Information is needed on the extent to accounted for separately in criminal which men who are violent partners are statistics. All together 180 men were also directly violent physically and/or convicted and held accounted for a total of sexually to the child in the home. 950 reported offences (Brottsförebyggande rådet 2003). 6. Health Rape: The number of reported cases of The Yearbook of Health and Medical Care rape increased from 800 in year 1975 to 2002 (National Board of Health and over 2100 in year 1993. Between year Welfare, SCB et al) is the eighth report on 2001 and year 2003 the number of reported health care conditions in Sweden. rapes increased to over 2500, this is an Statistics are gathered from official increase of 23 per cent. Between 30 and 60 statistics as well as other sources. The of these are group rapes. However, the report includes statistics divided by gender number of convicted of crimes of a sexual and age on the prevalence of illness and character have decreased during the 1990s. poor health in Sweden, both perceived and In year 2003 the number of convicted to registered. It also includes figures on the imprisonment amounted to one third of a use of health and medical care services and total of 731 convicted for sex-crimes. Out pharmaceuticals, as well as statistics on of the convictions for the crime of rape; 78 mortality and socio-economic conse- per cent were sentenced to imprisonment quences of illness and poor health (Brottsförebyggande rådet 2004a, p. 85, (Socialstyrelsen 2002). In the report 90, 91). Dödsorsaker 2002 [Causes of Death 2004] Swedish official statistics are presented on Gender divided statistics are lacking on the causes of death in Sweden in 2002. verdicts in relation to victims of crime. In The main variables included in the register Swedish criminal statistics it is not are social security number, sex, home possible to extract how many prosecutions district, noting whether autopsied or not; if of men’s maltreatment to women or child so what kind, noting what injury/ sexual abuse came to court and the poisoning, if alcoholic or narcotic related. proportion where a prosecution was The most common causes of death for men achieved or not. Another deficiency is that and women are diseases of circulatory the age group 15-18 is not included in the organs. Almost half the deceased sexual crimes against children. The population had such a disease as the statistics focus on suspected perpetrators underlying cause. The second most and not the victim; i.e. children and young common cause is tumours. The mortality people. There is also a lack of statistics and trend is falling; the level of decrease is

50 higher for men than for women. Figures death] shows variations due to age groups, for causes of death divided by gender and gender, consumption and region age are shown in the publication (Socialstyrelsen 2003b). Narcotics: The (Socialstyrelsen 2004). number of heavy misusers increased between 1992 and 1998 from 19 000 to Suicide: Suicide rates of men have about 26 000, 3 out of 4 of these were men. declined to some extent during the period The number of drug-related deaths 1980 to 2002; however the rates of suicide increased from 143 in year 1990 to 353 in have not declined in the age-group 15-24 year 2000, which is an increase of more years. Since the beginning of the 1990s than 100 %. The percentage of young men there is an increase of “definite” suicide by reporting for military service who stated 27 % and by 77 % among the “uncertain” that they had tried drugs has tripled in the suicides in this age group. In 2002 in total 1990’s to 18 % in 2002. (http:// 1077 committed suicide; 110 men in age www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/02/42/04 group 15-24; 314 men in age group 25-44; /81d24d2b.pdf) 419 men in age group 45-64; 234 in age group 65+ (data regarding certain and Cancer and myocardial infarctions: uncertain suicides). The gender quota in Cancer Incidence in Sweden 2002 gives Sweden is 2.7:1, meaning that for every statistics from the Cancer register. The suicide committed by a woman 2, 7 were prevalence and cumulative probability to committed by a man. (http://www.ki.se/ develop cancer is divided by gender suicide//stat_sverige_sm_man_99.html, (Socialstyrelsen 2003:11). The National 7 mars 2005) Men are more likely to Board of Health and Welfare also provide “succeed” in committing suicide; women a national register for regional variations, on the other hand, are more likely to for example in the handling of prostate attempt suicide. Suicide is more common cancer in Sweden. Prostate cancer is the among men living in the countryside most common form of cancer for men, compared to women. (Socialstyrelsen constituting 30 per cent of all forms of 2003b) According to the National Institute cancer affecting men. However, there are for Public Health up to 48 % of the great variations between countries and suicides committed in Sweden are related regions and the knowledge about its causes to alcohol consumption (Statens are not well mapped out. Sweden is one of folkhälsoinstitut 2005, p. 4). the countries where this form of cancer is most common (Socialstyrelsen 2001). Alcohol and narcotics: The current Myocardial infarctions in Sweden 1987- consumption of alcohol is described as the 2000 describe Swedish statistics of Acute highest of all times since statistics begun to Myocardial Infarction. In total for all ages be collected on the subject in the 1950s above 20 years of old, men had an age (Folkhälsa och sociala förhållanden) standardized incidence which is twice as [Public Health and Social Conditions]. high as women in the year 2000 Information on gender differences in (Socialstyrelsen 2003c). alcohol consumption is gathered through interviews and surveys. According to the Sex in Sweden: The purpose of the study report both men and women drink more, Sex in Sweden [National Institute for and more often. Gender differences are Public Health] is to provide a basis for rather appreciable in statistics on mortality public health work. The study focus on the and alcohol. Men are up to four times more sphere of sexuality, interpersonal relation- likely to suffer from alcohol related deaths ships, norms, values and identity patterns. compared to women. Statistics from It also aims at identifying risk groups as Dödsorsaksregistret [register on Causes of consequences of sexual activity. The

51 material is based on a population-based Car-accidents: If the risk for men and gross sample of 5 200 individuals aged women of being killed or badly injured is between 18 and 74; out of these 2 810 compared, the statistics show that men face participated in the study. The data show a 1, 8 times higher risk of being killed than that for women the risk of being forced women. This is if consideration is taken into sexual activity increases with the into account of how much time men and number of sexual partners. Each new women are in traffic situations. However, sexual partner increases the risk to some the risk of being badly injured is the same extent. For adult men there is no such for both men and women. Among drivers increase in risk related to number of sexual of a private car the risk of being killed is 1, partners; the majority of cases of forced 7 times higher for men compared to sexual activity directed at men are directed women. The risk of being killed on a bike at prepubescent boys. The report contains or by foot is 4, 0 and 1, 8 times higher lots of statistical data on Swedes’ sex life; respectively for men compared to women. i.e. 13 % of the Swedish men have at some The risk of being badly injured is time paid to be together with someone approximately the same for both genders. sexually (400 000 Swedish men). Most Among motor-cyclists the risk of being prostitution contacts take place abroad, in killed are 1,5 times higher for men, and connection with business travel or holiday, among moped riders the risk of dying in most sex purchasers were found among the traffic is 3,5 times as high compared to best-situated in society. According to the women (SCB 2004d, p. 40). Out of those study there are signs indicating that the killed in traffic at the age of 15, more than lifestyle of sex purchasing can be risk- 3 out of 4 are men (period 1995-2002) filled due to sexually transferable diseases (http://www.vv.se/templates/page3wide__ (Lewin et al. 1996, p. 250, 251, 288). __8413.aspx, 7 mars 2005).

According to Epidemiologisk årsbok 2003 [Epidemiological Yearbook 2003] (The 7. Discussion Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Gaps in the data available have been noted Control) the number of sexually throughout the report. Compared to transferable diseases such as chlamydia, statistics available, for instance, on gender gonorrhoea and syphilis have risen during and the labour market, data on gender and the past five years. The increased numbers violence is quite under-reported in official of gonorrhoea and syphilis are explained and semi-official reporting. Perhaps the by more cases where men who engage in most striking of many aspects is the lack of sex with other men take higher risks recent, thorough prevalence studies of having unprotected sex. The higher child sexual abuse in Sweden. This numbers of chlamydia is explained by particular absence and the absence of data greater risk behaviour by younger on gender and violence more generally, heterosexual men and women. have to be seen in the context of the fact Approximately 3 500 persons are living that Sweden is one of the most statistic- with HIV in Sweden (2005). There were collecting states in the world – with an 425 persons reported with HIV-infection in elaborate state and semi-state machinery Sweden 2004, 259 men and 166 women. for each type of data collection. This is the highest number of reported cases during one year since 1985-1986 Within the Nordic countries, Sweden is when these reports were initiated generally ahead in the sphere of men’s (Smittskyddsinstitutet 2005). violence compared to Denmark even if it lags behind some west European countries such as the UK. However, within the

52 specific field of child sexual abuse, even Bjerén, Aulikki Cederholm, Maria Denmark is in advance of Sweden in terms Danielsson, Ann Ellburg Frisell, Carin of some statistical data available. Holmberg, Lars Jalmert, Pia Laskar, Karin Leander, Birgitta Ney, Katarina Mattsson, Acknowledgements: Annika Olsson, Katarina Rosengren Falk, The following persons have been of help in Tiina Rosenberg, Jens Rydström, Ulrica the process of writing this report: Susanne Stjernqvist, Caroline Tovatt; Thank you! Andersson, Fanny Ambjörnsson, Gunilla

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Akhavan, Sharare & Bildt, Carina (2004) Arbetsvillkor, hälsa och sjukfrånvaro bland invandrade kvinnor [Working conditions, health and sick-leave among immigrant women] Arbetslivsrapport NR 2004:21, Stockholm: Arbetslivsinstitutet

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Asplund, Kjell, Hagquist, Curt & Rosén, Måns (1995) Hur mår barnen i Sverige, egentligen?[How are the children in Sweden doing, in reality?] Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen http://www.socialstyrelsen.se/Aktuellt/Nyheter/2005/deb050111.htm, 7 mars 2005

Brottsförebyggande rådet (2000) Stöld, våld och droger bland pojkar och flickor i årskurs nio. Resultat från tre självdeklarationsundersökningar, [Theft, drugs and violence among ninth grade boys and girls. Results from a three self-report surveys] Brå-report 2000:17 Brottsförebyggande Rådet, Stockholm: Fritzes

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Brottsförebyggande rådet (2003) Sexuell expoatering av barn- vad döljer sig bakom sexualbrottsstatistiken? [Sexual offence to children- what is concealed behind the sexcrime statistics?] Brå-report 2003:05, Stockholm: Brottsförebyggande rådet

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Edgardh Karin (1992) Tonåringar, sex och samlevnad [Teenagers, sex and coexistence] Stocholm: Gothia Bokförlag.

