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Soil Compaction Impact and Modelling. a Review Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2013) 33:291–309 DOI 10.1007/s13593-011-0071-8 REVIEW ARTICLE Soil compaction impact and modelling. A review Muhammad Farrakh Nawaz & Guilhem Bourrié & Fabienne Trolard Accepted: 1 December 2011 /Published online: 31 January 2012 # The Author(s) 2012. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract Compaction of agricultural soils is a concern for consider existence of preferential paths of stress propagation many agricultural soil scientists and farmers since soil com- and localization of deformation in compacted soils. (7) Recent paction, due to heavy field traffic, has resulted in yield advances in physics of granular media and soil mechanics reduction of most agronomic crops throughout the world. relevant to soil compaction should be used to progress in Soil compaction is a physical form of soil degradation that modelling soil compaction. alters soil structure, limits water and air infiltration, and reduces root penetration in the soil. Consequences of soil Keywords Soil compaction . Soil disturbance . Soil stress . compaction are still underestimated. A complete under- Modelling . Soil degradation standing of processes involved in soil compaction is necessary to meet the future global challenge of food security. We review Contents here the advances in understanding, quantification, and 1. Introduction ..............................1 prediction of the effects of soil compaction. We found the 2. Causes of the soil compaction .................4 following major points: (1) When a soil is exposed to a 3. Quantifying the effects of the soil compaction ......5 vehicular traffic load, soil water contents, soil texture and 4. Effects of compaction on soil chemical properties and structure, and soil organic matter are the three main factors biogeochemical cycles ........................7 which determine the degree of compactness in that soil. (2) 5. Effects of the soil compaction on plants ...........9 Soil compaction has direct effects on soil physical properties 6. Effects of the soil compaction on soil biodiversity. .10 such as bulk density, strength, and porosity; therefore, these 7. Modelling ..............................11 parameters can be used to quantify the soil compactness. (3) 8. Remedies to the soil compaction ................14 Modified soil physical properties due to soil compaction can 9. Conclusion ..............................15 alter elements mobility and change nitrogen and carbon cycles in favour of more emissions of greenhouse gases under wet conditions. (4) Severe soil compaction induces root deforma- 1 Introduction tion, stunted shoot growth, late germination, low germination rate, and high mortality rate. (5) Soil compaction decreases Performance of soil on a particular land plays a vital role in soil biodiversity by decreasing microbial biomass, enzymatic the development and survival of civilizations as soil ensures activity, soil fauna, and ground flora. (6) Boussinesq equations the provision of food and further essential goods for humans and finite element method models, that predict the effects of (Hillel 2009). But the soil is a nonrenewable resource with the soil compaction, are restricted to elastic domain and do not potentially rapid degradation rates and extremely slow forma- tion and regeneration processes (Van-Camp et al. 2004). So, the sustainable use of soils is the only solution to deal with the M. F. Nawaz : G. Bourrié : F. Trolard INRA, UR1119, Géochimie des sols et des eaux, global issues like food security, demands of energy and water, Aix-en-Provence, France climate change, and biodiversity (Lal 2009; Jones et al. 2009). Soil degradation is as old as agriculture itself; its impact * M. F. Nawaz ( ) on human food production and the environment is becoming Department of Forestry, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan more serious than ever before because of its extent and e-mail: [email protected] intensity (Durán Zuazo and Rodríguez Pleguezuelo 2008). 292 M.F. Nawaz et al. Effects of soil degradation are not only on the livelihoods of observed at certain depth (subsoil compaction). Except a rural dwellers but it also poses a potential threat to global food few cases where a slight degree of top soil compaction can supplies over the long term (Scherr and Yadav 1996). Land be beneficial for some type of soils especially sandy soils degradation will remain an important global issue for the (Bouwman and Arts 2000), in most cases, it has negative twenty first century because of its adverse impact on agronom- effects on the soil. The subsoil compaction is a serious ic productivity, the environment, and its effect on food security problem because it is expensive and difficult to alleviate and the quality of life (Eswaran et al. 2001). The soil compac- and it has been acknowledged as a serious form of the soil tion is the physical form of soil degradation that changes the degradation by the European Union (Jones et al. 2003). soil structure and influences the soil productivity (Mueller et About 