Edgardh, Karin (2001) Adolescent sexuality and sexual abuse, a swedish perspective, Venhälsan, Institution Södersjukhuset, Stockholm: Karolinska Institutet

Epidemiologisk årsrapport 2003 [Epidemiological Yearly report 2003] (2003) Solna: Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/02/42/04/81d24d2b.pdf Regeringskansliet [Government Offices of Sweden] Sweden’s action plan against poverty and social exclusion http://www.scb.se/Grupp/Metod/_Dokument/X11OP0203.pdf, Reports on Statistical Co- ordination for the Official Statistics of Sweden 2002:3

Integrationsverket (2002) Vardagsdiskriminering och rasism i Sverige. En kunskapsöversikt [Everyday discrimination and racism in Sweden. An overview on the knowledge base] Integrationsverket: Norrköping

Integrationsverket (2004) Rapport Integration 2003 [Integration Report 2003] Norrköping: Integrationsverket

Jansson, Staffan (2001) Barn och misshandel. En rapport om kroppslig bestraffning och annan misshandel i Sverige vid slutet av 1990-talet [Children and Maltreatment. A report on bodily punishment and other forms of maltreatment in Sweden by the end of the 1990’s] SOU 2001:18, Stockholm: Fritzes

Lewin, Bo (ed.), Fugl-Meyer, Kerstin. Helmius, Gisela. Lalos, Ann & Månsson, Sven-Axel. Sex in Sweden : on the Swedish sexual life (1996 ) Stockholm: The National Institute of Public Health

Lundgren, Eva. Heimer, Gun. Westerstrand, Jenny & Anne-Marie Kalliokoski (2001; Swedish version, 2002; English version) Captured queen: men's violence against women in "equal" Sweden : a prevalence study: Brottsoffermyndigheten , Uppsala Universitet, Stockholm: Fritzes

National Centre for Suicide Research and Prevention of Mental Ill-Health, Självmord i Sverige 1980-2002 – Män: http://www.ki.se/suicide//stat_sverige_sm_man_99.html, 7 mars 2005

Nilsson, Lotta (2001) “Statistikskolan 11. Våld mot kvinnor” [School of statistics 11. Violence against women] Apropå 1/2001 Stockholm: Brottsförebyggande rådet.

55 Rönström, Anitha (1986), Den smärtsamma verkligheten. Sexuella övergrepp på barn. Stockholm: Barnombudsmannen.

Rönström, Anitha (1983/84) Sexuella övergrepp mot barn. Stockholm: Barnombudsmannen

Sahlström, Ingegerd (2002) Våld mot kvinnor [Violence against women] Nationellt råd för kvinnofrid, Stockholm: Näringsdepartementet

SCB (2002) Integration till svensk välfärd? Om invandrares välfärd på 90-talet [Integration towards Swedish Living Standards? Living Conditions of Immigrants to Sweden in the 1990’s] Levnadsförhållandena, Rapport nr 96, Örebro: Statistiska centralbyrån

SCB (2003) Välfärd och ofärd på 90-talet [Good times and hard times in Sweden during the 90s] Levnadsförhållandena, Rapport nr 100, Örebro: Statistiska centralbyrån

SCB (2003b) Tid för vardagsliv, kvinnors och mäns tidsanvändning 1990/91 och 2000/01 [Time for everyday life. Women’s and men’s time use 1990/91 and 2000/01] (2003) Living Conditions, Report no 99, Örebro: Statistiska Centralbyrån

SCB (2004) Women and Men in Sweden. Facts and Figures 2004. Örebro: Statistiska Centralbyrån

SCB (2004b) Offer för våld och egendomsbrott 1978-2002 [Victims of violence and crime against property 1978-2002] Statistiska Centralbyrån

SCB (2004c) Perspektiv på välfärden 2004 [Perspecitves on welfare 2004] Statistiska Centralbyrån

SCB (2004d) Vägtrafikskador 2003 [Road Traffic Injuries 2003] Statistiska Centralbyrån

Smittsskyddsinstitutet (2005) Epiaktuellt nr 9:2005

Socialstyrelsen (2001) Prostatacancer, Primärregistrering 1996-1999. [Prostate cancer, primary registration 1996-1999] Regionalt Onkologist Centrum i Uppsala/Örebroregionen. Socialstyrelsen

Socialstyrelsen (2002) Yearbook of Health and Medical Care 2002, Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

Socialstyrelsen (2003) Ekonomiskt bistånd årsstatistik, 2003. Utbetalda belopp samt antal biståndsmottagare och antal biståndshushåll [Economic assistance yearly statistics 2003], Ekonomiskt bistånd årsstatistik, 2003, Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

Socialstyrelsen (2003b) Folkhälsa och sociala förhållanden, Lägesrapporter 2003 [Public Health and Social Conditions] Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

Socialstyrelsen (2003c) Myocardial infarctions in Sweden 1987-2000, Hälsa och sjukdomar 2003:4, Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen.

56 Socialstyrelsen (2003:11) Cancer Incidence in Sweden 2002, Statistics - Health and Diseases 2003:11, Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

Socialstyrelsen (2004) Dödsorsaker 2002 [Causes of Death 2002] Socialstyrelsen 2004:5

Socialstyrelsen (2004b) Statistik över avsiktligt våld mot barn [Statistics on intentionally inflicted violence against children] Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

Socialstyrelsen (2004c) Individ och familjeomsorg [Care of individuals and families] Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

Socialstyrelsen (2004:2) Funktionshindrade personer – insatser enligt LSS år 2003, [Persons with Certain Functional Impairments – measures specified by LSS 2003] Socialtjänst 2004:2, Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

Socialstyrelsen (2004:6) Familjerätt år 2003, Statistik - Socialtjänst 2004:6 [Family law during 2003] Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

Socialstyrelsen (2004:7) Missbrukare och övriga vuxna – insatser år 2003 [Social Services´ care for adult substance abusers and other adults 2003] Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

Socialstyrelsen (2004:9) Barn och unga – insatser år 2003. [Children and young persons subjected to measures 2003], Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

Socialstyrelsen (2005) Mätning av barns och ungdomars psykiska hälsa – förslag till nationella och återkommande undersökningar [Messuring childrens and young peoples psychosomatic health] Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

SOU 1997:83 Om makt och kön, i spåren av offentliga organisationers omvandlingar [About power and gender, in the trail of the transformation of official organisations] Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 1998:3, Välfärdens genusansikte [The gendered face of Welfare] Persson, Inga & Wadensjö, Eskil, Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 1998:4, Män passar alltid? Nivå- och organisationsspecifika processer med exempel från handeln [Does men always fit? Level and organisationspecific processes with examples from the trading market] Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 1998:6, Ty makten är din… Myten om det rationella arbetslivet och det jämställda Sverige [Because the power belongs to you… The myth of the rational working life and the gender equal Sweden] Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 2001:18, Barn och misshandel – En rapport om kroppslig bestraffing och annan misshandel i Sverige vid slutet av 1990-talet. [Children and Maltreatment – Report on bodily punishment and other forms of maltreatment in Sweden by the end of 1990s] Stockholm: Fritzes

57 SOU 2001:79 Välfärdsbokslut för 1990-talet. Slutbetänkande/Kommittén Välfärdsbokslut/SOU 2001:79 [Closing the books on welfare during the 1990s] Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 2003:16, Mansdominans i förändring. Om ledningsgrupper och styrelser. [Male dominance in change. About managerial groups and executive boards] Stockholm: Fritzes.

SOU 2004:21, Egenförsörjning eller bidragsförsörjning? Invandrarna, arbetsmarknaden och välfärdsstaten , [Self-supporting or depending on social welfare? The immigrants, labour market and the welfare state] Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 2004:43, Den könsuppdelade arbetsmarknaden [The gender divided labour market], Stockholm: Fritzes

Svedin, Carl-Göran, (2001) Sexual abuse of children, Definitions and prevalence, Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

Statens folkhälsoinstitut (2005) Alkohol och hälsa. En kunskapsöversikt om alkoholens positiva och negativa effekter på vår hälsa [Alcohol and health] Stockholm: Statens folkhälsoinstitut

Steen, Anne-Lie (2003) Mäns våld mot kvinnor – ett diskursivt slagfält [Men’s violence against women – a discursive battlefield] Research Report No. 131 from the Department of Sociology, Göteborg University

Websites used in the report http://www.svenskstatistik.net - Swedish official statistics available on the internet http://www.svenskstatistik.net/eng/index.htm www.scb.se - Statistics Sweden www.sos.se - The National Board of Health and Healthcare www.bra.se - The National Council for Crime Prevention www.regeringen.se - The Swedish Governments homepage www.integrationsverket.se - The Swedish Integration Board www.ali.se - The Swedish Institute for Working Life www.brottsoffermyndigheten.se - The Crime Victim Compensation and Support Authority

58 http://www.fhi.se/ - The National Institute for Public Health www.sika-insitute.se - The Swedish Institute For Transport and Communications Analysis www.ki.se/suicide//index.html - National Centre for Suicide Research and Prevention of Mental Ill-Health

59 60 EU FP6 Coordination Action on Human Rights Violations Sweden National Report on Law and Policy Addressing Men’s Practices9

discrimination by women as well as men. 1. Key Points But its ultimate aim is to improve the a. The official gender equality policy in situation for women in working life. Sweden proceeds from an understanding that unequal distribution of power between d. There is an inclination by Swedish men and women is sustained by the authorities to ignore men’s violence gender-based power structure in society. against women. More research and The fundaments of the gendered power education in the matter are needed and structure are seen as the separation of the more demands and support need to be male and the female in all possible ways directed toward the perpetrators of and the normative superiority of men and violence. maleness to women and womanliness. In contrast, the policy goals are for women and men to have the same opportunities, 2. National Legal, Policy and rights and responsibilities in all areas of Political Background and life. National legal and governmental context policy is characterised by a mixture of gender-neutrality and gender-explicit 2.1 Historical background to laws and communication depending on policy area policies. Industrialisation came late to and sender. Sweden. Sweden has moved from poverty b. Men are getting explicit attention in to be one of the wealthiest modern welfare policy areas such as violence, working and states in the world in less than one hundred family life. Men and gender equality years. After World-War II, in which projects are implemented through a Sweden did not participate, the welfare- consensus strategy, where gender equality state was to be built. The welfare state was is to be reached through information, created through democratic and economic consciousness raising, legislative developments that lasted from the initiatives and social benefits. beginning of the 20th century until the end of the century. This process was made c. The Swedish Act on Equality between possible through cooperation between the Men and Women in working life came into state and industry. At the time Sweden was force in 1980. The Act is gender neutral, a male-dominated industrial society and meaning that it serves to prevent the welfare-model was linked to a male breadwinner ideal. Due to the agenda and relative success of the Swedish welfare state social differences are generally smaller in Sweden compared to other 9 The work on this report was funded by the European regions. (Holter 2003) The type Framework 6- funded Co-Ordinated Action on of welfare state established in Sweden has Human Rights Violations (CAHVR - Project PL been a social democratic one (see Esping 506348)

61 Andersen 1990). The Social Democratic Government’s 48 policy fields. All party has held power alone or in coalitions ministers of the Government are for the most part of the 20th century. After responsible for gender equality in their the 1990s the unemployment rates rose respectively policy fields. The Minister for together with cut downs in official Gender Equality affairs has the overall spending, resulting in increased welfare responsibility for coordinating gender gaps in Sweden. equality efforts. In the Governmental Office there is a department for gender 2.2 The political and governmental equality with the role of coordinating, system. The Swedish Constitution calls for follow up and scrutinize the gender a parliamentary form of government, a equality politics. In each of the 9 ministries constitutional monarchy and strong there is an organisation and intern municipality independence. The parlia- working-plans for the integration of gender mentary form of government was mainstreaming. introduced in 1917, since then the king of Sweden is the Head of State but wields no The Ministry of Industry, Employment political power. Sweden has four and Communication deals with working fundamental laws which together make up life issues to promote well-functioning the Constitution; these are the Instrument employment conditions and the Labour of Government, the act of Succession, the market policy. The Ministry is responsible Freedom of the Press Act and the for the National goal of halving sickness Fundamental Law on Freedom of absence. The overall aim of the ministry is Expression. The principle of public access to create conditions for improved welfare to official documents is incorporated into and increased employment. One area of the Freedom of the Press Act. This means responsibility is gender equality besides that Government and other public offices issues relating to business development, must supply public documents and competition, electronic communications, information requested by the public, forestry, IT, primary industries, tourism, including the media. As a member of the transport and state-owned companies. European Union, Sweden is also covered by the EU acquis communautaire. The Ministry of health and Social Affairs deals with policies on alcohol, Since 1994 the election periods to the disability, elderly, health and medical care, Parliament’s 349 seats are 4 years. In 2002 narcotic drugs, psychiatry, child policy, the percentage of women in parliament public health and social insurance. was 45% (SCB 2004). The Prime Minister since 1996 is a Social democrat Göran The Ministry of Justice handles matters Persson, leading and coordinating the work relating to democratic issues such as of the Government. Besides the Prime human rights, integration and minority Minister there are 22 other ministers out of issues, NGOs, metropolitan affairs and which 10 are heads of ministries that direct international cooperation against cross- government business in their respective border crime. It is responsible for field. The number of ministers or legislations concerning the Constitution ministries is not subject to regulation; it is and general administrative law, civil law, rather up to the government to decide how procedural law and criminal law. the duties are to be divided. (www.sweden.gov.se) The Ministry of Education, Research 2.3 Main governmental ministries and Culture is responsible for matters involved in relevant policy development. regarding education, schooling and youth Gender equality is one of the policy concerning young people in spheres

62 such as work, housing, education, health, by the government which shall have the leisure time and their opportunity to exert confidence of the Parliament. Most an influence. legislative proposals are laid before the Swedish Parliament by the Government The Ministry of Finance is responsible (over 200 annually), but bills can be based for economic policies, housing and the on suggestions put forward by the County administrative boards. These Parliament or by private citizens, interest boards are government agencies that groups or public authorities. Before the represent the Parliament and Government Government can draw up a legislative in the counties. proposal, the matter in question is analysed and evaluated by the ministry concerned or The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is a commission of inquiry resulting in a responsible for promoting international law report stating its position. A report that and respects for human rights. The then is referred for consideration to the ministry also handles Migration and relevant bodies, central government asylum policy, including refugee, agencies, special interest groups or other migration and integration policy. authorities for feedback. This allows the Government to gauge the level of support 2.4 Legislation it is likely to receive. Then the ministry The legislative powers are exercised by the responsible drafts the bill that will be Parliament. According to the Constitution submitted to Parliament, and refers the courts are guaranteed independence. proposals to the Council on Legislation to No authority is entitled to decide how a ensure that it does not conflict with court may rule in any case. The courts can existing legislation. The parliamentary be divided into general courts and special process for approving new or amended courts, organised as a triple instance legislation include that the legislation system. The general courts consist of should be dealt with by one of the district courts, courts of appeal and the parliamentary committees. When the Supreme Court; handling criminal cases committee has completed its deliberations and civil disputes between individuals. The and the bill is approved and adopted by the general administrative courts consist of Parliament, then the bill becomes a law. country administrative courts, Any of the parliament’s 349 members can administrative courts of appeal and the table a counter-proposal to a bill Supreme Administrative Court. These introduced by the Government. courts deal with cases relating to matters (http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/2854/a/19197, between public authorities and a private The Swedish Judiciary) individual. Besides these courts there are a number of special jurisdictions, for 2.5 Social insurance model example the Labour Court, where a need The Swedish Social Insurance Agency is for specialist knowledge is needed in order responsible for the administration of the to dispense justice within a given area. social insurance system since 1 January (The Swedish Judiciary) 2005. The new Agency is formed with the An Ombudsman is elected by the objective of an “optimal use of public Parliament () to ensure that Courts resources” where halving the rate of ill of law and other agencies such as public health in working life is a central goal. official’s employees comply with laws and Swedish social insurance is individually statutes. (www.jo.se) based and is to compensate loss of income when a person is unable to support Legislation is passed by the Parliament. her/himself by working. The social The powers of the Parliament are exercised insurance provides financial security in the

63 event of disability, illness and old age as concerning sexual harassment, in 2001 well as for families with children. There strengthened with regard to gender equality are means-tested benefits (housing analyses of salaries. The government also allowance, housing supplement for works to get more women into leading pensioners and maintenance support) and positions and for an equal representation of universal benefits paid to everyone at the women and men in government. The Act is same rate (child allowance). gender neutral, meaning that it serves to (http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/3829/a/37467, prevent discrimination by women as well http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/3829/a/22665) as men. But its aim is to improve the situation for women in working life. It also 2.6 Equality law and policy aims at promoting equal possibilities for In Sweden the women’s movement has advancement and the ability for both men been one of the decisive factors behind the and women to combine work and official debate on women’s and equality parenting. Employers are to strive to issues. The Swedish political parties’ employ persons of the gender represented women’s associations have had a major to a lesser extent than the other in order to significance for equality politics. The gain gender equality. equality issues were established in the public state administration at an early The Act is in three parts; the first requires stage. But also research on women as well all employers, public as well as private, to as gender has had a great impact. There is, strive actively and in a goal oriented and has been, an interaction between manner for equality between women and research and politics, on issues like men at the workplace. This means to create representation, conditions in working life, a working environment free from sexual work and family, men’s violence against harassment for example. The second part women and regarding prostitution. prohibits sex discrimination in working life (Dahlerup 2004) in connection with recruitment, work management, wage setting and The official gender equality policy in remuneration of employment. The third Sweden proceeds from an understanding part of the Act contains provisions relating that the unequal distribution of power to damages liable in the event of breaches between men and women is sustained by a of the law as well as to the monitoring of gender-based power structure of society. compliance with the law and to litigation in The fundaments of the gendered power discrimination disputes. structure are seen as the separation of the male and the female in all possible ways The Equal Opportunities Ombudsman and the normative superiority of men and is responsible for supervising compliance maleness to women and womanliness The by employers and universities/colleges policy goals are for women and men to with the legal provisions. All employers have the same opportunities, rights and with ten or more members of staff are responsibilities in all areas of life. required to draw up gender equality plans (http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/04/01/23/5a20887c.pdf) and plans of action for equal pay on an The Swedish Act on Equality between annual basis. The Ombudsman requisitions Men and Women came into force in 1980. several hundreds of these plans every year. Sweden was, together with Finland, the They are then scrutinised by administrators last of the Nordic countries to implement a specialising in guidance, development and law on Equality between men and women supervision to goal-orienting gender in working life. The act has since then been equality at work. The staff of the revised 1994, 1998 and 2001. In 1998 the Ombudsman has the right to visit gender equality law was strengthened workplaces in order to check compliance

64 with the law. Only very rarely do a gender perspective into that activity. employers refuse to cooperate once asked Focus areas for the current electoral period to send the gender equality plan to the are representation; equal access to Ombudsman. However, the Equal positions of power and influence, equal Opportunities Ombudsman is also legally pay for work of equal value, violence empowered to order employers to send in committed by men against women, their documents, or they can be subjected prostitution and trafficking of women. Men to a fine. The Ombudsman also deals with and gender equality are focused upon as claims of discrimination from individual well as the sexualization of the public employees/job applicants or students sphere. It is stated that every minister in (What are the duties of the Equal the Government is responsible for Opportunities Ombudsman?, analysing, following up and presenting www.nationalencyclopedien.se). proposals concerning equality between women and men in their respective spheres Besides the Equal Opportunities of responsibility. (http://www.sweden. gov. Ombudsman there is The Equal se/content/1/c6/02/01/44/7043280d.pdf) Opportunities Commission which is a governmental authority under the auspices The co-operation on a governmental level of the Ministry of Industry, Employment in the Nordic Council and Council of and Communications. The commission can Ministers has affected the Swedish gender order an employer to comply with the equality politics through various initiatives. requirements set forth in the Equal The Nordic co-operation on gender Opportunities Act under penalty of a fine. equality aims at supporting national The Council on Equality Issues is a initiatives and pan-Nordic projects that forum for the exchange of ideas of current help develop methods promoting equality. equality issues. The Regional Experts for It is developed through cooperation with Gender Equality are since 1995 to be civil organisations. In the work for gender found at each County Administrative equality 2001- 2005 the Council focuses Board to support the implementation of the on including equality aspects in the budget, national policy for equality at a regional aspects about men and equality as well as level.(http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/01/8 to prevent violence against women 1/06/3de887a4.pdf) (http://www.norden.org/gender/n-jam- arb/sk/index.asp). Gender equality issues are dealt with at the Ministry for Industry, Employment and In the Nordic Councils of Ministers gender Communications. Part of the ministry is equality program 1995 -2000 the Council The Division for Gender Equality with the included an action plan concerning men task of processing gender equality matters. and gender equality; focusing on The Office of the Equal Ombudsman fatherhood; men and work; studies on men comes under the Minister for Equality and men and the military (Hearn, et al Affairs, as do questions concerning 2001). In 2002 there were 8 campaigns on legislation and equality between men and trafficking in women in the Nordic women in the workplace. countries and in the Baltic. The initiative was taken in 2001 by Sweden’s former Gender equality policy objectives set in the minister on Gender Equality, Margareta Programme of the present Government Winberg. Sweden as well as Estonia, include the implementation of gender Lithuania, Latvia, Denmark, Finland, mainstreaming on all central government Iceland and Norway participated in the bodies. This means that a ministry or other campaign. The Nordic countries also governmental body is required to introduce participate in the DAPHNE-programme to