38% reduction in grain yield of wheat crop is al. 2010). Unlike salinity, water logging or the soil erosion that reported when the subsoil compaction was carried out at can be remarked from the soil surface, the soil compaction 0.15 m depth to a bulk density of 1.93 Mg/m3 (Ishaq et al. causes a hidden degradation of the soil structure that is diffi- 2001). The soil compaction in forests, due to mechanized cult to locate and rationalize (McGarry and Sharp 2003). operations, can be severe but shows more spatial variability Increased demands for the food and shelter have resulted in than in agricultural lands due to less systemic mechanized mechanization of forests and farms in almost all the developed operations and presence of stumps and heavy roots in the soil. countries as well as in many developing countries. Mecha- A number of reviews already exist on the soil compaction, nized operations involved in intensive cropping and in forest but they have been written many years back and are focused silvi-culture can, directly or indirectly, lead to the soil com- on specific aspects such as physical aspects of the soil com- paction as shown in Fig. 1 (Ishaq et al. 2001; Silva et al. 2008). paction (Horn et al. 1995; Soane et al. 1982), the influence of About 68 million ha of the soils worldwide are estimated to be organic matter on the soil compaction (Soane 1990), model- affected by the soil compaction from the vehicular traffic. The ling the soil compaction (Lipiec and Hatano 2003;O’Sullivan soil compaction is responsible for the soil degradation in and Simota 1995), and the soil compaction by grazing animals Europe (33 million ha), Africa (18 million ha), Asia (10 (Drewry 2006). million ha), Australia (4 million ha), and some areas of North Some reviewed articles have also discussed the soil com- America (Flowers and Lal 1998; Hamza and Anderson 2003). paction on the basis of a specific land use, mainly crop systems The soil compaction can be defined as “the process by (Hamza and Anderson 2005; Soane and Van Ouwerkerk 1995) which the soil grains are rearranged to decrease void space and rarely forest systems (Greacen and Sands 1980). The most and bring them into closer contact with one another, thereby, recent review by Batey (2009) focused only on practical soil increasing the bulk density” (SSSA 1996). So, the soil management issues. In addition to the previous aspects by compaction involves the changes in physical properties of including the recent studies, this review also considers the the soil (bulk density and soil porosity) and these modified effects of the soil compaction on biogeochemical processes physical parameters of the soil are determinants of the and biodiversity, both at macro- and microscales. Furthermore, influence of the soil compaction on chemical properties of existing models for the soil compaction are critically discussed the soil, soil fauna, and diversity and plant growth (Fig. 2). and new directions for modelling the effects of the soil com- The soil compaction in cultivated lands affects mostly the paction on the soil are being proposed upper layer of soil (top soil compaction) but it is also 1.1 Description of the phenomenon The soil compaction involves a microscopic rearrangement and bringing of the solid particles closer to one another and consequently an increase in the bulk density of the soil (Panayiotopoulos et al. 1994). But the degree of compactness is a quantitative parameter and defined as “the ratio of the actual bulk density to the reference bulk density obtained by uniaxial compression of wet soil (sufficiently for drainage) at static pressure of 200 kPa” (Håkansson 1990; Lipiec and Hatano 2003). The soil compaction is accompanied by the removal of the soil air, changes in the soil structure, and macroscopic increase in the soil strength (Taylor 1971). The phenomenon of the soil compaction can be explained in the classical elasto-plastic conception of stress–strain phenomena Fig. 1 Ruts formation after the passage of vehicular traffic on soil; an by considering the soil as a material that reacts elastically up to example of compacted soil a certain limit of stress; beyond that limit, any incremental Soil compaction impact and modelling. A review 293 Fig. 2 Causes of soil compaction and their effects on soil physical properties with ultimate direct effects on soil chemistry, plant growth and soil biodiversity while indirect effects on exchanges of matter with external compartments stress results in the plastic deformation (Horn 1988). This bulk density of the soil (D) was established. When a loam- stress threshold for a given soil, under given climatic condi- Typic Haplaquept soil was subjected to varied pressures and tions, depends on soil texture, degree of aggregation, and moisture contents, it behaved totally differently from a loamy matric potential (Horn et al. 1995). The soil compaction, sand–Aquic Ustipsamment soil (Fig. 3). The former one was depending on the soil structure, influences soil physical, resistant to the compaction when dried and susceptible to chemical, and biological processes (Gupta et al.
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