65 challenge violence against children, young there are other local initiatives, for people and women. Its aim is to raise these example MANSSVAR and REVOLT, where questions and to establish networks. men have taken a feminist standpoint discussing and contesting men’s privileges 2.7 Men’s politics and organisations in a masculinised society (Wetterberg During the years that men and equality 2002, p. 23-36). issues has developed there have been several attempts to form a pro-feminist 2.8 Timescale men’s movement in Sweden. Social The focus is on governmental initiatives scientist Tomas Wetterberg has ranging mainly from 1995-2004. This investigated this issue on behalf of the report concentrates on four main themes: government. He concludes that there is a home and work, social exclusion, violences movement among men but not a men’s and health. movement. There are several networks and initiatives that might be called a Swedish pro-feminist men’s movement, but nothing 3. Home and Work that really made any impact (Wetterberg The Policy goals of the current election 2002, p. 160). There is for instance period are of equal distribution of power Manliga Nätverket [the Male network] and influence between men and women. working for equality and against men’s This implies working for the same violence. The organisation has initiated opportunities for both men and women to projects on Men and equality, funded by achieve economic independence, equal the government. Other Swedish conditions in respect of jobs, terms of organisations focusing on men are Crises work, advancement, shared responsibilities Centres for men which are established in 6 of children and the home, equal access to cities. At the centres men can get education/training and equal opportunities therapeutic help from professional for developing personal ambitions. Other therapists, the focus is mainly on men in focus areas are representation – equal crises but also on men and violence. There access to positions of power and influence are shelters focusing on men, but on a non- and equal pay for equal work of equal professional basis. These shelters are not value, and Men and gender equality. like the Women’s shelters focusing on (http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/4096/a/26327) victims of violence, but rather on men in different forms of relational crises Parental leave, temporary allowance (Holmberg & Bender 1998). Some of these and parental allowance: In 1974 parental organisations claim to act on a pro-feminist allowance was introduced. Since 1998 the platform or from a critical perspective, benefits comprise 80 % of a wage for 480 however this has been contested from a days including 30 sickness benefit days. feminist standpoint. Others, like for Out of the 480 days, 60 are reserved for instance the Men’s shelter federation, take each parent and cannot be transferred. more of anti-feminist positions (Balkmar These are possible to use until the child is 2004). Man i Västernorrland [Men in the 8 years of old. The remainder can be used western part of northern Sweden] is a by either parent. Fathers have since 1980 project led by the County administrative the right to 10 days leave in relation to board focusing on widening the “male birth. The amount of days for which role”. There are projects where the focus is parental leave has been utilized by men has on fatherhood and fathers relations to their slowly increased since parental leave for children, led by child health centres. The fathers and mothers both was introduced in White ribbon Campaign has not yet been 1974. In year 2003 men’s share was 17 % able to break through in Sweden. However, of the total parental leave taken (SCB

66 2004, p. 38, 39). According to the gender parent if the child opposes being handed equality law (§ 5, 1991:433) employers are over to either parent but the child ´must to facilitate men and women in sharing have attained the age of 12 or such working-life and parenthood. There have maturity that his/her wishes should be been nation wide information and taken into account. However, even if the education projects focusing on supporting child opposes, a decision may be made for and making it easier for daddies to take enforcement if the court considers this is in parental leave. Between 1994 and 1996 the best interest of the child. This can be there have been so called daddy-training refused if there is a more than a trivial risk programs administrated by county- that the psychological or physical health of councils. During the 1990’s governmental the child may be harmed supported projects to increase the (http://www.regeringen.se/content/1/c4/33/ proportion of men working in the child- 50/841de2e6.pdf, p. 28-36). care system was introduced (Näringsdepartementet 1999). In 1994 the government decided to set up a committee on mapping out and analysing Parental custody and paternity: The the distribution of economic power and basic rules regarding paternity are resources between men and women. The regulated in the Swedish Code of Statutes research based investigation was called (SFS 1995:974, amended in important Kvinnomaktutredningen [Investigation on respects regarding custody, residence and distribution of economical power and contact by SFS 1998:319). If the child’s resources between women and men]. mother is married when the child is born, According to the investigation men take her husband is automatically considered to more responsibility for their children today be the father of the child. When not than earlier. Research on unpaid labour in married or if the paternity of the lawful the home shows that men take more husband is revoked, paternity must be responsibility in the home when specially determined by an acknowledge- unemployed compared to when they are ment or by a judgment. If the child’s fully employed. However, they do not do parents are married to each other when the more than half of the workload even when child is born, the parents automatically the female partner works fulltime. It is also have joint custody. This continues if shown that when reorganisations are made divorced if not requested to be dissolved at workplaces in order to break gender due to incompatibility with the best interest segregation it is most often men that gain of the child10 that joint custody continues. from it. Men are for example more often A court can decide on joint custody or successful in work-places dominated by refuse to dissolve joint custody, even if one women than the other way around. The of the parents opposes this. However, this results of the investigation show that has to be in the best interest of the child. Sweden is not a country were gender The starting point is that it is important for equality prevails and that working life does the child to have contact with both parents not work in a rational way. This picture even if they don’t live together. The court can be described as a counter picture to the can decide on contact. The court may not United Nation’s description in 1995 of decide to enforce visiting rights for one Sweden as the world’s most gender equal country (SOU 1998:6, see also: SOU 1998:3, SOU 1998:4, SOU 1997:83).

10 The concept of ”the best interest of the child” is a problematic one both in terms of what criteria Work: Den könsuppdelade arbets- should be used as the basis for it; also who should marknaden [The gender divided labour decide those criteria and make judgments using market] is an investigation commissioned them.

67 by the government to present new be a matter for the parties in the labour knowledge on the gender divided labour market to change by following the gender market. It elaborates on various equality act in order to level out gender- dimensions of gender segregation, based pay differences. (http://www.sweden. horizontal, vertical as well as internally gov.se/content/1/c6/02/01/44/7043280d.pdf) (SOU 2004:43, see also Sweden National Report on Statistical information). 4. Social Exclusion In the research-based government report The National Institute for Working Life is Mansdominans i förändring (2003) [Male a national centre of knowledge for issues dominance in change] Wahl et al. conclude concerning working life. The institute that men continue to dominate leading carries out research commissioned by The positions in large organisations in the Ministry of Industry, Employment and private sector, but the organisations are Communications. The term “Social engaged in efforts to bring about change to exclusion” is defined by the Institute as create a more even representation of the when an individual or groups of people are sexes. Even though there has been some not full worthy members of a society, for consciousness raising of the matter the example through uneven distribution of proportions of women among young education and work. The Institute runs the managers is low. Both support and project Working life in the City resistance to change has increased, and (“Storstad”) where processes of social visibility in the public arena has sometimes inclusion and exclusion are focused around had the effect of making issues of equality aspects of class, gender, ethnicity, race and less visible within the organisations (SOU sexual orientation. (www.arbetslivsinstitutet.se 2003:16). The government has instructed /storstad) the National Labour Market Board (AMS) to end gender division on the labour According to the inquiry Homo på jobbet – market as a basic task of providing the vem bryr sig? [Gay at work – who cares?] unemployed with jobs and employers with many individuals with non heterosexual labour. There has also been extra financial orientation experience discrimination support for women entrepreneurs in order through harassments and through subtle to support women to start and run daily discrimination. (The National companies.(http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/ Institute for Working Life) Based on c6/01/81/01/98865a9c.pdf) 13 773 answers the enquiry shows that half of all Lesbian, Gay, Bi- and Transsexual The equal representation in positions of persons experience or have experienced power outside the public sphere has prejudices. More than every fourth person developed very slowly. Legislation on chooses not to be open with their sexual quotas is under consideration. The relative orientation (Bildt 2003, see also Tiby number of women at senior management 2000). In the Swedish Constitution it is level in Governmental Offices and central stated that the public should prevent government has increased to 32 % in 2000. discrimination of people due to the The gender segregated labour market is person’s sexual preference. Since 2003 argued to be the cause of income gaps, there is new legislation to enforce the where public sector and care are prohibition on discrimination due to sexual particularly low-paid “female preference. The new law covers the occupations”. Structural pay differentials following areas: working life, business remain due to value discrimination, where activities, practising one’s profession, male- or female dominated jobs are rated membership, participation in union differently. This wage formation is said to activities, employer organisations as well

68 as the areas of goods, services and housing (http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/2188). There is a (http://www.manskligarattigheter.gov.se). The national target for reducing ill health in National Institute for Public Health working life. Absence from working life provides an overview of lesbian and gay due to illness shall be halved by year 2008 persons health and situation in Sweden compared to 2002. The target of the policy including how the institute works with is the sharp rise in sickness absence in the these issues. The overview focus on ethnic last five years (http://www.sweden.gov.se Swedes, immigrants, violence and threats, /sb/d/3828). lesbian and gay persons with children (Statens Folkhälsoinstitut 2003). Sweden has in recent years prepared action plans relating to social inclusion; on older The institute has also made a qualitative persons policy; health care policy; investigation on the situation of gay disability policy; alcohol and drugs policy immigrant men and lesbian women. This and measures to combat racism, is a research area almost untouched in xenophobia, homophobia and Sweden. The study is based on interviews discrimination. (http://www.sweden.gov.se with immigrants from South America, The /content/1/c6/02/42/04/81d24d2b.pdf, p. 16) Middle East, Africa and Eastern Europe, in total 21 persons from 11 different Sweden’s action plan against poverty countries. The results point to that their and social exclusion 2003-2005 (ministry experiences are excluded from the of Health and Social Affairs): The starting community. A majority of the interviewees point is eight “core challenges” identified have experienced discrimination and other by the EU: developing a inclusive labour forms of violations in Swedish society market, adequate income, tackling (Haansbaek 2002, 10, 11, 37, 48, 67, 75, educational disadvantages, preserving See also Tiby 2000). family solidarity and protecting the rights of children, ensuring good accommodation The government has initiated work on for all, equal access to quality services, furthering its knowledge in relation to regenerating areas of multiple deprivation. children living in financially vulnerable The point of departure is that welfare families. The objective of the financial depends on the extent to which individuals family policy is to reduce disparities in the can take control of their lives. The action financial situation of families with or plan presents data on social without children (http://www.sweden. marginalisation as an effect of the gov.se/sb/d/3827). The policy for elderly economic crises during the 1990’s. Areas persons states that elderly shall be able to such as employment, income, pensions, lead active lives and be able to grow old in health and ill-health, disadvantages such as security with independence preserved misuse of alcohol and drugs are described (http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/2197/a/15498). in a gendered way by facts or/and figures. Crime trends, violence against women and The Swedish migration policy is based on prostitution are described in a way not a holistic approach including refugee, focusing on the gender of the perpetrator. migration and integration policies. Policies Even though employment among on integration include introduction into the immigrant men has increased since 1997, community to promote equal rights, where the differences between persons born opportunities and responsibilities for outside and in Sweden are large (See also everyone irrespective of ethnic background Sweden Report on Statistical Information, are pronounced. Metropolitan policy http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/02/42/04/8 1d24d2b.pdf). promotes integration and the prevention of segregation in metropolitan areas

69 In 2003 the Parliament passed provisions religion, handicap and sexual preference. to strengthen the protection of children at Reports on these matters are dealt with by risk; through measures to strengthen respective ombudsman. According to the collaboration between schools, the police, new law it is not only the victim of pre-schools, the health service and the discrimination that has to prove whether social services. The duty to report cases to discrimination has taken place or not, the the social services were extended and the reported also need to prove himself/herself supervision of child and adolescent care innocent from discriminatory acts. services further developed. The penalties on offences committed by close Measures to Counteract Ethnic acquaintances that threaten a child’s safety Discrimination in Working Life Act (SFS were strengthened (i.e. children witnessing 1999:130) regulates matters concerning physical abuse of one parent by the other). work, conditions of employment and equal rights and opportunities irrespective of Crowded housing and homelessness: An ethnic background (http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/ estimation is that there are 8 400 homeless 1/c6/01/99/57/b98945ab.pdf). The work of the persons in Sweden (4 out of 5 are men). Ombudsman against ethnic The Government has allocated a total of discrimination is based in the law SEK 90 million during 1997-2004 to local (1999:130) on measures against ethnic authorities and organisations to combat discrimination in working life. homelessness. In order to create a drug- free society national action plans against The Prohibition of Discrimination in drugs was implemented during 2000 and Working Life of People with Disability Act 2005. Opinion raising, strengthening and (SFS 1999:132) aims at combating coordinating measures at the national, discrimination in the working life of regional and local level are financed people with disabilities through additional funding. There is an (http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/01/99/59/8 overall goal of reducing the medical and 27e1939.pdf). A national Action plan for societal effects of alcohol. Measure on disability policy was adopted in 2000. The behalf of young people is mentioned as plan involves all social sectors and especially important. Policy goals i.e.: agencies to take a disability perspective reduce the proportion of women and men into account. The Office of the Disability (regardless of ethnic background) whose Ombudsman has the task of overseeing income is lower than basic social matters relating to the interests of disabled assistance allowance; reduce the number of persons. girls and boys who leave compulsory school with incomplete grades; increasing Prohibition of Discrimination in Working employment; reducing the proportion of Life because of Sexual Orientation Act girls and boys who have experimented (SFS 1999:133) with drugs; increase the number of women (http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/01/99/64/4 and men with substance abuse problems 04c8882.pdf, Prop. 1999/2000:79). The who undergo treatment and to reduce Ombudsman against Discrimination on homelessness (http://www.sweden.gov.se/ grounds of Sexual Orientation works to content/1/c6/02/42/04/81d24d2b.pdf). combat homophobia and discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation in all areas of Acts and areas overseen by the Swedish society. Ombudsman with the purpose of The Children’s Ombudsman’s duty is to preventing discrimination: Since 1 July promote the rights and interests of children 2003 there is new legislation on and young people in accordance with the discrimination regarding ethnicity, UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.

70 In 1995 a law on lesbian and gay persons’ against women, and to ensure that women right to enter registered partnerships was are well treated and received by the passed. In 2003 lesbian and gay persons in authorities. Via the Act of 1997/98:55 the registered partnerships were allowed to government has assigned several apply for permission to adopt children in authorities the task of contributing the same way as heterosexual married knowledge generally and knowledge from couples. In 2005 a new law will be passed certain working groups. These agencies are allowing women in same-sex couples to the National Courts Administration, the inseminate donated sperms at public Office of the Prosecutor-General and all hospitals. regional public prosecution offices, the National Council for Crime Prevention, the Crime Victim Compensation and Support 5. Violences Authority, the National Prison and The 1980’s and 1990’s were decades when Probation Administration, the National studies and research of violence against Board of Health and Welfare and the women were undertaken in Sweden; county administrative boards. The among the actors in the new millennium authorities have through government are also the authorities. One of the policy commission become activated within the goals of Sweden’s gender equality policy research area. The government explicitly for women and men is the freedom from describes the violence as committed by sexual (gender-related) violence. Focus men, against women, children and other areas are violence committed by men men (Näringsdepartementet 1999). against women, prostitution and trafficking for purposes of sexual exploitation The Act has resulted in initiatives directly (http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/04/01/23/5 towards men, through financing men’s a20887c.pdf). The Freedom from Violence shelters and organisations working contra against Women Commission performed violence against women (Steen 2003, SOU pioneering work which resulted in the 2004:121). A national resource centre report Violence against Women (SOU within the healthcare sector was 1995:60) and the Government Act on established in 1994, aiming at developing Freedom from Violence against Women methods and research in preventing men’s Reform (Prop. 1997/98:5511). The main violence against women. (Rikskvinno- report of the Commission represents a sea centrum info) Plans are now presented by change in Swedish political thinking. The the government to expand the activities to Commission starts out from women’s a national level. experiences of violence, and such violence is understood as a matter of a lack of Since these assignments were issued the gender equality (SOU 2004:121). The act government initiated an investigation (in took three main points of departure: to 2003) to draw up new guidelines for work improve legislation, to prevent violence on preventing men’s violence against women. The commission points to the conflicting interpretations of men’s violence against women i.e.: a deviation- 11 The Act “Freedom from Violence against based interpretation of the violent man; Women” is mainly based on the considerations expressed as powerless or mentally ill, his made in tree investigations: Kvinnofrid [Women’s use of violence is socially determined; or peace] SOU 1995:60, the investigation on that the violence is seen as a phenomenon prostitution regarding prostitution and buying of sexual services (SOU 1995:15), and the overview more common outside Sweden. The on the law on equality and regulations around investigation point out that in some sexual harassments (Sexuella trakasserier och respects the agencies have failed to arbetsgivarens ansvar A97/3077/JÄM)

71 perform tasks issued by the Government. against women. One concerns violence in In some respects, the agencies have close relations and has been developed in performed the tasks to all agencies in a collaboration with the British Prison and satisfactory manner. This is by establishing Probation service. The other concerns practice which gives women subjected to crimes of a sexual character based on a violence priority as victims of crime. In Canadian program (SOU 2004:121). some respects, the agencies have performed the assignments in an “Honour” related violence: In 2002 the unsatisfactory manner from a gender government initiated a range of efforts to power perspective (SOU 2004:121 p. 22- support vulnerable young women in so 24). called patriarchal families. The same year the country administrative boards mapped In 2000 the government initiated the out the need for protected shelters for girls National Council on Violence against and young women who risk being Women as an advisory council on the issue subjected to violence by relatives. Other of violence to women, explicitly focusing efforts had the aim of changing men’s and men. In its final report the council stated boys’ attitudes to prevent honour related that the inclination to deny men’s violence violence. The Swedish integration board against women is still prevalent among was requested (in collaborate with other Swedish authorities. More research and governmental authorities) to present best education in these matters are needed. Practice to prevent conflicts between the More support and demands need to be individual and family where the cause of directed to the perpetrators of violence. conflict may be patriarchal norms. These The barriers are identified to be lack of examples of best Practicing were to be equity, men’s lack of awareness and distributed to organisations based on ethnic responsibility for the violence and lack of grounds, governments and religious knowledge of the nature of violence. Other communities (Integrationsverket 2002). In barriers pointed to are when victims are 2003, the government initiated a national being poorly treated by the legal action plan to prevent so called “honour institutions and that authorities’ trivialize related violence” and this is to be the problem of violence. (Råd för continued until year 2007. A relatively Kvinnofrid till regeringen, 2003, large amount of money is put into http://www.kvinnofrid.se/, the council prevention activities and shelters for young have published a number of reports people, in total 180 million SEK over the regarding the issues focused upon, see period 2003-2007. Critics have pointed out reference list) As a result, from the Act that focusing on “honour related” violence 1997/98:55 the National council for Crime tends to put the focus on cultural Prevention commissioned a range of difference, where violent men tend to be reports covering aspects from a gender constructed specifically as victims of their perspective. The material often builds on culture. The violence that the Swedish crimes reported to the police which only majority ethnic group men (i.e. white cover a part of the violent crimes taking Swedish-born men) use against women is place (SOU 2004:121 p. 97-103, see thereby made into something general and reference list; Brottsförebyggande rådet as not having anything to do with Swedish 2000b,c, 2001b, 2004a). mainstream culture (SOU 2004:121, p. Methods of treating men convicted of 182, 183). violence against women have been mapped out and evaluated. The Swedish Prison and The government convened an international Probation service work with two national expert meeting and international programmes concerning men’s violence conference on the subject “Combating

72 Patriarchal Violence against Women” in Its official report constituted the ground for 2004. In the budget for 2005, additional the proposition “Stärkt skydd för utsatta funding is granted for protected shelters barn” (prop. 2002/03:53) [Improved and action taken to change attitudes protection for abused children]. Extended (Länsstyrelsen i Stockholms län, see also: Sandén, obligations to report for actors in the social Per & Engström, Bo 2004 services were made statutory. This http://www.manskligarattigheter.gov.se/). The includes children at risk of maltreatment: issue of “honour related” violence is often not only through physical maltreatment, discussed as a question of integration or but also in other forms of violence. The lack of integration into the Swedish government has assigned The National “equal” society. For example, there are board of Health and Welfare the task of extra funds added to the women’s shelters developing support to the social services for addressing the need of women with work with crime victims, foremost children immigrant background (as well as women and young people exposed to crimes with drug problems and disabled women). (Socialstyrelsen 2005). The Swedish Association of Local Authorities has been asked to make a The government appointed in 2003 a survey about knowledge focusing on committee into knowledge concerning relations between the individual and the sexual exploitation of children in family in the context of minority ethnic Sweden. This was to make an inventory of, group cultures. The point of departure for and compile knowledge about, sexual this survey is the role the family plays as a exploitation of children. The Commission carrier of culture and its influence on the also considered the need for additional ability of the individual to meet the “values 12 measures on the part of the Government to and demands of the new country” (Ju fulfil the work against sexual exploitations 04.17). of children in accordance with previous undertakings (SOU 2004:71). Maltreatment of children: Violence against children has been subject of Custody: Family law preparatory on increased interest during the late 1990s. custody and relations states that custody is The National Council for Crime Prevention inappropriate when one parent has (BRÅ) has shown that the number of maltreated or in other ways assaulted the incidents reported to the police involving other. However, in the National Board of assaults on children has risen up to four Health and Welfare general advice on the times since the beginning of the 1980s handling of custody and relations, there is (SOU 2001:71, SOU 2001:18, see also not a complete ruling out of creating a ECPAT Sverige 2001). In 1998 the dialogue on collaboration between parents government appointed an investigation on where one of them has committed such maltreatment of children (SOU 2001:72). acts (SOU 2004:121, p. 116-117). In 2002 a committee on custody started its work, concerning questions on custody, housing and relations between children and parents 12 Authors’ note: This wording seems to ignore the fact that violence to women is a relatively common or custodians. The committee focuses occurrence in the Swedish majority ethnic group as among other issues on how the best interest evidenced by the Swedish prevalence survey of the child can be provided for in cases “Slagen dam” (Lundgren et al 2001). In other where a parent has committed crimes of a countries – such as the United Kingdom – wording violent character against the other parent. like this in a public document would be unusual and might well be regarded there as ethnically Another issue is whether there should be discriminatory. This difference between Swedish probation automatically in cases where the and British public approaches to ethnicity is worthy person/s who have custody commit of note.

73 criminal acts against the other custodian means that certain acts, such as for (dir 2002:89). example so called fist fucking, which under the previous legislation were defined Save the Children have campaigned to as sexual coercion, now will be considered implement changes in the Swedish as rape. Neglecting to report sexual constitution in the matter of child offences such as rape, aggravated rape, pornographic material on the internet. aggravated sexual exploitation or a minor The debate on the issue has led to changes or grave procuring, has been made a in the constitution in 1999. Crimes punishable offence. The language in concerning child pornography are now central regulations was made gender regulated in the criminal code instead of neutral. In the law prohibiting circumcision the constitution on media regulating the term “genital mutilation” replaces freedom of speech. (Åström 2004) The “circumcision”. In 1999 purchase of National board of Health and Welfare has sexual services was made illegal by the initiated the first national mapping of new law, criminalizing the buyer but not young sex offenders in Sweden. A the seller. Efforts to raise consciousness considerable proportion of all reported and knowledge on these issues were also sexual offences are committed by young made. The police, prosecutors, judges, and persons, almost exclusively boys personnel within the social service sector, (Socialstyrelsen 2002). health- and care were to take further education on these matters. The parliament Prostitution and trafficking: In 2001 the passed additional provisions to the Visiting National Organization for Women’s Ban Act in 2003, in order to protect Shelters and Young Women’s Shelters in women and children who are subjected to Sweden organised an international threats and violence by close conference on men’s violence against acquaintances. A perpetrator may be women focusing upon prostitution and prohibited from going to the area where he trafficking. The conference was financed used to live with the victim (Swedish by the government (Holmgren & report to CEDAW, Brottsförebyggande Lindström 2002). The National Board of rådet 2000, b, c). Health and Welfare have compiled information on prostitution, its extent and Legislation to regulate sexual exploitation what is done to prevent it since 1998. In of children for commercial interest is the report from 2003, locally initiated regulated in several laws. Crimes to be efforts are focused upon. Both men and defined as sexual exploitation of children women prostitutes are included for commercial purpose are regulated (Socialstyrelsen 2003). under laws on seduction of youth, procuring, and child pornography offence Legislation: One of the measures taken to which was criminalised in 1999. Since prevent violence against women is new 2002 trafficking with the purpose of sexual legislation introduced in 1998. Gross purposes is regulated by law and is used to Violation of a Woman’s Integrity was regulate these kinds of criminal activity introduced into the penal code, dealing (SOU 2004:71, 225f). In 2003 Parliament with repeated punishable acts of violations passed provisions whose purpose is to and offences against women, children and draw attention to the perspective of other persons in close relations. The new children and to strengthen the protection of legislation also broadens the crime of rape. children at risk. Severer penalties were Some of the criminal acts that prior to the imposed for offences committed by close Prop. 1997/98:55 was sentenced as sexual acquaintances that threaten a child’s trust coercion are to be judged as rape. This and safety. This provision point to the role

74 of children as crime victims and are to define what health means. Instead health is provide a better guarantee for their safety. defined as something subjective where (http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/02/42/04/8 each individual has his/her own view. The 1d24d2b.pdf) ultimate criterion for the future of health policy outlined by the committee is the In 2005 new legislation on violations of a consequences of ill health in terms of sexual character is about to be “limitation on freedom” (SOU 2000:91 p. implemented by the national assembly. 29). The government intends to enforce and strengthen the rights of individuals to their In the report 18 national goals for public bodies and sexuality through this law. A health are posted. These concern solidarity wider range of actions are going to be in society, supportive social environment judged as rape, for example sexual abuse. for the individual, safe and equal One explicit purpose with the new law is to conditions in childhood, high level of enforce the protection of children and employment, healthy working environment young people against being abused in a and safe and confident sexuality, among sexual way. Special penalty regulations are others. There are goals which were widely implemented for the of crimes rape, sexual defined; i.e. social relationships at the abuse of children, and exploitation of societal level, at an organisational level children for posing for sexual purposes and in the family. Aspects causing ill- (http://www.regeringen.se/sb/d/1381/a/26270). health in relation to poverty, segregation,

isolation, unemployment, safe home In Sweden it is the municipalities that have environments are focused upon. These the uppermost responsibility for women issues are discussed in relation to gender and children exposed to violence. The and lack of equality between men and National Board of Health and Welfare women. Violence is discussed in relation to conducted an investigation on the public health. It is stated that women and outcomes of juridical changes in the social children face a significant risk of coming service act. The changes stated that the to harm through violence and being social services would act to help women attacked in their own homes. It is stated who have or are exposed to abuse to that violence against women is considered change their situation. The changes have a large-scale public health problem. Men only to a limited extent affected the work are explicitly mentioned as the major conducted by the social services with group of perpetrators in relation to women abused women. According to The National killed by a close relative. However, men Board of Health and Welfare most are seldom pinpointed as perpetrators municipalities rely on the non-profit work elsewhere in the report. One example is in carried out by the women’s shelters. There relation to violence as an expression of are women’s shelters in 150 out of 289 discrimination against lesbian/gay persons municipalities. There are 68 municipalities and immigrants. Violence between men is out of the 289 that do not give any discussed as the most common type of economical support at all to their local violent crime, mainly described as caused shelter (SOU 2004:121 p. 112-113, 116). by their living conditions as well as by

men’s role in society which therefore needs to be changed (SOU 2000:91, p. 87- 6. Health 88). The Swedish Institute on Health and The National Committee for Public Health Welfare has started to raise consciousness has been charged by the government with around the question of men’s violence as setting national goals for public health and an issue of general health. In 2003 the strategies for achieving these goals. In its institute held a conference on how to work report the committee has chosen not to

75 against violence in society. One purpose steps regarding men’s violence against of the conference was to present the WHO- women and, to some extent, men’s report "World report on violence and violence against children. There clearly health". still are massive gaps in government attention – especially in fully naming and The national action plan for gender recognising the problem that some fathers equality states that the general policy and may present to children before, during and mission statements should emphasise after parental separation in terms of awareness of gender equality issues during violence to the children’s mother and/or to the reception, care and treatment of the child herself/himself. More also needs patients. Gender equality issues are to be to be done to effectively address sexual placed at the centre of future public health abuse of children which is predominantly a measures. In order to promote gender crime committed by men and boys. equality the National Board of Health and Nevertheless, the recent record of the Welfare has been instructed to monitor Swedish government in the field of men’s gender differences in the health care sector. violence is encouraging for the future – if Efforts will be made to improve care of this positive trend continues. children, adolescents and elders with mental disabilities through improving the Acknowledgements: health service for socially vulnerable The following persons have been of help in groups. The action plan for children’s the process of writing this report: Susanne environments and health takes a broad Andersson, Fanny Ambjörnsson, Gunilla interpretation on health, including Bjerén, Aulikki Cederholm, Maria children’s security and diets Danielsson, Ann Ellburg Frisell, Carin (http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/0 Holmberg, Lars Jalmert, Pia Laskar, Karin 2/42/04/81d24d2b.pdf). Leander, Birgitta Ney, Katarina Mattsson, Annika Olsson, Katarina Rosengren Falk, Tiina Rosenberg, Jens Rydström, Ulrica 7. Discussion Stjernqvist, Caroline Tovatt; Thank you!

It is clear that in recent years the Swedish government has begun to take some very significant consultative and legislative

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Dahlerup, Drude (2004) “Feministisk partipolitik? Om skillnader i dansk och svensk jämställdhetsdebatt”, [Feminist party politics? On differences in Danish and Swedish debate on equality] in Florin, Christina & Bergquist, Christina (ed.) Framtiden i samtiden. Könsrelationer i förändring i Sverige och omvärlden. (pages: 234-263) Stockholm: Institutet för framtidsstudier dir 2002:89 Vårdnad, boende, umgänge [Custody, housing, relations], Stockholm: Regeringskansliet

ECPAT Sverige (2001) Kommersiell sexuell exploatering av barn i Sverige. En studie av kännedom om utnyttjandet av mindreåriga i prostitution, pornografi och trafficking [Sexual Exploitation of Children for Commercial Purposes in Sweden], Stockholm: ECPAT (http://www.ecpatsweden.org/docs/Kommersiell_sexuell_exploatering_av_barn.pdf)

77 Eldén, Åsa (2003) Heder på liv och död. Våldsamma berättelser om rykten, oskuld och heder. [Life and death honour. Violent stories about reputation, virginity and honour] Sociologiska institutionen, Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet.

Esping-Andersen, Gösta. (1990) The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, Cambridge: Polity

Haansbaek, Thomas (2002)… som en kamel med två pucklar. Om homosexuella invandrare i Sverige. [Like a Camell with two pucles. About lesbian and gay immigrants in Sweden] Statens folkhälsoinstituts rapport 2002:4, Stockholm: Statens folkhälsoinstitut

Hearn, Jeff & Lattu, Emmi & Tallberg, Teemu (2001) Finland National Report on Law and Policy Addressing Men's Practices (www.cromenet.org)

Hjelm-Wallén, Lena. (2001) En nationell handlingsplan mot rasism, främlingsfientlighet, homofobi och diskriminering. [A national Plan of Action against racism, Hostility against foringers, Homofobia and Discrimination] Regeringens skrivelse, Skr. 2000/01:59

Holmberg, Carin & Bender, Christin. (1998) Våld mot kvinnor-män i kris [Violence against women – men in crises] SoS- Rapport 1998-6. Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

Holmgren, Gerd & Lindström, Christina (2002) Prostitution och trafficking, Sexslavhandel! [Prostitution and trafficking, Sex-slave trade!] Stockholm: ROKS

Holter, Øystein Gullvåg (2003) Can men do it? Men and gender equality – the nordic experience. Tema Nord 2003:510, Copenhagen: The Nordic Council of Ministers http://www.regeringen.se/content/1/c4/33/50/841de2e6.pdf Regeringskansliet [Government Offices of Sweden], Family law, Information on the rules. (Reports on the rules applicable as of 1 October 1998) http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/01/81/06/3de887a4.pdf Regeringskansliet [Government Offices of Sweden] (1999) National Machinery for Equality between Women and Men, Ministry of Industry, Employment and Communications http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/01/99/57/b98945ab.pdf Regeringskansliet [Government Offices of Sweden] Measures to Counteract Ethnic Discrimination in Working Life Act (SFS 1999:130) http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/01/99/59/827e1939.pdf Regeringskansliet [Government Offices of Sweden] Prohibition of Discrimination in Working Life of People with Disability act (SFS 1999:132) http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/01/99/64/404c8882.pdf Regeringskansliet [Government Offices of Sweden] Prohibition of Discrimination in Working Life because of Sexual Orientation Act (SFS 1999:133) http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/01/81/01/98865a9c.pdf Regeringskansliet [Government Offices of Sweden] (2002) Some gender equality initiatives in 2002, Ministry of Industry, Employment and Communications, Fact sheet

78 http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/02/01/44/7043280d.pdf Regeringskansliet [Government Offices of Sweden], The Swedish Government’s National Action Plan for Gender Equality http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/02/42/04/81d24d2b.pdf Regeringskansliet [Government Offices of Sweden] Sweden’s action plan against poverty and social exclusion http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/04/01/23/5a20887c.pdf Regeringskansliet [Government Offices of Sweden] (2004) Gender equality in Sweden – a summary

Integrationsverket (2002) Lärande exempel - att förebygga konflikter mellan individ och familj, [Examples to learn from – to prevent conflicts between the individual and the family] Integrationsverkets rapportserie 2002:14, Norrköping: Integrationsverket

Ju 04.17 Regeringens insatser för ungdomar som riskerar hedersrelaterat våld [Gouvernment initiatives to help young people at risk of violence in the name of honour] Faktablad, Justitiedepartementet, November 2004

Långström, Niklas (2001) Sexual abuse of children, Young sex offenders: A research overview. Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

Länsstyrelsen Stockholms län (2004) Nationell rapport om skyddat boende mm. [National report on protected housing] Rapport 2004:16, Stockholm: Länsstyrelsen

Prop. SOU 1997/98:55 Kvinnofrid [Freedom from Violence Against Women], Stockholm Fritzes

Prop. 1999/2000:79, Från patient till medborgare – en nationell handlingsplan för handikappolitiken [From patient to citizen – a national action plan for politics concerning disabled]

Prop. 2002/03:53, Stärkt skydd för utsatta barn [Improved protection to exposed children]

Prop. 2004/05:45, En ny sexualbrottslagstiftning [A new legislation on sexcrimes]

Nordborg, Gudrun (2000), Kvinnofrid – att förstå bakgrunden till mäns våld mot kvinnor och dess effekter. Ett utbildningsmaterial för personal inom rättsväsendet, hälso- och sjukvården, socialtjänsten och kriminalvården. [Preventing violence against women, - to understand the background to men’s violence against women and its effects] Brottsoffermyndigheten, Stockholm: Fritzes

Näringsdepartementet (1999) Män och jämställdhet [Men and gender equality] Faktablad

Regeringskansliet, Justitiedepartementet (2003) Expert meeting on violence in the name of honour, Stockholm, 4-5 November 2003, Conference report

Rikskvinnocentrum information (http://www.uas.se/upload/RKC/rkc_svensk.pdf)

79 Råd för Kvinnofrid till regeringen, Slutrapport från Nationellt Råd för Kvinnofrid. (2003) [Advices to the government on violence against women. Final report from the Commission on Violence against Women] Stockholm: Regeringskansliet och näringsdepartementet article number: N 3004

- När man slår mot det som gör ont – våld mot kvinnor med funktionshinder, (2001) [Hitting where it hurts the most – violence against disabled women] Nationellt Råd för Kvinnofrid - Kommuner som blunder för mäns våld mot kvinnor, (2001)[Municipalities that don’t want to see men’s violence against women] Nationellt Råd för Kvinnofrid - Han var väl inte alltid så snäll – våld mot äldre kvinnor, (2002) [He wasn’t always that nice – violence against elderly women], Nationellt Råd för Kvinnofrid - Se till mig som lite är – när pappa slår mamma, (2002) [Also see the children – when daddy hits mommy], Nationellt Råd för Kvinnofrid - Vi skulle inte bli svenskar. Vi skulle lyda. Våld mot kvinnor och flickor från andra kulturer. (2003) [We shouldn’t become Swedish. We should obay. Violence against women and girls from other cultures], Nationellt Råd för Kvinnofrid - Världens sämsta brottsoffer – om mäns våld mot misshandlade kvinnor och psykiskt funktionshandikappade kvinnor. (2003) [The worlds worst crime-victims – men’s violence against battered women and mentally disabled women] Nationellt Råd för Kvinnofrid - Våld mot kvinnor, (2002) [Violence against women]Nationellt Råd för Kvinnofrid.

SCB (2004) Women and Men in Sweden. Facts and Figures 2004. Örebro: Statistiska Centralbyrån

Socialstyrelsen (2002) Unga förövare och unga offer – en kartläggning av sexuella övergrepp, [Young perpetrators and young victims – mapping sexual abuse ] Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

Socialstyrelsen (2003) Kännedom om prostitution 2003 [Knowledge on prostitution 2003] Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

Socialstyrelsen (2005) När mamma blir slagen. Att hjälpa barn som levt med våld i familjen [When mummy get’s beaten. To help children who have lived with violence in the family] Hydén, Margareta, Stockholm: Socialstyrelsen

SOU 1995:60 Kvinnofrid [The Freedom from Violence against Women] Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 1997:83 Om makt och kön, i spåren av offentliga organisationers omvandlingar [About power and gender, in the trail of the transformation of official organisations] Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 1998:3 Välfärdens genusansikte [The gendered face of Welfare] Persson, Inga & Wadensjö, Eskil, Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 1998:4 Män passar alltid? Nivå- och organisationsspecifika processer med exempel från handeln [Does men always fit? Level and organisationspecific processes with examples from the trading market] Stockholm: Fritzes

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SOU 1998:6, Ty makten är din… Myten om det rationella arbetslivet och det jämställda Sverige [Because the power belongs to you… The myth of the rational working life and the gender equal Sweden] Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 1998:138 Kvinnor, män och funktionshinder [Men and women with Functional Disorders] , Stockholm : Fritzes offentliga publikationer.

SOU 2000:91, Health on equal terms – national goals for public health. Final report by the Swedish National Committee for Public Health, English version of SOU 2000:91, Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 2001:14 Sexualbrotten. Ett ökat skydd för den sexuella integriteten och angränsade frågor. [Sexual crimes. Improved protection, sexual integrity and related issues] Betänkande av 1998 års Sexualbrottskommitté. Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 2001:18 Barn och misshandel – En rapport om kroppslig bestraffing och annan misshandel I Sverige vid slutet av 1990-talet. [Children and Maltreatment – Report on bodily punishment and other forms of maltreatment in Sweden by the end of 1990s] Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 2001:72 Barnmisshandel-Att förebygga och åtgärda [Child Abuse – Prevention and Protection] Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 2003:16, Mansdominans i förändring. Om ledningsgrupper och styrelser. [Male dominance in change. About managerial groups and executive boards] Stockholm: Fritzes.

SOU 2004:43, Den könsuppdelade arbetsmarknaden [The gender divided labour market], Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 2004:71 Sexuell exploatering av barn i Sverige. Betänkande av Utredningen om kunskap om sexuell exploaterade barn i Sverige [Children subjected to sexual exploration in Sweden] Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 2001:79 Välfärdsbokslut för 1990-talet. Slutbetänkande/Kommittén Välfärdsbokslut/SOU 2001:79 [Closing the books on welfare during the 1990s] Stockholm: Fritzes

SOU 2004:121 Ett slag i luften, En utredning om myndigheter, mansvåld och makt [A punch in the air. An investigation on authorities, men’s violence and power] Eldén, Åsa, Joelsson, Tanja, Söderström, Peter & Wendt Höjer, Maria. Stockholm: Fritzes

Statens Folkhälsoinstitut (2003) Homosexuellas hälsa och situation i samhället 2000-2002, redovisning av Statens folkhälsoinstituts arbete [Gay persons health and situation in society 2000-2002, accounting the work of the National Institute of Public Health in Sweden] Stockholm: Statens Folkhälsoinstitut

Steen, Anne-Lie (2003) Mäns våld mot kvinnor – ett diskursivt slagfält [Men’s violence against women – a discursive battlefield] Research Report No. 131 from the Department of Sociology, Göteborg: Göteborg University

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The Swedish Judiciary – a Brief Introduction, Domstolsverket, www.dom.se (2004-11-18)

Tiby, Eva (2000) De utsatta – Brott mot homosexuella kvinnor och män. [The exposed – Violations against gay men and women] Folkhälsoinstitutet

Wetterberg, Tomas (2002) Vill man ha jämställdhet? Slutrapport för projekt Män och jämställdhet. [Do men want equality? Report on the project Men and Equality] Regeringskansliet: Stockholm: Fritzes

What are the Duties of the Equal Opportunities Ombudsman?, Jämställdhetsombudsmannen http://www.jamombud.se/en/docs/WhatarethedutiesoftheEqualOpportunitiesOmbudsman.pdf

Åström, Per-Erik (2004) Barnpornografi på nätet: bortom all tolerans,– växande problem som kräver nya åtgärder [Beyond any tolerance, child pornography on the internet] Stockholm: Rädda barnen Sverige

Webbsites used in the report: http://www.manskligarattigheter.gov.se - The government’s website on human rights in Sweden http://www.manskligarattigheter.gov.se/extra/page/?action=page_show&id=27&module_instance=3&top_id=7 &nav_id=27 http://www.sweden.gov.se - The government’s official website in English http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/3145 (About the Government Offices) http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/4096/a/26327 (Equality between women and men in Sweden) http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/3828 (Financial security for the sick and disabled) http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/3827 (Financial family policy) http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/2197/a/15498 (Policy for the elderly) http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/2188 (Asylum, migration, integration, minorities) http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/3828 (Financial security for the sick and disabled) http://www.regeringen.se/sb/d/1381/a/26270 (Ny sexualbrottslagstiftning ger stärkt skydd för offer och barn) http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/02/42/04/81d24d2b.pdf (Jämka vid skadestånd och bodelning) http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/2854/a/19197 (How Laws are made) http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/3829/a/37467,

82 http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/3829/a/22665 (Social security policy) http://www.regeringen.se - The government’s official website http://www.riksdagen.se - The Swedish Parlament official website http://www.kvinnofrid.se/ The website of the Commission on Violence against Women www.jo.se - The Parliamentary ombudsmän website http://www.jo.se/Page.asp?MenuId=12&ObjectClass=DynamX_Documents&SetLanguage=en http://www.nationalencyklopedin.com - Database http://www.norden.org - The Nordic council’s official website http://www.norden.org/gender/n-jam-arb/sk/index.asp

www.ali.se - The National Institute for Working Life www.arbetslivsinstitutet.se/storstad

Swedish report to CEDAW: http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N00/802/05/IMG/N0080205.pdf?OpenElement

83 Reports from Centre for Gender Studies, Stockholm University Can be ordered from the Centre, some titles are sold out.

1 Kvinnors Rosengård. Medeltidskvinnors liv och hälsa, lust och barnafödande. Föredrag från nordiska tvärvetenskapliga symposier i Århus augusti 1985 och Visby september 1987 utgivna av Hedda Gunneng, Beata Losman, Bodil Møller Knudsen, Helle Reinholdt 1989. ISBN 91-87792-00-1 (slut)

2 Är Habermas intressant för forskning om kvinnor och den offentliga sektorn? Rapport från seminarium arrangerat av NORDPLAN (Nordiska institutet för samhällsplanering) och Centrum för kvinnoforskning vid Stockholms universitet i april 1991. ISBN 91-87792-01-X

3 Kvinnoperspektiv på fortplantningsteknologi. Rapport från en serie föreläsningar hösten 1989 arrangerade av Centrum för kvinnoforskning vid Stockholms universitet och Forum för kvinnliga forskare och kvinnoforskning i Stockholm. 1992. ISBN 91-87792-02-8. (slut)

4 Forskarhandledning som mentorskap - sprickor i en idealbild. En undersökning av Ylva Elvin-Nowak och Anita Dahlberg 1992. ISBN 91-87792-03-6

5 Kvinnoforskare om kvinnor och Europa. Rapport från ett nordiskt forskningssymposium 1992. Red: Anita Dahlberg 1993. ISBN 91-87792-04-4

6 Det måste finnas bättre sånger. Kvinnliga klassresenärers kulturmöten på väg mot en ny identitet. En undersökning av Moa Qvarnström 1993. ISBN 91-87792-05-2

7 Om rättvisa i barnomsorgen. Den kommunala barnomsorgens fördelningsregler ur ett vardagslivsperspektiv. Doktorsavhandling av Astrid Schlytter 1993. ISBN 91-87792-06-0

8 Socialförsäkringarnas utveckling. Ersättningar vid sjukdom, arbetsskada, arbetslöshet och ålderdom - utvecklingen i fem faser. Anita Dahlberg 1994. ISBN 91-87792-07-9

9 Kvinnor och jämställdhet. Förteckning över befintliga kvinno- och jämställdhetskurser vid Sveriges universitet och högskolor, läsåret 94/95. Ellinor Melander 1994. ISBN 91-87792-08-7 (slut)

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11 Kvinnor och män i forskarseminarier. En studie av interaktionen på tre institutioner vid Uppsala universitet. Cecilia Almlöv. 1995. ISBN 91-87792-10-9 (slut)

12 Rekrytering av kvinnor till forskarutbildning och akademisk karriär. Maj-Britt Hanström. 1996. ISBN 91-87792-11-7

13 Kvinnliga teknologie och filosofie doktorers karriärmönster. Maj-Britt Hanström, 1997. ISBN 91-87792-12-5

14 Kvinno- och genusvetenskap. Förteckning över grundutbildningskurser vid centra/fora

84 för kvinnoforskning vid Sveriges universitet och högskolor 1997/1998. Sammanställd av Malin Ramirez Thimerdal 1998. ISBN 91-87792-13-3 (slut)

15 Kvinno- och annan genusforskning. Forskare och forskningsprojekt vid Stockholms universitet 1998. Sammanställd av Malin Ramirez Thimerdal 1998. ISBN 91-87792-14-1 (slut)

16 Undervisning i kvinno- och könsforskning i Norden. Rapport från symposium i Stockholm den 28-29 september 1998. Red: Eva Lundgren. 1999. ISBN 91-87792-15-X

17 Konstruktion & Förändring. Genusaspekter på vetenskapen. Rapport från forskar- konferens i Stockholm 18-19 september 1998. Red: Eva Lundgren 1999. ISBN 91-87792-16-8

18 Kvinnoprofiler i Stockholmsvimlet 1907. En artikelserie med en kort journalistikhistorisk kommentar. Red: Birgitta Ney. 2000. ISBN 91-87792-17-6

19 Skriftställarinnor, journalister m fl. En förteckning över kvinnor verksamma i pressen ca 1893-1924. Red: Birgitta Ney. 2000. ISBN 91-87792-18-4

20 Unga vuxnas syn på familj och arbete: rapport från en enkätundersökning. Eva Bernhardt. 2000. ISBN 91-87792-19-2

21 Status, akutoritet och hegemonisk maskulinitet - om organiserande och genusordnande processer inom en närpolisorganisation. Susanne Andersson. 2000. ISBN 91-87792-20-6

22 Att ”göra” kön - om organisationsteorier och familjerättssekreterare. Maria Eriksson. 2001. ISBN 91-87792-21-4

23 ”Queerovision Song Contest - ett individuellt minnesarbete som med queerteoretisk utgångspunkt och Eurovision Song Contest som exempel fokuserar åskådarens aktiva roll i tolkandet av populärkulturella företeelser”. Peter Tai Christensen (påb HT00). 2001. ISBN 91-87792-22-2

24 Där ingen kropp finns. Skiss till en feministisk metodologi med utgångspunkt i den sene Wittgensteins språkfilosofi. Henning Brüllhoff (påb HT00). 2001. ISBN 91-87792-23-0

25. Utopier & Dystopier. Rapport från genuskonferens i Stockholm 6-7 oktober 2000. Red: Caroline Tovatt. ISBN 91-87792-24-9

26. Distansarbete och kön. En presentation av föreställningar i svensk näringslivstext. Ulrika Björk. 2001. ISBN 91-87792-25-7

27. Ordningsstörande begär - biteori som kritik av antropologisk sexualitetsforskning. Anna Adeniji (påb HT00). 2001. ISBN 91-87792-26-5

28. ”Det var bättre förr” – implicita genuskonstruktioner som ordnande praktik inom en närpolisorganisation. Susanne Andersson, 2001. ISBN 91-87792-27-3

85 29. Självprövning och tvivel. En läsning av Montaigne och Descartes, Ulrika Björk, 2002. ISBN 91-87792-28-1

30. Genus i grundutbildningen – en samling erfarenheter och inspirationer, Jämställdhetskommittén och Centrum för kvinnoforskning, SU, 2002. ISBN 91-87792-29-X

31. ”Vi har ju inga karlar här…” – om jämställdhetsbegreppets relevans för kvinnodominerade arbetsplatser. Eva Amundsdotter (påb VT02), 2002, ISBN 91-87792-30-3

32. Arkiv XX – paradigm, kanon och kontinuitet. Rapport från genusvetenskaplig konferens i Stockholm 27-28 september 2002. Red: Caroline Tovatt, 2003, ISBN 91-87792-31-1

33. Where have all the structures gone? Doing gender in organisations, examples from Finland, Norway and Sweden, Ewa Gunnarsson et al, 2003, ISBN 91-87792-32-X

34. Kvinnor emellan – lesbiska möten i svensk 1980-talslitteratur. En magisteruppsats av Corinna Müller, (VT02), 2003, ISBN 91-87792-33-8.

35. Entering Adulthood in Sweden: Gender, Family, and Immigrant Origins. Bernhardt, Eva, et al. 2005 ISBN 91-87792-34-6

36. Våldsamt lika och olika – om våld i samkönade parrelationer. Carin Holmberg & Ulrica Stjernqvist 2005 ISBN 91-87792-35-4

37. Genusforskningens många ansikten, konferensrapport. Gunilla Bjerén et al. 2006 ISBN 91-87792-36-2

38. Tutorgrupper – pedagogik för en grundkurs, Birgitta Ney, Gunilla Bjerén & Annika Olsson, 2006 ISBN 91-87792-37-0

39. Kvinnosaken i pressen, kvinnliga journalister och tidningstexter. Birgitta Ney, 2006 ISBN 91-87792-38-9

40. Sweden National Reports on Men’s Practices. Dag Balkmar & Keith Pringle, 2006 ISBN 91-87792-39-7

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Centre for Gender Studies STOCKHOLM UNIVERSITY, SE- 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden Phone: + 46 (0)8 16 22 22, Fax + 46 (0)8 674 73 00 www.kvinfo.su.se

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